548:
299:
825:
203:
1032:
1018:
1004:
393:
520:
of candidate differences, specifically when the candidates directly indicate their distinctions. Relating back to voting behavior, the crucial point is not whether voters have a specific candidate or policy choice, but rather how much they differentiate between candidates on policy matters and decide
721:
and occupational experience than they do for male candidates. Thus, the information voters seek about candidates is gendered in a way that indirectly impacts voting behavior.There is an overall bias that suggests that voters are using the candidates gender to make assumptions about political factors
94:
has achieved and dealt with a situation and voters' intention of voting for the same party again. Thus, if there is high voter satisfaction with how the political party performed, then the likelihood of a reoccurring vote in the next election is high. Additionally, the information supplied to the
515:
on the subject and recognize differences between the candidates on it in order for it to influence their choice of candidate. Oftentimes, voters will hold viewpoints that are too unstable to serve as a benchmark for comparing the candidates, while others won't detect any significant distinctions
626:
assessments of government performance, which should be differentiated from the influence of policy issues. Different opinions on what the government ought to do are involved in policy concerns, which are prospective or based on what will happen. Performance assessments, which are retrospective,
689:
has been disproportionately held by men. This unrepresentative balance is still reflected today with the vast majority of the highest political offices occupied by men. This trend holds even in democracies where political positions are technically accessible to all genders. This disparity is a
420:, in 1893. The vast majority of nations officially granted women the right to vote over the past century, though many women were prevented from voting for decades, such as Black women in many regions of the United States. prior to the 1960s. As of 2023, virtually all nations other than
142:
Many cleavage-based voting behaviors are interconnected and frequently build on each other. These factors also tend to hold different levels of weight in different countries, based on their political environment, meaning that there is no universal explanation for voting cleavage in all
705:
female candidates whereas women are more likely to vote for approachable male candidates. This finding echoes the different standards women candidates are required to fulfill in contrast to male candidates to be taken seriously as contenders in political races.
664:
These established opinions of candidates' traits are developed in addition to how they view them in terms of political and policy issues, and these judgments have a significant impact on voting decisions. The candidates' perceived
871:
would predict. From 1980 to 2016, 91% of votes cast by Black voters were for
Democrats, compared to 40% among Whites. While income usually is associated with propensity to vote, this does not appear to hold true for
1357:
Schofield, P. and Reeves, P. (2014). “Does the factor theory of satisfaction explain political voting behavior?”, European
Journal of Marketing, Vol. 49 No. 5/6, pp. 968-992, 0309-0566. DOI: 10.1108/EJM-08-2014-0524
582:
candidates than men. The cause of this shift is still being explored, but one prevalent theory holds that gendered differences in voting behavior can at least in part be attributed to the growing presence of
1389:
Brooks, C., Nieuwbeerta, P., and Manza, J. (2006). “Cleavage-based voting behavior in cross-national perspective: Evidence from six postwar democracies”. Social
Science Research, 35, 88–128, 35(1), 88. DOI:
286:
politics, and whether such coalitions form before or after an election. In these cases, voters can be swayed by feelings on coalition partners when considering their feelings toward their preferred
447:, though there is a growing body of research on women's voting preferences in lower income nations. Research has demonstrated that gender differences in voting exist worldwide. The cause of this
332:, educational level, and other characteristics to produce a distinct multiplicative effect on voting behavior. Much of the research on gender differences in voting behavior has centered on the
709:
Research also indicates that the gender of a political candidate changes the way voters evaluate political qualifications. What voters want to know about a candidate varies by the candidate's
575:
in partisan preferences exists, and if it does exist to what extent. Research that affirms the existence of this gap emphasizes that younger women in particular are more likely to support
1366:
Palfrey, T.R. and Poole, K.T. (1987). “The
Relationship between Information, Ideology and Voting Behavior”. American Journal of Political Science, Vol. 31, No. 3. pp. 511-530. DOI:
725:
There is also evidence that the presence of a female candidate encourages political engagement in voting. The mere presence of a female candidate has been found to increase women's
1822:
547:
499:
beliefs, perceptions of government performance, and personal evaluation of candidate characteristics. These factors are influenced by a range of compounding factors including
459:, situational constraints for women, and differences in political priorities. Studies indicate that the way these factors interact with voting behavior depends on location,
876:. Analyses of data from the U.S. Cooperative Congressional Election Study, a large survey that matches respondents to their voter file records, has found that low income
1964:"Does Women's Knowledge of Voting Rights Affect Their Voting Behaviour in Village Elections? Evidence from a Randomized Controlled Trial in China | Gender Action Portal"
159:
identified four distinct voting behaviors depending on the election type. Citizens use different decision criteria if they are called to exercise their right to vote in
95:
voter is significant in understanding voting behavior. The information provided to the voter, not only influences who to vote for, but if they are intending too at all.
781:
practices broadly. This means that women are less likely to engage in the practice of voting all together. Notable exceptions to this include voter engagement in the
487:, educational status, and other factors are considered - and explore gender within the context of these other factors to understand voting behavior more fully.
1963:
1263:
Beck, PA, et al. (2002). The social calculus of voting: Interpersonal, media, and organizational influences on presidential choices. Am Polit Sci Rev 96 (1): 57–73.
