20:
1189:
211:, especially with regard to fortifications on strategically-valuable islands. Its secondary objectives were intended to obtain an ultimate limit to Japanese expansion and also an alleviation of concerns over possible antagonism with the British. They were to eliminate Anglo-American tension by abrogating the Anglo-Japanese alliance, to agree upon a favorable naval ratio vis-Ă -vis Japan, and to have the Japanese officially accept a continuation of the Open Door Policy in China.
1460:
1057:
285:
displacement, a simple measure of the size of a ship. A ten-year agreement fixed the ratio of battleships at 5:5:3: 525,000 tons for the US, 525,000 tons for
Britain, and 315,000 tons for Japan. Smaller limits with a ratio of 1.67 applied to France and Italy. Battleships, the dominant weapons systems
371:
of 1930, which specified a 10:10:7 ratio for cruisers and destroyers. For the first time, submarines were also limited, with Japan given parity with the US and
Britain, at 53,000 tons each. (Submarines typically displaced 1,000-2,000 tons each.) The US Navy maintained an active building program that
214:
The
British, however, took a more cautious and tempered approach. Indeed, the British officials brought certain general desires to the conference: to achieve peace and stability in the West Pacific; avoid a naval arms race with the United States; thwart Japanese encroachment into areas under their
269:, who during the first four decades of the twentieth century led a political movement in Japan that promoted democracy and international goodwill with the U.S., Europe and Asia. His influence was significant in the negotiations and ratification of the Washington Naval Treaty.
316:
The
Washington Conference exactly captured the worldwide popular demand for peace and disarmament. Without an agreement, the US, Britain and Japan likely would have engaged in a naval arms race much like that experienced between Britain and Germany before the
355:
The
Washington Naval Treaty led to an effective end to building new battleship fleets, and the few ships that were built were limited in size and armament. Many existing capital ships were scrapped or sunk. Some ships under construction were turned into
230:
Japanese officials were more focused on specifics than the
British, and they approached the conference with two primary goals: to sign a naval treaty with Britain and the United States and to obtain official recognition of Japan's special interests in
142:
in many countries, and they helped convince politicians that money could be saved, votes won, and future wars avoided by stopping the arms race. Across the world, leaders of the women's suffrage movement formed international organizations such as the
372:
replaced obsolescent warships with technically more sophisticated new models in part because its construction yards were important sources of political patronage and so were well protected by
Congress. During the
175:
for control of the
Pacific Ocean as a long-term threat to world peace. By then, considering their colonial interests in Asia, the British decided that it was better for them to cast their lot with Washington than
1500:
155:
writes that they achieved the greatest influence in the 1920s, "when they helped to promote women's contribution to the anti-war movement throughout the
Western world." In the United States, practically all the
262:; US negotiators used that knowledge to push the Japanese. This success, one of the first in the US government's budding eavesdropping and cryptology efforts, led eventually to the growth of such agencies.
227:
countries, but they did not enter the conference with a specific laundry list of demands. Rather, they brought with them a vague vision of what the West
Pacific should look like after an agreement.
160:
and highly-visible Protestant spokesmen were strong supporters of international peace efforts. They collaborated to work to educate their local congregations on the need for peace and disarmament.
281:
called the Washington Conference a deal that all countries thought best for themselves. To resolve technical disputes about the quality of warships, the conferees adopted a standard based on the
167:, the British still had the largest navy afloat, but its big ships were becoming obsolete, and the Americans and the Japanese were rapidly building expensive new warships. Britain and Japan were
935:
Hayashi, Mika. "Disarmament Debates around the 1899 Hague Peace Conference and the 1921â1922 Washington Conference: Community-Oriented Aspirations and Individual Security Concerns."
1323:
306:
1515:
1495:
774:"China and Japan - Treaty for the settlement of outstanding questions relative to Shantung, signed at Washington February 4, 1922 [1922] LNTSer 78; 10 LNTS 309"
310:
403:
293:
While the admirals were unhappy, peace activists strongly supported the results and successfully worked for ratification. In the United States they included the
207:, the last being the Democratic minority leader in the Senate. The conference's primary objective was to restrain Japanese naval expansion in the waters of the
1525:
1202:
1089:
64:
1520:
984:
McKercher, B. J. C. "'A Certain Irritation': The White House, the State Department, and the Desire for a Naval Settlement with Great Britain, 1927â1930."
