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funds to study the composition and nutritional value of North
American species of fish and invertebrates. For the 1882-1883 school year, Atwater took a leave of absence from Wesleyan to study the digestibility of lean fish with von Voit in Germany. Together, they found fish comparable to lean beef; during this time he became aware of how German scientists were studying nutrition and hoped to bring similar research to the United States upon his return. In 1885, Atwater's first series of studies on peas grown in nutrient solution were published in the American Chemical Journal. That same year, the Massachusetts Bureau of Statistics of Labor requested a study of data that had been collected by the bureau concerning family food purchases. In the study, Atwater calculated the daily per capita supplies of carbohydrates, fat, and protein provided within the data, and taking into account the included cost data, made recommendations on how more economical diets, while still having adequate nutritional value, could be chosen. The report he prepared was included in the Bureau's 1886 Annual Report.
444:. With the machine, the dynamics of metabolism could be quantified and the relationship between food intake and energy output could be measured. "The experiments are made with a man inside a cabinet, or a respiration chamber, as it is called. It is in fact a box of copper incased in walls of zinc and wood. In this chamber he lives—eats, drinks, works, rests, and sleeps. There is a constant supply of fresh air for ventilation. The temperature is kept at the point most agreeable to the occupant. Within the chamber are a small folding cot-bed, a chair, and a table. In the daytime the bed is folded and laid aside, so as to leave room for the man to sit at the table or to walk to and fro. His promenade, however, is limited, the chamber being 7 feet long, 4 feet wide, and 6 feet high. Food and drink are passed into the chamber through an aperture which serves also for the removal of the solid and liquid excretory products, and the passing in and out of toilet materials, books, and other things required for comfort and convenience." His research was informed by the
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the Storrs station was created, Atwater and his colleagues had begun conducting and publishing studies on the chemical compositions of food. In 1891, he resigned as director of the Office of
Experiment Stations in order to return to the Storrs and focus exclusively on nutrition research. After his resignation, Atwater was appointed special agent in charge of nutrition programs. Through this position he organized extensive food analyses, dietary studies, experiments on the digestibility of food, investigations of energy requirements using human subjects, and studies of the cost and economics of food use and production. In 1894, Atwater received his first congressional appropriation, allocated to his laboratory for human nutrition research. Atwater's studies during this time were used to create dietary standards. He based the standards off of average intakes, but did not regard them as quantitatively accurate; they logically varied based on age, sex, and activity level but he stressed that they were not metabolic studies.
492:. Initially, the funding was meant construct a new laboratory for Atwater and fund his continued work; however, with the realization that he would not be returning, the funds were transferred to the Boston laboratory project. Benedict continued Atwater's work and used the respiration calorimeter to further measure metabolism and other bodily processes. Benedict studied the varying metabolism rates of infants born in two hospitals in Massachusetts, athletes, students, vegetarians, Mayans living in the Yucatán, and normal adults. He even developed a calorimeter large enough to hold twelve girl scouts for an extended period of time. His biggest improvement was the invention of portable field respiration calorimeters. In 1919, Francis Benedict published a metabolic standards report with extensive tables based on age, sex, height, and weight.
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created through his research are still in use today. "His careful studies of nutrition and those that followed helped spur federal policies that have done much to alleviate childhood hunger. We see reflections of his influence on the labels of products in our grocery stores, and we’re beginning to see nutritional information on the menus of restaurants. Today’s familiar food pyramid, a quick and easy visual guide to the recommended daily intake of food, is a tribute to
Atwater and his successors." Atwater's daughter,
448:, taking into account that energy can be transformed but it cannot be created or destroyed, despite the belief at the time that the law only applied to animals because humans were unique. Earlier experiments concerning calorie intake and expenditure had proven that the first law applied to animals and Atwater's findings demonstrated the law applied to humans as well. Through the experiments he demonstrated that whatever amount of energy consumed by humans that could not be used was stored in the body.