298:
26:. This decision is shaped by a complex interplay between an individual voter's attitudes as well as social factors. Voter attitudes include characteristics such as
892:. Some have theorized that this increased voter participation occurs because voting and other civic engagement are ways of coping with the stress of persistent
244:. Furthermore, there is also a distinction of partisan voting behavior relative to a voter's age and education. Those over fifty years old and those without a
888:. While the researchers found that income did strongly predict voting participation among White people, it played less of a role in voter participation among
1567:
248:
are more likely to vote based on partisan loyalty. Additionally, the voting behavior tendencies of different groups may shift over time; for example, in the
2318:"Book Review: Warren E. Miller and J. Merrill Shanks, The New American Voter (Cambridge. Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1996), pp. 624, US$ 19.95"
1846:
701:
Physical characteristics of political candidates impact voter bias in a uniquely gendered way. A study from 2008 found that men are more likely to vote for
34:, degree of satisfaction with the existing government, public policy leanings, and feelings about a candidate's personality traits. Social factors include
495:
Influences on candidate choice have been linked to three main influences on voting behavior. These influences include, but are not limited to, issue and
228:
voting is also an important motive behind an individual's vote and can influence voting behavior. A 2000 research study on partisanship voting in the
3016:
Lafreniere, Bianca; Audet, Élodie C.; Kachanoff, Frank; Christophe, N. Keita; Holding, Anne C.; Janusauskas, Lauren; Koestner, Richard (2023-04-03).
606:
A relevant example to this point are right-leaning parties that have addressed relevant economic issues such as state-funded childcare, such as the
373:
303:
595:, and the disproportionate amount of unpaid caregiving work that women perform. These developments have led younger women to be more supportive of
977:
885:
722:
that are relatively closer to their own. Some female voters naturally feel that women will untimely connect and understand their beliefs.
333:
2832:
2771:
2249:
1941:
1891:
1921:
1504:
Bartels, L.M. (2000). “Partisanship and Voting
Behavior, 1952-1996”. American Journal of Political Science, Vol. 44, No. 1, pp. 35-50. URL:
156:
2857:
3018:"Gender differences in perceived racism threat and activism during the Black Lives Matter social justice movement for Black young adults"
567:
between 1997 and 2010, had more success winning votes from younger women as they addressed issues like government funded family planning.
324:
is an important factor to consider when making inferences regarding voting behavior. Gender often interacts with factors such as region,
786:
804:
values and practices are more likely to engage in politics than those who lack access to education and who live in societies with more
633:
and voter gender can affect voter perceptions of government performance. A 2019 study surveying a nationally representative sample of
576:
2073:
2030:
1519:"What's the Value of Partisan Loyalty? Partisan Ambivalence, Motivated Reasoning, and Correct Voting in U.S. Presidential Elections"
397:
677:. Which qualities matter and how these perceptions are formed is intertwined with a variety of identity factors including gender.
147:
countries. Each factor has a different level of importance and influence on one's vote dependent on the country one is voting in.
139:. The influences of class voting is reliant on political environment and location, many nations observe the opposite preferences.
1992:
864:
852:
845:
833:
361:
345:
253:
2436:
556:
103:
Three cleavage-based voting factors, or individual differences impacting voting behavior, focused on in existing research are
2653:
2639:
2592:
232:
found evidence that partisan voting has a large effect on voting behavior. However, partisan voting has a larger effect on
3205:
750:. Political engagement refers to methods of individual involvement with political practices and can be broken down into
714:
666:
658:
3155:"Influence of Voter Demographics and Newspaper in Shaping Political Party Choice in India: An Empirical Investigation"
2979:"Part of the gender gap in voting for Democrats arises because a higher proportion of women than men voters are Black"
947:
641:
in political-decision-making bodies builds trust and broad approval of these bodies across policy outcomes and areas.
468:
325:
35:
54:. Voter decision-making is not a purely rational endeavor but rather is profoundly influenced by personal and social
3121:
829:
730:
90:
Voter behavior is often influenced by voter loyalty. There is a correlation between voter satisfaction with what a
1792:
2355:
989:
983:
937:
71:
2932:"Voting Intersections: Race, Class, and Participation in Presidential Elections in the United States 2008–2016"
638:
924:, India, found that voters’ party choice was associated with occupation and newspaper choice and not gender,
2753:
916:, the world's largest democracy, have found that women are more likely to vote along religious, rather than
747:
702:
607:
560:
824:
3210:
1092:
584:
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800:
found that women with access to educational resources and who possess and live in societies that promote
962:
893:
532:
392:
337:
237:
160:
1068:
432:, where women are not allowed to travel more than 72 kilometers without a male chaperone, and parts of
190:, voters tend to vote for those who seem more capable to contribute to their area. Voting behavior for
2654:"Are Voters Biased Against Women Candidates?: Institute for Policy Research - Northwestern University"
1847:"Breaking cycles of violence: Gaps in Prevention of and Response to Electoral Related Sexual Violence"
271:
areas were more likely to be supportive of socialist or progressive parties, while citizens living in
217:
areas were more likely to be supportive of socialist or progressive parties, while citizens living in
3154:
2990:
2684:"Not All Cues Are Created Equal: The Conditional Impact of Female Candidates on Political Engagement"
2482:
1210:
536:
480:
456:
377:
279:
183:
108:
50:. The degree to which a person identifies with a political party influences voting behavior, as does
43:
920:, lines, even when parties offer policies that might appear to benefit women. A survey of voters in
380:
perceptions of gender differences in voting behavior to make predictions that factor in the role of
1194:
967:
867:
candidates, a trend that has persisted since the 1960s, and are far more likely to vote than their
444:
425:
245:
225:
136:
31:
3182:
3102:
3055:
2959:
2905:
2620:
2570:
2413:
2298:
2290:
2212:
2123:
1897:
1870:
Yoon, Mi Yung; Okeke, Christol (2019), Franceschet, Susan; Krook, Mona Lena; Tan, Netina (eds.),
1823:"Key facts about women's suffrage around the world, a century after U.S. ratified 19th Amendment"
1770:
1723:
1669:
1548:
1478:
1470:
1335:
972:
596:
579:
283:
128:
2265:
Eulau, Heinz; Fiorina, Morris P. (1981). "Retrospective Voting in
American National Elections".