328:
The naval treaty was concluded on February 6, 1922. Ratifications of the treaty were exchanged in Washington on August 17, 1923, and it was registered in
1381:
1328:
1161:
298:
1360:
126:, and a number of smaller agreements. These treaties preserved the peace during the 1920s but were not renewed in the increasingly hostile world of the
1540:
1530:
1366:
1166:
388:
The pacts and the treaties that resulted from the Washington Naval Treaty remained in effect for fourteen years. Japan ended participation in 1936.
1226:
1110:
656:
1371:
1156:
1376:
952:
701:
Germany was still limited to zero by the Versailles Treaty, and Soviet Russia, a pariah nation because of its communism, was not invited.
286:
of the era, could be no larger than 35,000 tons. The major powers allowed themselves 135,000:135,000:81,000 tons for the newly-developed
1178:
180:. To stop a needless, expensive, and possibly dangerous arms race, the major countries signed a series of naval disarmament agreements.
19:
1545:
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157:
172:
56:
1555:
1550:
1313:
1211:
610:
1061:
1241:
244:
189:
869:
Earle, Neil. "Public Opinion for Peace: Tactics of Peace Activists at the Washington Conference on Naval Armament (1921-1922)."
1273:
1236:
1197:
1082:
148:
1113:
363:
Even with the treaty, the major navies remained suspicious of one another and briefly (1927â1930) engaged in a race to build
144:
437:
1293:
413:
367:, which had been limited in size (10,000 tons) but not numbers. That oversight was resolved on value of cruisers by the
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1221:
103:
conference in history, and is still studied by political scientists as a model for a successful disarmament movement.
1121:
111:
1298:
1490:
1463:
1075:
1013:
408:
339:
to Chinese control by an agreement concluded on February 4, 1922. Ratifications of the agreement were exchanged in
998:
Schenkein, Joshua. "Japan, The Great Power: Industrialization Through The Lens Of Zaibatsu." 2014 ASIN: B00NRHRMW2
625:
Robert Moats Miller, "The Attitudes of the Major Protestant Churches in America Toward War and Peace, 1919-1929",
1565:
1560:
1231:
107:
80:
171:
that was due to expire in 1922. Although there were no immediate dangers, observers increasingly pointed to the
1268:
1308:
1253:
302:
494:
Thorson, Winston B. (1 January 1946). "Pacific Northwest Opinion on the Washington Conference of 1921-1922".
1338:
1258:
602:
168:
1510:
1505:
1485:
1403:
963:
Arms Control during the Prenuclear Era: The United States and Naval Limitation between the Two World Wars.
294:
239:. Japanese officials also brought other issues to the conference: a strong demand to remain in control of
1415:
325:
and was treated as a colonial power with equal diplomatic interests, a first for a non-Western nation.
60:
1188:
739:
Joshua Schenkein, "Japan, The Great Power: Industrialization Through The Lens Of Zaibatsu.", pp. 1â5.
1409:
1333:
1171:
1021:
1007:
592:
192:
152:
930:
The Washington Conference, 1921â22: Naval Rivalry, East Asian Stability and the Road to Pearl Harbor
1343:
1303:
1263:
397:
368:
139:
911:
Gibbs, Norman. "The Naval Conferences of the Interwar Years: A study in Anglo-American Relations"
1278:
503:
473:
465:
377:
376:, relief funds were used to build more warships. "The naval program was wholly mine," President
251:
as well as more general concerns about the growing presence of American fleets in the Pacific.
138:
The global appetite for peace and disarmament was aplenty throughout the 1920s. Women had just
1318:
1288:
1098:
948:
606:
598:
The March of the Women: A Revisionist Analysis of the Campaign for Women's Suffrage, 1866-1914
457:
357:
200:
123:
119:
115:
92:
44:
596:
1397:
864:
The USA in the Making of the USSR: The Washington Conference 1921-22 and 'Uninvited Russia'.
449:
287:
127:
68:
43:, from November 12, 1921, to February 6, 1922. It was conducted outside the auspices of the
40:
258:
to its delegation. The message revealed the lowest naval ratio that would be acceptable to
91:
was not invited to the conference, as restrictions on its navy had already been set in the
1449:
1150:
1002:
318:
266:
204:
88:
52:
850:
773:
657:"Introduction to The Art of Peace: the illustrated biography of Prince Iyesato Tokugawa"
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278:
321:. However, even with the restrictions, the agreement solidified Japan's position as a
1479:
972:
477:
364:
255:
96:
48:
36:
552:"On the Trail of Military Intelligence History: A Guide to the Washington, DC, Area"
1144:
1139:
937:
Journal of the History of International Law/Revue d'histoire du droit international
726:
Richard Fanning, "Peace groups and the campaign for naval disarmament, 1927-1936."