394:, meant to be a means of keeping the stations abreast of the scientific research being conducted by their colleagues and scientists abroad. Atwater made clear that the publication was meant to be a collection of scientific papers and not a platform for swapping farm tips. The publication was a means for the Hatch Act stations to report their research to the USDA, while also holding scientists accountable to particular standards of research and reporting. At the same time,
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Sheffield
Scientific School at Yale with Samuel Johnson as first director. During this time, Atwater wrote numerous articles for scientific periodicals detailing his research and findings in physiological and agricultural chemistry and on research being conducted abroad (specifically in Germany). Many of his articles appeared in a column called "Science Applied to Farming", mostly discussing agricultural fertilizers in Orange Judd's
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and how the human body consumes those nutrients under various conditions of rest and work. The calorimeter measured human metabolism by analyzing the heat produced by a person performing certain physical activities; in 1896 they began the first of what would accumulate into close to 500 experiments. Through their experiments, they were able to create a system - which became known as the
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382:, and he served there until 1892. The following year, the Office of Experiment Stations was created as a means to monitor and appraise the experiments and activities of the stations; Atwater was chosen as the first director. He accepted the position on the condition of being able to maintain both his professorship, and his position of director of the
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to design the first direct calorimeter large enough to accommodate human subjects for a period of days. The calorimeter, or human respiration apparatus, was built to precisely measure the energy provided by food. Atwater wanted to use it to study and compare the nutrient contents of different foods
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As his experiments and accomplishments became known, Atwater's assistance was requested for a variety of projects. From 1879 to 1882, he conducted extensive human food studies on behalf of the United States Fish
Commission and Smithsonian Institution. In 1879, the U.S. Fish Commission offered Atwater
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Atwater's legacy endures not only in the field of nutrition but also in the work of the agricultural experiment stations. Both he and
Johnson are considered responsible for focusing the role of the experiment stations on scientific study in service of the public and the tables and formulas Atwater
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Throughout this time, Atwater continued to campaign and support the expansion of state agricultural experiment stations. Due to their
European research and experience with the government-funded European experiment stations, Atwater and Johnson had become consultants to the USDA and vocal promoters
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doubted the nutritional value of alcohol, Atwater proved alcohol could be oxidized in the body and used to some extent as fuel. Information gained from
Atwater’s experiments was used by the liquor trade in the promotion of alcohol. " was very prominent in the temperance movement, and every year he
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Throughout his career, Atwater had been interested in human nutrition studies; having conducted the studies on behalf of the U.S. Fish
Commission and the Smithsonian Institution, he had continued human nutrition research and the Storrs experiment station became known for nutritional studies. Once
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Wilbur
Atwater returned to Wesleyan as a professor of chemistry in 1873 and remained there until his death in 1907. Both he, and his mentor from Yale, Samuel Johnson, were proponents of bringing organizations to the United States similar to the agricultural experiment stations they saw in Europe.
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Through the calorimetry studies, greater awareness was brought to the food calorie as a unit of measure both for consumption and metabolism. Atwater reported on the weight of the calorie as a means to measure the efficiency of a diet and that different types of food produced different amounts of
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were created to provide farmers with an easy to read and understand presentation of the findings of agricultural research stations and other scientific institutions. Through Atwater's role as director he was able to guide agricultural experiment station research towards scientific and experiment
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Atwater served as administrator of the trial run from 1875 until 1877 with initial research focused on fertilizers. Before the two year trial was over, the Connecticut legislature agreed to regular funding of the station but had decided to move the permanent Connecticut Experiment Station to the
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During the initial phase of the first experiment station, Atwater expanded his fertilizer program and began to study and experiment with the growth and composition of field crops. The field crop research continued even after the appropriation ceased on a nearby farm; Atwater became particularly
500:, served as one of his laboratory assistants, namely assisting with manuscript preparation. She served as an editorial assistant in the Office of Experiment Stations from 1898 to 1903; she went on to have a career as a home economics specialist and served as the first full time editor of the
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donated funds and Wesleyan offered laboratory facilities and Atwater's services on a part-time basis. Through their work and a $ 5,600 contribution from the Connecticut legislature for a two-year trial period, the first agricultural experiment station was created in the United States.
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of federally regulated and funded agricultural research. Atwater had even begun writing in USDA publications in support of adopting the European model of scientific laboratories in domestic experiment stations. By 1885, Atwater and Johnson had begun advising Congress and President
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Atwater saw his mission as director of the Office of Experiment Stations to be "to bring the stations throughout the country together, to unify their work, and to put them into communication with the great world of science." He immediately established a journal, the
523:. Each year, a scientist is recognized for their unique contribution toward improving diet and nutrition globally. Atwater and his family's papers are held across multiple institutions, and the collections are, for the most part related to the holding institution.
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was passed, which gave federal funds ($ 15,000 each) to the land-grant colleges to create experiment stations. As the Act was passed, Atwater was named director of the second agricultural experiment station in Connecticut that was established at
260:. During his time at Yale, Atwater worked part time as Johnson's assistant analyzing fertilizers for specific mineral content; he also performed the first chemical analysis of food or feed in the United States. Atwater received his
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During his decline, the program at Wesleyan continue through his associates. His collaborator and successor, Frances Benedict continued his work and helped establish a Nutrition Laboratory in Boston with funding from the
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would lecture the students about temperance and tried to promote ," ... "Being a good scientist, he reported the data and was very upset that alcohol companies used his research" to advertise their products.