202:
3174:
3129:
3094:
3047:
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2703:
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2405:
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1937:
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1228:
1155:
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994:
957:
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588:
476:
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in many places that can make casting a ballot impossible or near impossible. Examples include
233:
179:
2728:
789:, but are still less likely to participate in other forms of conventional and unconventional
754:
political engagement and unconventional political engagement. Conventional practices include
127:
leanings. Traditional conceptions of class voting dictate a working-class preference towards
3166:
3086:
3029:
2998:
2943:
2824:
2820:
2759:
2695:
2604:
2554:
2508:
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2395:
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2154:
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1933:
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1754:
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1462:
1327:
1294:
1286:
1236:
1218:
1177:
1145:
1129:
790:
778:
733:
of women in campaigns impacts the overall political attitudes and voting behavior of women.
443:
Research on gender differences in voting has historically focused on economically advanced,
79:
3074:
2812:
3215:
1037:
686:
674:
591:, improved accessibility of women to the education system, the questioning of traditional
484:
437:
369:
315:
287:
120:
91:
51:
2978:
2471:"The Political Gender Gap: Gender Bias in Facial Inferences that Predict Voting Behavior"
376:. More recent and forthcoming research expands this focus to a global perspective, using
2994:
2486:
2142:
2014:
2012:
1214:
952:
3075:"Racist Events and Individual Coping Styles as Predictors of African American Activism"
2513:
2470:
2469:
Chiao, Joan Y.; Bowman, Nicholas E.; Gill, Harleen (2008-10-31). Santos, Laurie (ed.).
2158:
1241:
1198:
1150:
942:
925:
801:
539:, which working with ideology may also shape the ways in which voters perceive policy.
260:
and has not been confirmed to accurately predict voting patterns in other democracies.
187:
168:
1031:
3199:
3186:
3106:
3059:
2963:
2624:
2593:"The Ties That Double Bind: Social Roles and Women's Underrepresentation in Politics"
2574:
2417:
2302:
2127:
1901:
1673:
1552:
1482:
905:
856:
837:
782:
767:
726:
634:
623:
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between 1997 and 2010, have since had more success winning votes from younger women.
611:
564:
552:
528:
496:
424:
officially grant women the legal right to vote, though significant barriers exist to
353:
341:
307:
264:
257:
249:
229:
124:
116:
2886:"#BlackGirlMagic Demystified: Black Women as Voters, Partisans and Political Actors"
2543:"Gender Stereotypes, Information Search, and Voting Behavior in Political Campaigns"
1774:
1403:
1339:
2683:
2216:
2055:
1450:
1391:
805:
777:
Numerous cross-national studies have found that women are less likely to engage in
421:
365:
311:
132:
3170:
2699:
2065:
1426:
535:
based on their beliefs on certain policy concerns. Another method of influence is
2495:
2200:
1883:
1174:
The Myth of the
Rational Voter: Why Democracies Choose Bad Policies - New Edition
1275:"Research on Voting Advice Applications: State of the Art and Future Directions"
1117:
921:
889:
877:
873:
809:
746:
Gender differences in voting behavior are components of gendered differences in
691:
592:
460:
429:
413:
357:
164:
75:
2931:
2542:
2333:
2184:
1871:
1453:(October 1960). "Urban-rural differences in voting behavior in postwar Japan".
1133:
516:
between them on the subject. Other voters will have firm opinions and distinct
2947:
2608:
2558:
2231:
2143:"The changing politics of women: gender and political alignment in 11 nations"
1656:
1639:
1331:
999:
813:
695:
670:
654:
630:
600:
572:
517:
448:
436:, where many women could not vote in recent elections due to election-related
409:
349:
272:
268:
218:
214:
191:
172:
67:
3178:
3133:
3098:
3090:
3043:
2955:
2901:
2763:
2707:
2616:
2566:
2504:
2409:
2341:
2317:
2286:
2241:
2208:
2166:
2119:
2095:
1766:
1719:
1665:
1621:
1568:"Wide Gender Gap, Growing Educational Divide in Voters' Party Identification"
1544:
1434:. Fukuoka, Japan: Proceedings of the 20th IPSA World Congress. pp. 1–13.
1232:
1141:
3002:
2111:
1315:
1223:
881:
860:
841:
771:
762:. Unconventional practices include participating in non-violent and violent
718:
650:
627:
contain differences regarding how effectively the government has performed.