208:
100:
1039:
1421:
892:
715:
322:
164:
76:
32:
256:
interception and decryption of secret instructions from the Japanese government
1427:
824:
551:
524:
196:
461:
1248:
1017:(12th ed.). London & New York: The EncyclopĂŚdia Britannica Company.
1006:
232:
220:
216:
84:
265:
The head of the Japanese delegation to the Washington Naval Conference was
1056:
979:
Triumph and Downfall: America's Pursuit of Peace and Prosperity, 1921-1933
899:
Armaments and allies: The Anglo-Japanese strategic relationship, 1911â1921
945:
Warships after Washington: The Development of Five Major Fleets 1922â1930
373:
336:
236:
224:
916:
630:
507:
23:
Washington Naval Conference. Date: November 12, 1921 to February 6, 1922
874:
469:
340:
282:
248:
72:
857:
Power in the Pacific: the origins of naval arms limitation, 1914â1922
690:
Power in the Pacific: the origins of naval arms limitation, 1914â1922
676:
The Art of Peace - An illustrated biography on Prince Tokugawa Iesato
1067:
453:
889:
Peace and disarmament: Naval rivalry & arms control, 1922â1933
644:
Peace and disarmament: naval rivalry & arms control, 1922-1933
259:
177:
18:
993:
British and American Naval Power: Politics and Policy, 1900â1936
812:
Scraps of paper: the disarmament treaties between the world wars
712:
Peace and Disarmament: Naval Rivalry and Arms Control, 1922-1933
1071:
970:
Britain and the Problem of International Disarmament, 1919â1934
297:; the American Association for International Conciliation; the
240:
880:
Elleman, Bruce A. "The Washington Conference, 1921â1922." in
995:(Praeger Studies in Diplomacy and Strategic Thought) (1998)
122:(more commonly known as the Washington Naval Treaty), the
799:
One Hundred Years of Sea Power: The U. S. Navy, 1890-1990
99:
was also not invited to the conference. It was the first
1501:
Foreign relations of the Republic of China (1912â1949)
1324:
List of federal judges appointed by Warren G. Harding
923:
Sunken Treaties: Naval Arms Control between the Wars.
16:
1921â22 disarmament conference in Washington D.C., US
1390:
1352:
1196:
1132:
932:(Psychology Press, 1994) topical essays by experts.
1041:Papers Relating to Pacific and Far Eastern Affairs
307:Women's International League for Peace and Freedom
915:30#1 (Special issue Summer 1977), pp. 50â63
311:Federal Council of Churches of Christ in America
404:National Council for the Reduction of Armaments
305:; the Women's World Disarmament Committee; the
83:) regarding interests in the Pacific Ocean and
906:Royal Navy Strategy in the Far East, 1919â1939
882:International Competition in China, 1899-1991.
580:Britain and the World in the Twentieth Century
1083:
519:
517:
489:
487:
8:
925:(Pennsylvania State U. Press, 1994). 352 pp.
825:"Results of the Washington Naval Conference"
1516:Diplomatic conferences in the United States
714:(University Press of Kentucky, 2014) p. 9.
1382:Historical reputation of Warren G. Harding
1329:Warren G. Harding Supreme Court candidates
1162:1914 United States Senate election in Ohio
1090:
1076:
1068:
928:Goldstein, Erik, and John H. Maurer, eds.
343:on June 2, 1922, and it was registered in
299:Carnegie Endowment for International Peace
254:The American hand was strengthened by the
546:
544:
1496:Foreign relations of the Empire of Japan
1367:Cultural depictions of Warren G. Harding
1167:1920 United States presidential election
1044:. U.S. Government Printing Office. 1922.
215:influence; and preserve the security of
1227:Agricultural Appropriations Act of 1922
425:
114:, it resulted in three major treaties:
47:. It was attended by nine nations (the
1372:List of memorials to Warren G. Harding
1157:Electoral history of Warren G. Harding
1377:Warren G. Harding Presidential Center
1028:Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1922.
149:International Woman Suffrage Alliance
7:
431:
429:
1526:20th-century diplomatic conferences
1179:1920 Republican National Convention
981:(Cambridge University Press, 2001).
1026:China at the Conference: A Report.
14:
1212:Inauguration of Warren G. Harding
442:American Political Science Review
1459:
1458:
1187:
1122:28th Lieutenant Governor of Ohio
1055:
965:Columbia U. Press, 1990. 289 pp.