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and then moving to Wesleyan University in Connecticut, where he would complete his general education in 1865. For the next three years, Atwater was a teacher at various schools and in 1868, he enrolled in
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While there, Atwater met Marcia Woodard (1851-1932) of Bangor, Maine, the daughter of Abram Woodard. They married in 1874 and in 1876, their daughter Helen was born and son Charles was born in 1885.
300:; on his trip he wrote articles about his observations for local newspapers based in the places he had lived in the United States. In 1871, Atwater returned to the United States to teach chemistry at
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energy. Through his research, he was able to demonstrate that calories from different sources might affect the body differently and in turn, published tables that compared calories in various foods.
227:, the son of William Warren Atwater, a Methodist Episcopal minister, temperance advocate, and librarian of Yale Law School and Eliza (Barnes) Atwater. He grew up in, and spent much of his life in
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Atwater even described the German agricultural experiment stations in an 1875 report to the Department of Agriculture. To persuade the Connecticut legislature to appropriate money for a station,
280:, studying physiological chemistry and acquainting himself with the agricultural experiment stations of Europe. During his time there, Atwater studied under German physiologist and dietitian,
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Pauly, P. J. (1990), "The struggle for ignorance about alcohol: American physiologists, Wilbur Olin Atwater, and the Woman's Christian Temperance Union.",
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427:, they compiled a digest of close to 3,600 metabolic experiments as a primer to the research they would conduct. Atwater went on to work with Physicist
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He went on to conduct metabolic studies related to the dietary standards, based on observations from his work with Voit, who had used a Rubner
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on the body. His findings showed humans generated heat from alcohol just as they generated heat from a carbohydrate. At a time when the
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Subject exits respirator calorimeter in Atwater's laboratory. Courtesy of Special Collections, U.S. National Agricultural Library
386:. Atwater spent about 8 months of the year in Washington and had deputies act for him in his other positions during his absence.
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Carpenter, K.J. (1994), "The 1993 W. O. Atwater Centennial Memorial Lecture. The life and times of W. O. Atwater (1844-1907).",
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Hartford Courant, Counting Calories? You Can Thank — Or Blame — Wesleyan Professor, by William Weir, November 23, 2011
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Wilson, P.W. (1963), "Biological Nitrogen Fixation--Early American Style (Samuel W. Johnson and Wilbur O. Atwater)",
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Atwater, W.O.; Benedict, F.G. (1993), "An experimental inquiry regarding the nutritive value of alcohol. 1902.",
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In 1904, Atwater suffered a stroke and remained unable to work until his death in 1907. He is interred at
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is named in his honor. The building houses the Connecticut Veterinary Medical Diagnostic Laboratory.
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to analyze four varieties of corn. Afterwards, he continued his education for the next two years in
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interested in plant metabolism and was one of the first researchers to provide proof that legumes
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Collection Number: 2223, Division of Rare and Manuscript Collections, Cornell University Library
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Darby, William J. (January 1976). "Nutrition Science: An Overview of American Genius".
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180:(May 3, 1844 – September 22, 1907) was an American chemist known for his studies of
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887:"Atwater and USDA Nutrition Research and Service: A Prologue of the Past Century"
625:"Farmers' Bulletin No. 142 - Principles of Nutrition and Nutritive Value of Food"
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Widdowson, E.M. (1987), "Atwater: a personal tribute from the United Kingdom.",
1380:"How Food Is Used In The Body - Experiments with men in a respiration apparatus"
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Welsh, S. (1994), "Atwater to the present: evolution of nutrition education.",
1467:. O'Neill, Lois Decker (First ed.). Garden City, New York. February 1979.
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1755:, vol. 124, no. 9 Suppl (published Sep 1994), pp. 1799S–1807S,
1675:, vol. 124, no. 9 Suppl (published Sep 1994), pp. 1715S–1717S,
1615:, vol. 124, no. 9 Suppl (published Sep 1994), pp. 1728S–1732S,
1589:, vol. 124, no. 9 Suppl (published Sep 1994), pp. 1707S–1714S,
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1515:"Catherine Galbraith, at 95; transformed economist-husband's life and career"
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Carpenter, Kenneth J (September 1994). "The Life and Times of W.O. Atwater".
689:, Fox News. By Paul Martin. Published 31 July 2012. Retrieved 4 August 2012.