472:
401:
329:
144:
3051:
2522:
2040:
1250:
1159:
904:
Much of the above discussion pertains to women's voting preferences in the
649:
Voters frequently weigh candidates’ personal qualities such as experience,
455:
and region. Frequently utilized explanations for gender gaps in voting are
2541:
Ditonto, Tessa M.; Hamilton, Allison J.; Redlawsk, David P. (2013-05-14).
194:
differs slightly, as people vote for or against a clearly defined policy.
1743:"The Gender Gap in U.S. Presidential Elections: When? Why? Implications?"
1640:"The Gender Gap Is a Race Gap: Women Voters in US Presidential Elections"
759:
524:
464:
417:
241:
207:
104:
39:
27:
2909:
2885:
2020:
1727:
1703:
1612:
1595:
1199:"Irrelevant events affect voters' evaluations of government performance"
1181:
58:
and deeply held beliefs as well as characteristics such as personality,
3034:
3017:
2400:
2383:
2382:
Clayton, Amanda; O'Brien, Diana Z.; Piscopo, Jennifer M. (2018-09-25).
2294:
1600:
Italian
Political Science Review / Rivista Italiana di Scienza Politica
1535:
1518:
1505:
1474:
1367:
1316:"A New Approach for Modelling Strategic Voting in Multiparty Elections"
797:
763:
512:
452:
63:
2591:
Teele, Dawn Langan; Kalla, Joshua; Rosenbluth, Frances (August 2018).
1299:
256:
candidates over the past three decades. This research is based on the
1596:"Sorting between and within coalitions: the Italian case (2001–2008)"
1290:
917:
909:
868:
755:
710:
500:
381:
321:
112:
59:
47:
23:
2278:
1742:
1758:
1466:
1274:
400:; under Taliban rule, women are not allowed to travel more than 72
1702:
Studlar, Donley T.; McAllister, Ian; Hayes, Bernadette C. (1998).
913:
823:
546:
433:
391:
297:
210:
201:
2755:
Rising Tide: Gender
Equality and Cultural Change Around the World
1353:
1351:
1349:
1704:"Explaining the Gender Gap in Voting: A Cross-National Analysis"
252:, voters with college degrees have shifted significantly toward
115:. In recent years, voting cleavage has shifted from concerns of
55:
2054:
Nie, Norman H.; Verba, Sidney; Petrocik, John R. (1979-12-31).
1872:"Kenya: Women's Suffrage and Political Participation as Voters"
880:
have a significantly higher predicted voting rate compared to
2811:
O’Brien, Diana Z.; Reyes-Housholder, Catherine (2020-08-06),
690:
product of a multitude of factors, but some suggest that the
2930:
Laurison, Daniel; Brown, Hana; Rastogi, Ankit (2021-12-09).
348:
in the 1980s. More recent research focusing on the partisan
2858:"The Major Difference Between Black Male and Female Voters"
2384:"All Male Panels? Representation and Democratic Legitimacy"
1118:"Issues or Identity? Cognitive Foundations of Voter Choice"
673:
ability have been found to be one crucial feature of their
491:
Gendered influence on sources of individual voting behavior
467:, lived experience, and other facets of identity including
1697:
1695:
1693:
1691:
1689:
1687:
1685:
1683:
404:
without a male chaperone which creates a voting obstacle.
356:
suggests that this gender gap is actually a race gap, as
2025:. Angus Campbell. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
1987:
1985:
1983:
812:
are more prevalent and women are viewed as essentially "
2019:
University of
Michigan. Survey Research Center (1976).
3122:"Why Aren't Women a Bigger Force in Indian Elections?"
2431:
2429:
2427:
3153:
Banerjee, Saikat; Ray Chaudhuri, Bibek (2018-01-02).
694:
of voters plays a role in maintaining this political
360:
in the U.S. have consistently been supporters of the
531:, ideology affects how voters cast their ballots in
2094:Campbell, Rosie; Shorrocks, Rosalind (2021-09-10).
1878:, London: Palgrave Macmillan UK, pp. 243–256,
1793:"Women's Rights: A Year After The Taliban Takeover"
571:There is mixed research regarding whether or not a
46:, educational level, regional characteristics, and
1420:
1418:
1416:
1414:
1412:
1097:The University of Chicago Booth School of Business
2879:
2877:
2723:
2721:
2719:
2717:
1876:The Palgrave Handbook of Women’s Political Rights
1116:Jenke, Libby; Huettel, Scott A. (November 2016).
1063:
1061:
1059:
1057:
1055:
1053:
785:, where women have higher voter turnout rates in
123:religions to have a larger focus on religious vs
2925:
2923:
2921:
2919:
2089:
2087:
2085:
1572:Pew Research Center - U.S. Politics & Policy
1392:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2004.06.005
2983:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
2851:
2849:
2752:Inglehart, Ronald; Norris, Pippa (2003-04-14).
2677:
2675:
2673:
2536:
2534:
2532:
2377:
2375:
2230:Inglehart, Ronald; Norris, Pippa (2003-04-14).
1589:
1587:
1444:
1442:
1203:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
859:are much more likely than White women and then
840:are much more likely than White women and than
622:Voting behavior is significantly influenced by
1638:Junn, Jane; Masuoka, Natalie (December 2020).