188:The American delegation, led by
1541:1921 in international relations
1531:1922 in international relations
1274:Federal Aid Highway Act of 1921
761:League of Nations Treaty Series
749:League of Nations Treaty Series
496:The Pacific Northwest Quarterly
345:League of Nations Treaty Series
330:League of Nations Treaty Series
1114:President of the United States
158:major Protestant denominations
145:International Council of Women
1:
1521:JapanâUnited States relations
1294:Great Railroad Strike of 1922
1008:"Washington Conference"
525:"Washington Naval Conference"
414:Anglo-German Naval Agreement
1217:Washington Naval Conference
1022:Willoughby, Westel Woodbury
1011:. In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.).
871:Journal of Church and State
840:Sources and further reading
438:"The Washington Conference"
29:Washington Naval Conference
1582:
991:O'Brien; Phillips Payson.
884:(Routledge, 2015). 89-102.
810:Quoted in Harlow A. Hyde,
409:Second London Naval Treaty
1546:1921 in the United States
1536:1922 in the United States
1437:
1242:General Accounting Office
1232:Budget and Accounting Act
1185:
1105:
873:40#1 (1998), pp. 149â69,
847:The Washington Conference
173:American-Japanese rivalry
108:Memorial Continental Hall
35:conference called by the
1556:1922 in Washington, D.C.
1551:1921 in Washington, D.C.
1361:The President's Daughter
1269:Emergency Tariff of 1921
961:Kaufman, Robert Gordon.
913:Naval War College Review
1339:Voyage of Understanding
1314:Veterans Administration
1284:FordneyâMcCumber Tariff
1259:Dyer Anti-Lynching Bill
1222:Depression of 1920â1921
1062:Washington Naval Treaty
1014:EncyclopĂŚdia Britannica
947:. Seaforth Publishing.
845:Buell, Raymond Leslie.
763:, vol. 10, pp. 310-331.
751:, vol. 25, pp. 202â227.
661:TheEmperorAndTheSpy.com
629:19#1 (1956), pp. 13-38
603:Oxford University Press
436:Wright, Quincy (1922).
335:Japan agreed to revert
267:Prince Iyesato Tokugawa
1404:Elizabeth Ann Blaesing
1299:KnoxâPorter Resolution
678:. Horizon Productions.
674:Katz, Stan S. (2019).
295:World Peace Foundation
24:
1416:Carolyn Harding Votaw
988:31.5 (2007): 829-863.
973:Rutledge, 1999 online
968:Kitching; Carolyn J.
943:Jordan, John (2011).
730:(1990) 15#1 pp 26â45.
303:Women's Peace Society
140:won the right to vote
22:
1410:George Tryon Harding
1334:Harding Railroad Car
1237:Bureau of the Budget
1172:Front porch campaign
1064:at Wikimedia Commons
887:Fanning, Richard W.
849:(D. Appleton, 1922)
642:Richard W. Fanning,
193:Charles Evans Hughes
1344:Teapot Dome scandal
1309:SheppardâTowner Act
1304:Revenue Act of 1921
1264:Emergency Quota Act
1254:CapperâVolstead Act
939:1.aop (2021): 1-28.
829:www.u-s-history.com
578:Michael J. Turner,
398:London Naval Treaty
369:London Naval Treaty
332:on April 16, 1924.
112:Downtown Washington
1279:Future Trading Act
986:Diplomatic History
921:Goldman, Emily O.
901:(Routledge, 2003).
866:(Routledge, 2004).
728:Peace & Change
378:Franklin Roosevelt
190:Secretary of State
169:allies in a treaty
25:
1491:Naval conferences
1473:
1472:
1450:Calvin Coolidge â
1319:Willis Graham Act
1289:Grain Futures Act
1099:Warren G. Harding
1060:Media related to
954:978-1-84832-117-5
801:(1994) pp. 108-9.
710:Richard Fanning,
358:aircraft carriers
347:on July 7, 1922.
288:aircraft carriers
201:Henry Cabot Lodge
124:Nine-Power Treaty
120:Five-Power Treaty
116:Four-Power Treaty
93:Versailles Treaty
45:League of Nations
1573:
1566:1922 conferences
1561:1921 conferences
1462:
1461:
1443:â Woodrow Wilson
1398:Florence Harding
1191:
1125:
1117:
1092:
1085:
1078:
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1045:
1018:
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1003:Seymour, Charles
977:Louria, Margot.
958:
855:Dingman, Roger.
833:
832:
821:
815:
808:
802:
797:George W. Baer,
795:
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778:www.worldlii.org
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663:. 13 April 2020.
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128:Great Depression
41:Washington, D.C.
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1033:Primary sources
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904:Field, Andrew.
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646:(1995) pp. 1-24
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