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967:"Wilbur O. Atwater - A Biographical Sketch (May 3, 1844 - October 6, 1907)"
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Darby, W.J. (1976), "Nutrition science: an overview of American genius.",
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Methods and Results of Investigations on the Chemistry and Economy of Food
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1179:"Contributions of Atwater and USDA to Knowledge of Nutrient Requirements"
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Atwater, Wilbur O. (1876). "Agricultural-Experiment Stations in Europe".
508:, the daughter of his son, Charles, was an author whom married economist
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1813:, vol. 27, no. 4 (published December 1963), pp. 405–16,
1716:. Vol. 1. Boston: American Biographical Society. pp. 161–162.
1558:"Wilbur O. Atwater Laboratory | Mobile Map | University of Connecticut"
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at Special Collections and Archives, Olin Library, Wesleyan University
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1276:"Origins and Evolution of the National Nutrient Databank Conference"
1147:"The Hatch Act of 1887 | National Institute of Food and Agriculture"
1781:, vol. 45, no. 5 (published May 1987), pp. 898–904,
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Combs, G.F. (1994), "Celebration of the past: nutrition at USDA.",
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Special Collections and Archives, Olin Library, Wesleyan University
640:, vol. 1, no. 3 (published May 1993), pp. 228–244,
612:"Farmers' Bulletin No. 23 - Foods : Nutritive Value and Cost"
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1008:"Guide to the Wilbur Olin Atwater papers, 1869-[ca.1914]"
519:, sponsored through the United States Department of Agriculture,
1641:, vol. 34, no. 1 (published Jan 1976), pp. 1–14,
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to conduct similar experiments on small animals. Together with
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The Proximate Composition of Several Types of American Maize,
235:, instead pursuing his undergraduate education, first at the
1122:"Impacts of the Hatch Act on the Science of Plant Pathology"
631:. Washington, D.C.: United States Department of Agriculture.
618:. Washington, D.C.: United States Department of Agriculture.
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Report of the Commissioner of Agriculture for the Year 1875
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in 1869 in agricultural chemistry, his thesis was entitled
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at Special Collections and Archives, Wesleyan University
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at Special Collections and Archives, Wesleyan University
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Yale School of Engineering & Applied Science alumni
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Carpenter, KJ (19 April 2001). "Atwater, Wilbur Olin".
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True, A. C. (1908). "Wilbur Olin Atwater. 1844–1907".
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No Other Gods: on Science and American Social Thought
819:. The 1993 W.O. Atwater Centennial Memorial Lecture.
1065:. United States Government Printing Office: 517–524.
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Atwater's legacy is acknowledged through the yearly
1319:. Washington D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office.
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Olympians Owe Gold Standard to 19th Century Chemist
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1465:The Women's book of world records and achievements
1282:. The 38th National Nutrient Databank Conference.
705:"Wilbur Olin Atwater Papers | Special Collections"
845:Proceedings of the Washington Academy of Sciences
1671:Galbraith, C.A. (1994), "Wilbur Olin Atwater.",
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740:"Guide to the Atwater Family Papers, 1788-2003"
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365:on the creation of experiment stations at the
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1406:"Probing the Mysteries of Human Digestion"
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1035:. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University.
288:. Atwater spent time traveling throughout
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1384:The Century Illustrated Monthly Magazine
596:The Wilbur O. Atwater Laboratory at the
1050:. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
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561:United States Department of Agriculture
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1713:The Biographical Dictionary of America
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965:Maynard, Leonard A. (September 1962).
823:: Department of Nutritional Sciences,
384:Storrs Agricultural Experiment Station
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885:Nichols, Buford L. (September 1994).
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284:and worked alongside Voit's student,
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455:Atwater also studied the effect of
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1378:Atwater, W.O. (May–October 1897).
1243:10.1111/j.1753-4887.1976.tb05660.x
825:University of California, Berkeley
646:10.1002/j.1550-8528.1993.tb00616.x
592:, Smithsonian Institution Archives
465:Woman's Christian Temperance Union
199:Atwater was director of the first
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1390:: 246–252 – via HathiTrust.
1274:Stumbo, Phyllis J. (2015-01-01).
580:Wilbur Olin Atwater papers, 1869-
403:Nutrition research and innovation
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1177:Darby, William J. (1994-09-01).
1093:Mudry, Jessica J. (2009-02-18).