1500:
1498:
1496:
1494:
1492:
1425:Andreadis, Ioannis; Chadjipadelis, Th (2006).
1314:Alvarez, R. Michael; Nagler, Jonathan (2000).
713:. For female candidates, voters seek out more
479:lens - meaning, one in which race, ethnicity,
416:was the first nation to grant women the legal
278:Voters have also been shown to be affected by
275:areas were favorable of conservative parties.
2819:, Oxford University Press, pp. 251–272,
2640:"Are Voters Biased Against Women Candidates?"
2586:
2584:
2464:
2462:
2460:
2458:
2456:
2178:
2176:
1786:
1784:
475:, and age. It is thus important to employ an
221:areas were favorable of conservative parties.
8:
1816:
1814:
1812:
1633:
1631:
1385:
1383:
1381:
1379:
1377:
1375:
306:, a higher percentage of White women in the
2817:The Oxford Handbook of Political Executives
1402:Ben Milne, (2019) "General election 2019: "
1176:(REV-Revised). Princeton University Press.
899:
2884:Gillespie, Andra; Brown, Nadia E. (2019).
2758:(1 ed.). Cambridge University Press.
742:Gender differences in political engagement
729:. This finding supports the idea that the
599:that tend to prioritize issues especially
3033:
2512:
2494:
2399:
2141:VAUS, DAVID; McALLISTER, IAN (May 1989).
1655:
1611:
1534:
1298:
1273:Garzia, Diego; Marschall, Stefan (2016).
1240:
1222:
1149:
669:, concern, sincerity, dependability, and
527:influences these views on policy. In the
2185:"Towards a modern gender gap in Europe?"
1926:Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Politics
1741:Manza, Jeff; Brooks, Clem (March 1998).
1455:Economic Development and Cultural Change
1404:Do people still vote according to class?
884:, White men, or White women in the same
816:" and fundamentally different from men.
206:2016 Election in Japan; A 1960 study of
2356:"Evaluations of Government Performance"
1821:Schaeffer, Katherine (5 October 2020).
1049:
2147:European Journal of Political Research
1594:Bergman, Matthew Edward (4 May 2020).
978:Role of networks in electoral behavior
2825:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198809296.013.26
2788:"Gender Differences in Voter Turnout"
2388:American Journal of Political Science
1934:10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.013.71
1093:"How Identity Shapes Voting Behavior"
618:Perceptions of government performance
182:, voters usually vote based on their
7:
2682:Atkeson, Lonna Rae (November 2003).
1506:https://www.jstor.org/stable/2669291
1368:https://www.jstor.org/stable/2111281
1320:British Journal of Political Science
2856:Rigueur, Leah Wright (2020-11-21).
1920:Kittilson, Miki Caul (2016-05-09).
1406:". British Broadcasting Corporation
900:Women's voting preferences in India
22:refers to how people decide how to
3073:Szymanski, Dawn M. (August 2012).
2159:10.1111/j.1475-6765.1989.tb00193.x
1993:"Public Policy Issue Orientations"
1193:Healy, Andrew J.; Malhotra, Neil;
645:Personal evaluations of candidates
543:Gender gap in partisan preferences
40:religion and degree of religiosity
14:
2597:American Political Science Review
2316:Becker, Jeffrey A. (1998-01-01).
1517:Robison, Joshua (December 2021).
388:Historical and global perspective
364:and were more likely to vote for
328:, occupational differences, age,
2977:England, Paula (June 12, 2023).
2096:"Women Voters Taking the Wheel?"
1030:
1016:
1002:
557:London Summit on Family Planning
3022:Journal of Community Psychology
1922:"Gender and Political Behavior"
1797:Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty
830:U.S. Congressional Black Caucus
819:
521:who to vote for on that basis.
507:Issue and public policy beliefs
3159:Journal of Political Marketing
2813:"Women and Executive Politics"
2638:McGrath, Mary (Jan 24, 2023).
2236:. Cambridge University Press.
2183:Giger, Nathalie (2009-09-01).
1428:Differences in voting behavior
808:norms and practices, in which
758:, letter-writing, and signing
597:left-leaning political parties
267:found that citizens living in
213:found that citizens living in
1:
3171:10.1080/15377857.2016.1147513
3120:Zakaria, Rafia (2019-05-02).
2700:10.1111/1468-2508.t01-1-00124
2066:10.4159/harvard.9780674429147
1791:Faria, Giovana (2022-09-13).
1747:American Journal of Sociology
1566:Jones, Bradley (2018-03-20).
820:Black women's voting behavior
637:citizens, found that women's
16:How voters decide how to vote
2496:10.1371/journal.pone.0003666
2201:10.1016/j.soscij.2009.03.002
1884:10.1057/978-1-137-59074-9_17
1122:Trends in Cognitive Sciences
661:, and leadership potential.
188:local and regional elections
82:can impact voting behavior.
3079:Journal of Black Psychology
2437:"Candidate Characteristics"
2267:Political Science Quarterly
2057:The Changing American Voter
948:Emotions in decision making
551:Former U.K. Prime Minister
396:Afghan women voting in the
3232:
2334:10.1177/003231879804900217
2189:The Social Science Journal
1134:10.1016/j.tics.2016.08.013
731:descriptive representation
717:-related information like
398:2004 Presidential Election
374:2016 Presidential Election
157:Cypriot Referendum of 2004
72:Voting advice applications
28:ideological predisposition
2948:10.1177/07311214211059136
2936:Sociological Perspectives
2729:"Political Participation"
2609:10.1017/S0003055418000217
2559:10.1007/s11109-013-9232-6
1657:10.1017/S1537592719003876
1332:10.1017/S000712340000003X
990:Voting advice application
984:The personal is political
938:Altruism theory of voting
737:Additional considerations
445:western-style democracies
44:social and economic class
3091:10.1177/0095798411424744
2764:10.1017/cbo9780511550362
2658:www.ipr.northwestern.edu
2242:10.1017/cbo9780511550362
1708:Social Science Quarterly
1644:Perspectives on Politics
3003:10.1073/pnas.2221910120
2688:The Journal of Politics
2112:10.1111/1467-923x.13053
2100:The Political Quarterly
1224:10.1073/pnas.1007420107
242:congressional elections
155:Research following the
849:
787:presidential elections
608:U.K Conservative Party
585:women in the workforce
568:
561:U.K Conservative Party
533:presidential elections
405:
318:
222:
99:Influence of cleavages
1279:Policy & Internet
963:Low information voter
894:racial discrimination
828:Women members of the
827:
681:Gender bias in voting
550:
457:socioeconomic factors
395:
384:in voting decisions.
301:
238:presidential election
205:
137:right-leaning parties
68:psychological factors
3206:Comparative politics
1523:Political Psychology
1195:Mo, Cecilia Hyunjung
791:political engagement
779:political engagement
748:political engagement
639:equal representation
537:party identification
184:political ideologies
129:left-leaning parties
2995:2023PNAS..12021910E
2487:2008PLoSO...3.3666C
2441:www.icpsr.umich.edu
2360:www.icpsr.umich.edu
1997:www.icpsr.umich.edu
1968:gap.hks.harvard.edu
1827:Pew Research Center
1613:10.1017/ipo.2020.12
1449:Kyogoku, Jun'ichi;
1215:2010PNAS..10712804H
1209:(29): 12804–12809.
1182:10.2307/j.ctvcm4gf2
1172:Caplan, B. (2007).
1073:www.icpsr.umich.edu
968:Political cognition
912:. Recent trends in
246:high school diploma
151:Election dependency
3035:10.1002/jcop.23043
2547:Political Behavior
2401:10.1111/ajps.12391
2022:The American voter
1536:10.1111/pops.12729
973:Political literacy
850:
727:voter turnout rate
675:personal character
569:
406:
319:
294:Gender differences
240:, than it does on
234:national elections
223:
180:national elections
2834:978-0-19-880929-6
2773:978-0-521-52950-1
2322:Political Science
2251:978-0-521-52950-1
1943:978-0-19-022863-7
1893:978-1-137-59074-9
1069:"Voting Behavior"
1024:Philosophy portal
1010:Psychology portal
995:Voting gender gap
958:Intersectionality
796:A study based in
589:structural reform
525:Partisan ideology
511:Voters must hold
338:party realignment
74:and avoidance of
3223:
3191:
3190:
3150:
3144:
3143:
3141:
3140:
3126:The New Republic
3117:
3111:
3110:
3070:
3064:
3063:
3037:
3028:(7): 2741–2757.
3013:
3007:
3006:
2974:
2968:
2967:
2927:
2914:
2913:
2881:
2872:
2871:
2869:
2868:
2853:
2844:
2843:
2842:
2841:
2808:
2802:
2801:
2799:
2798:
2792:cawp.rutgers.edu
2784:
2778:
2777:
2749:
2743:
2742:
2740:
2739:
2725:
2712:
2711:
2694:(4): 1040–1061.
2679:
2668:
2667:
2665:
2664:
2650:
2644:
2643:
2635:
2629:
2628:
2588:
2579:
2578:
2538:
2527:
2526:
2516:
2498:
2466:
2451:
2450:
2448:
2447:
2433:
2422:
2421:
2403:
2379:
2370:
2369:
2367:
2366:
2352:
2346:
2345:
2313:
2307:
2306:
2262:
2256:
2255:
2227:
2221:
2220:
2180:
2171:
2170:
2138:
2132:
2131:
2091:
2080:
2079:
2051:
2045:
2044:
2016:
2007:
2006:
2004:
2003:
1989:
1978:
1977:
1975:
1974:
1960:
1954:
1953:
1951:
1950:
1917:
1911:
1910:
1909:
1908:
1867:
1861:
1860:
1858:
1857:
1843:
1837:
1836:
1834:
1833:
1818:
1807:
1806:
1804:
1803:
1788:
1779:
1778:
1753:(5): 1235–1266.
1738:
1732:
1731:
1699:
1678:
1677:
1659:
1650:(4): 1135–1145.
1635:
1626:
1625:
1615:
1591:
1582:
1581:
1579:
1578:
1563:
1557:
1556:
1538:
1514:
1508:
1502:
1487:
1486:
1446:
1437:
1436:July 9–13, 2006.