538:Atwater Family Papers, 1843-1943
529:Atwater Family Papers, 1778-2003
461:Scientific Temperance Federation
351:assimilate nitrogen from the air
268:in it he used variations of the
231:. He opted not to fight in the
1898:People from Johnsburg, New York
1873:Burials at Indian Hill Cemetery
709:specialcollections.nal.usda.gov
1903:Chemists from New York (state)
1819:10.1128/mmbr.27.4.405-416.1963
213:U.S. Department of Agriculture
1:
1726:: CS1 maint: date and year (
564:National Agricultural Library
521:Agricultural Research Service
517:W.O. Atwater Memorial Lecture
27:American agricultural chemist
1762:10.1093/jn/124.suppl_9.1799S
1682:10.1093/jn/124.suppl_9.1715S
1622:10.1093/jn/124.suppl_9.1728S
1596:10.1093/jn/124.suppl_9.1707S
1361:A History of American Bodies
1293:10.1016/j.profoo.2015.06.004
1196:10.1093/jn/124.suppl_9.1733S
993:– via Oxford Academic.
904:10.1093/jn/124.suppl_9.1718S
1893:Wesleyan University faculty
446:first law of thermodynamics
380:Storrs Agricultural College
304:and the next year moved to
246:Sheffield Scientific School
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1883:Wesleyan University alumni
1099:. SUNY Press. p. 25.
571:Wilbur Olin Atwater Papers
559:at Special Collections of
556:Wilbur Olin Atwater Papers
1878:American science teachers
1534:"atwater : USDA ARS"
1418:Science History Institute
1404:Price, Catherine (2018).
598:University of Connecticut
506:Catherine Merriam Atwater
502:Journal of Home Economics
392:Experiment Station Record
302:East Tennessee University
270:proximate analysis system
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1753:The Journal of Nutrition
1673:The Journal of Nutrition
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1613:The Journal of Nutrition
1587:The Journal of Nutrition
1252:2027/uiug.30112113103870
1189:(suppl_9): 1733S–1737S.
1183:The Journal of Nutrition
1120:Barnes, John M. (1988).
1031:Rosenberg, C.E. (1976).
971:The Journal of Nutrition
897:(9 Suppl): 1718S–1727S.
891:The Journal of Nutrition
817:The Journal of Nutrition
342:American Agriculturalist
1811:Bacteriological Reviews
1359:Lederer, Susan (2007),
1012:rmc.library.cornell.edu
775:10.1038/npg.els.0003423
482:Middletown, Connecticut
425:Charles Ford Langworthy
421:respiration calorimeter
373:in 1862. In 1887, the
209:Middletown, Connecticut
1868:American nutritionists
1365:New Haven, Connecticut
1315:Atwater, W.O. (1895).
1046:Osborne, E.A. (1913).
623:Atwater, W.O. (1910).
610:Atwater, W.O. (1894).
510:John Kenneth Galbraith
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258:Samuel William Johnson
250:agricultural chemistry
1787:10.1093/ajcn/45.5.898
1499:) CS1 maint: others (
1440:"Wilbur Olin Atwater"
1280:Procedia Food Science
504:. His granddaughter,
433:Francis Gano Benedict
414:
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237:University of Vermont
1708:Atwater, Wilbur Olin
821:Berkeley, California
490:Carnegie Corporation
478:Indian Hill Cemetery
369:created through the
306:Maine State College.
254:William Henry Brewer
223:Atwater was born in
429:Edward Bennett Rosa
367:land-grant colleges
248:, where he studied
225:Johnsburg, New York
205:Wesleyan University
178:Wilbur Olin Atwater
117:Wesleyan University
34:Wilbur Olin Atwater
1523:, October 4, 2008.
1444:www.findagrave.com
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396:Farmers' Bulletins
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233:American Civil War
85:September 22, 1907
1863:American chemists
1722:cite encyclopedia
1704:Johnson, Rossiter
1639:Nutrition Reviews
1367:: Yale University
1231:Nutrition Reviews
1106:978-0-7914-9386-1
983:10.1093/jn/78.1.1
431:and Nutritionist
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569:Images from the
498:Helen W. Atwater
472:Death and legacy
363:Grover Cleveland
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242:Yale University
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1561:
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1443:
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743:
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708:
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604:Bibliography
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18:W.O. Atwater
1858:1907 deaths
1853:1844 births
1237:(1): 1–14.
851:: 194–198.
371:Morrill Act
332:Orange Judd
323:Fertilizers
229:New England
196:nutrition.
105:Nationality
97:Connecticut
66:May 3, 1844
1847:Categories
1567:2020-07-23
1543:2020-04-15
1156:2020-04-09
1017:2020-04-08
977:(1): 1–9.
784:0470016175
714:2020-04-01
671:References
286:Max Rubner
219:Early life
186:metabolism
149:metabolism
93:Middletown
62:1844-05-03
46:Atwater's
1491:cite book
1302:2211-601X
1286:: 13–17.
1205:0022-3166
857:0363-1095
375:Hatch Act
262:doctorate
166:Chemistry
70:Johnsburg
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