1435:
1433:
1422:
1407:
1400:
1394:
1387:
1370:
1364:
1358:
1355:
1344:
1343:
1311:
1305:
1304:
1302:
1291:10.1002/poi3.140
1270:
1264:
1261:
1255:
1254:
1244:
1226:
1190:
1184:
1170:
1164:
1163:
1153:
1113:
1107:
1106:
1104:
1103:
1089:
1083:
1082:
1080:
1079:
1065:
1040:
1035:
1034:
1026:
1021:
1020:
1019:
1012:
1007:
1006:
1005:
451:often varies by
426:women's suffrage
362:Republican Party
346:Democratic Party
340:of women in the
263:A 1960 study of
254:Democratic Party
80:strategic voting
3231:
3230:
3226:
3225:
3224:
3222:
3221:
3220:
3196:
3195:
3194:
3152:
3151:
3147:
3138:
3136:
3119:
3118:
3114:
3072:
3071:
3067:
3015:
3014:
3010:
2976:
2975:
2971:
2929:
2928:
2917:
2883:
2882:
2875:
2866:
2864:
2855:
2854:
2847:
2839:
2837:
2835:
2810:
2809:
2805:
2796:
2794:
2786:
2785:
2781:
2774:
2751:
2750:
2746:
2737:
2735:
2727:
2726:
2715:
2681:
2680:
2671:
2662:
2660:
2652:
2651:
2647:
2637:
2636:
2632:
2590:
2589:
2582:
2540:
2539:
2530:
2468:
2467:
2454:
2445:
2443:
2435:
2434:
2425:
2381:
2380:
2373:
2364:
2362:
2354:
2353:
2349:
2315:
2314:
2310:
2279:10.2307/2149903
2264:
2263:
2259:
2252:
2229:
2228:
2224:
2182:
2181:
2174:
2140:
2139:
2135:
2093:
2092:
2083:
2076:
2053:
2052:
2048:
2033:
2018:
2017:
2010:
2001:
1999:
1991:
1990:
1981:
1972:
1970:
1962:
1961:
1957:
1948:
1946:
1944:
1919:
1918:
1914:
1906:
1904:
1894:
1869:
1868:
1864:
1855:
1853:
1845:
1844:
1840:
1831:
1829:
1820:
1819:
1810:
1801:
1799:
1790:
1789:
1782:
1740:
1739:
1735:
1701:
1700:
1681:
1637:
1636:
1629:
1593:
1592:
1585:
1576:
1574:
1565:
1564:
1560:
1516:
1515:
1511:
1503:
1490:
1448:
1447:
1440:
1431:
1424:
1423:
1410:
1401:
1397:
1388:
1373:
1365:
1361:
1356:
1347:
1313:
1312:
1308:
1272:
1271:
1267:
1262:
1258:
1192:
1191:
1187:
1171:
1167:
1128:(11): 794–804.
1115:
1114:
1110:
1101:
1099:
1091:
1090:
1086:
1077:
1075:
1067:
1066:
1051:
1047:
1038:Politics portal
1036:
1029:
1022:
1017:
1015:
1008:
1003:
1001:
934:
902:
886:income category
822:
744:
739:
719:education level
687:political power
683:
647:
620:
545:
509:
493:
485:sexual identity
481:economic status
438:sexual violence
390:
370:Hillary Clinton
316:Hillary Clinton
310:voted more for
296:
288:political party
200:
169:local elections
153:
135:preference for
101:
92:political party
88:
52:social identity
20:Voting behavior
17:
12:
11:
5:
3229:
3227:
3219:
3218:
3213:
3208:
3198:
3197:
3193:
3192:
3145:
3112:
3085:(3): 342–367.
3065:
3008:
2969:
2942:(4): 768–789.
2915:
2873:
2845:
2833:
2803:
2779:
2772:
2744:
2733:home.csulb.edu
2713:
2669:
2645:
2630:
2603:(3): 525–541.
2580:
2553:(2): 335–358.
2528:
2452:
2423:
2394:(1): 113–129.
2371:
2347:
2328:(2): 311–313.
2308:
2257:
2250:
2222:
2195:(3): 474–492.
2172:
2153:(3): 241–262.
2133:
2106:(4): 652–661.
2081:
2074:
2046:
2031:
2008:
1979:
1955:
1942:
1912:
1892:
1862:
1838:
1808:
1780:
1759:10.1086/231352
1733:
1714:(4): 779–798.
1679:
1627:
1583:
1558:
1529:(6): 977–993.
1509:
1488:
1467:10.1086/449885
1461:(1): 167–185.
1438:
1408:
1395:
1371:
1359:
1345:
1306:
1285:(4): 376–390.
1265:
1256:
1197:(2010-07-06).
1185:
1165:
1108:
1084:
1048:
1046:
1043:
1042:
1041:
1027:
1013:
998:
997:
992:
987:
980:
975:
970:
965:
960:
955:
953:Homo politicus
950:
945:
943:Emotional bias
940:
933:
930:
926:marital status
901:
898:
821:
818:
743:
740:
738:
735:
685:Historically,
682:
679:
646:
643:
619:
616:
544:
541:
508:
505:
492:
489:
477:intersectional
465:literacy level
461:cultural norms
389:
386:
378:cross-national
295:
292:
199:
196:
152:
149:
100:
97:
87:
84:
32:party identity
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3228:
3217:
3214:
3212:
3211:Voting theory
3209:
3207:
3204:
3203:
3201:
3188:
3184:
3180:
3176:
3172:
3168:
3165:(1): 90–117.
3164:
3160:
3156:
3149:
3146:
3135:
3131:
3127:
3123:
3116:
3113:
3108:
3104:
3100:
3096:
3092:
3088:
3084:
3080:
3076:
3069:
3066:
3061:
3057:
3053:
3049:
3045:
3041:
3036:
3031:
3027:
3023:
3019:
3012:
3009:
3004:
3000:
2996:
2992:
2988:
2984:
2980:
2973:
2970:
2965:
2961:
2957:
2953:
2949:
2945:
2941:
2937:
2933:
2926:
2924:
2922:
2920:
2916:
2911:
2907:
2903:
2899:
2895:
2891:
2887:
2880:
2878:
2874:
2863:
2859:
2852:
2850:
2846:
2836:
2830:
2826:
2822:
2818:
2814:
2807:
2804:
2793:
2789:
2783:
2780:
2775:
2769:
2765:
2761:
2757:
2756:
2748:
2745:
2734:
2730:
2724:
2722:
2720:
2718:
2714:
2709:
2705:
2701:
2697:
2693:
2689:
2685:
2678:
2676:
2674:
2670:
2659:
2655:
2649:
2646:
2641:
2634:
2631:
2626:
2622:
2618:
2614:
2610:
2606:
2602:
2598:
2594:
2587:
2585:
2581:
2576:
2572:
2568:
2564:
2560:
2556:
2552:
2548:
2544:
2537:
2535:
2533:
2529:
2524:
2520:
2515:
2510:
2506:
2502:
2497:
2492:
2488:
2484:
2481:(10): e3666.
2480:
2476:
2472:
2465:
2463:
2461:
2459:
2457:
2453:
2442:
2438:
2432:
2430:
2428:
2424:
2419:
2415:
2411:
2407:
2402:
2397:
2393:
2389:
2385:
2378:
2376:
2372:
2361:
2357:
2351:
2348:
2343:
2339:
2335:
2331:
2327:
2323:
2319:
2312:
2309:
2304:
2300:
2296:
2292:
2288:
2284:
2280:
2276:
2272:
2268:
2261:
2258:
2253:
2247:
2243:
2239:
2235:
2234:
2226:
2223:
2218:
2214:
2210:
2206:
2202:
2198:
2194:
2190:
2186:
2179:
2177:
2173:
2168:
2164:
2160:
2156:
2152:
2148:
2144:
2137:
2134:
2129:
2125:
2121:
2117:
2113:
2109:
2105:
2101:
2097:
2090:
2088:
2086:
2082:
2077:
2075:9780674429130
2071:
2067:
2063:
2059:
2058:
2050:
2047:
2042:
2038:
2034:
2032:0-226-09253-4
2028:
2024:
2023:
2015:
2013:
2009:
1998:
1994:
1988:
1986:
1984:
1980:
1969:
1965:
1959:
1956:
1945:
1939:
1935:
1931:
1927:
1923:
1916:
1913:
1903:
1899:
1895:
1889:
1885:
1881:
1877:
1873:
1866:
1863:
1852:
1848:
1842:
1839:
1828:
1824:
1817:
1815:
1813:
1809:
1798:
1794:
1787:
1785:
1781:
1776:
1772:
1768:
1764:
1760:
1756:
1752:
1748:
1744:
1737:
1734:
1729:
1725:
1721:
1717:
1713:
1709:
1705:
1698:
1696:
1694:
1692:
1690:
1688:
1686:
1684:
1680:
1675:
1671:
1667:
1663:
1658:
1653:
1649:
1645:
1641:
1634:
1632:
1628:
1623:
1619:
1614:
1609:
1605:
1601:
1597:
1590:
1588:
1584:
1573:
1569:
1562:
1559:
1554:
1550:
1546:
1542:
1537:
1532:
1528:
1524:
1520:
1513:
1510:
1507:
1501:
1499:
1497:
1495:
1493:
1489:
1484:
1480:
1476:
1472:
1468:
1464:
1460:
1456:
1452:
1451:Ike, Nobutaka
1445:
1443:
1439:
1430:
1429:
1421:
1419:
1417:
1415:
1413:
1409:
1405:
1399:
1396:
1393:
1386:
1384:
1382:
1380:
1378:
1376:
1372:
1369:
1363:
1360:
1354:
1352:
1350:
1346:
1341:
1337:
1333:
1329:
1325:
1321:
1317:
1310:
1307:
1301:
1296:
1292:
1288:
1284:
1280:
1276:
1269:
1266:
1260:
1257:
1252:
1248:
1243:
1238:
1234:
1230:
1225:
1220:
1216:
1212:
1208:
1204:
1200:
1196:
1189:
1186:
1183:
1179:
1175:
1169:
1166:
1161:
1157:
1152:
1147:
1143:
1139:
1135:
1131:
1127:
1123:
1119:
1112:
1109:
1098:
1094:
1088:
1085:
1074:
1070:
1064:
1062:
1060:
1058:
1056:
1054:
1050:
1044:
1039:
1033:
1028:
1025:
1014:
1011:
1000:
996:
993:
991:
988:
986:
985:
981:
979:
976:
974:
971:
969:
966:
964:
961:
959:
956:
954:
951:
949:
946:
944:
941:
939:
936:
935:
931:
929:
928:, or income.
927:
923:
919:
915:
911:
907:
906:United States
897:
895:
891:
887:
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