775:. The total body water can be divided into two compartments called extracellular fluid (ECF) and intracellular fluid (ICF). The majority of the sodium in the body stays in the extracellular fluid compartment. This compartment consists of the fluid surrounding the cells and the fluid inside the blood vessels. ECF has a sodium concentration of approximately 140 mEq/L. Because cell membranes are permeable to water but not sodium, the movement of water across membranes affects the concentration of sodium in the blood. Sodium acts as a force that pulls water across membranes, and water moves from places with lower sodium concentration to places with higher sodium concentration. This happens through a process called
856:, these must be treated immediately with IV saline infusion. Once the patient is stable, it is important to identify the underlying cause of hypernatremia as that may affect the treatment plan. The final step in treatment is to calculate the patients free water deficit, and to replace it at a steady rate using a combination of oral or IV fluids. The rate of replacement of fluids varies depending on how long the patient has been hypernatremic. Lowering the sodium level too quickly can cause cerebral edema.
251:
common response to electrolyte imbalance may be to prescribe supplementation. However, if the electrolyte involved is sodium, the issue is often water excess rather than sodium deficiency. Supplementation for these people may correct the electrolyte imbalance but at the expense of volume overload. For newborn children, this has serious risks. Because each individual electrolyte affects physiological function differently, they must be considered separately when discussing causes, treatment, and complications.
78:
43:
426:(HCl), which plays a role in absorption of electrolytes, activating enzymes, and killing bacteria. The levels of chloride in the blood can help determine if there are underlying metabolic disorders. Generally, chloride has an inverse relationship with bicarbonate, an electrolyte that indicates acid-base status. Overall, treatment of chloride imbalances involve addressing the underlying cause rather than supplementing or avoiding chloride.
247:, particularly in the form of sodium and potassium. The kidneys can also generate dilute urine to balance sodium levels. These electrolytes must be replaced to keep the electrolyte concentrations of the body fluids constant. Hyponatremia, or low sodium, is the most commonly seen type of electrolyte imbalance.
694:, shift of potassium into the cells, and removal of potassium from the body. Stabilization of cardiac muscle cells is done by administering calcium intravenously. Shift of potassium into the cells is done using both insulin and albuterol inhalers. Excretion of potassium from the body is done using either
932:
Many individuals with mild hyponatremia will not experience symptoms. Severity of symptoms is directly correlated with severity of hyponatremia and rapidness of onset. General symptoms include loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting, confusion, agitation, and weakness. More concerning symptoms involve the
681:
Part of the danger of hyperkalemia is that it is often asymptomatic, and only detected during normal lab work done by primary care physicians. As potassium levels get higher, individuals may begin to experience nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. Patients with severe hyperkalemia, defined by levels above
664:
Hyperkalemia is typically caused by decreased excretion by the kidneys, shift of potassium to the extracellular space, or increased consumption of potassium rich foods in patients with kidney failure. The most common cause of hyperkalemia is lab error due to potassium released as blood cells from the
508:
is mostly found in the bones and within cells. Approximately 1% of total magnesium in the body is found in the blood. Magnesium is important in control of metabolism and is involved in numerous enzyme reactions. A normal range is 0.70 - 1.10 mmol/L. The kidney is responsible for maintaining the
870:
Hyponatremia means that the concentration of sodium in the blood is too low. It is generally defined as a concentration lower than 135 mEq/L. This relatively common electrolyte disorder can indicate the presence of a disease process, but in the hospital setting is more often due to administration of
802:
There are three types of hypernatremia each with different causes. The first is dehydration along with low total body sodium. This is most commonly caused by heatstroke, burns, extreme sweating, vomiting, and diarrhea. The second is low total body water with normal body sodium. This can be caused by
634:
Potassium resides mainly inside the cells of the body, so its concentration in the blood can range anywhere from 3.5 mEq/L to 5 mEq/L. The kidneys are responsible for excreting the majority of potassium from the body. This means their function is crucial for maintaining a proper balance of potassium
334:
The predominant symptoms of hypercalcemia are abdominal pain, constipation, extreme thirst, excessive urination, kidney stones, nausea and vomiting. In severe cases where the calcium concentration is >14 mg/dL, individuals may experience confusion, altered mental status, coma, and seizure.
915:
is a false low sodium reading that can be caused by high levels of fats or proteins in the blood. Dilutional hyponatremia can happen in diabetics as high glucose levels pull water into the blood stream causing the sodium concentration to be lower. Diagnosis of the cause of hyponatremia relies on
250:
Treatment of electrolyte imbalance depends on the specific electrolyte involved and whether the levels are too high or too low. The level of aggressiveness of treatment and choice of treatment may change depending on the severity of the disturbance. If the levels of an electrolyte are too low, a
594:
The first step in treatment is determining whether the deficiency is caused by a gastrointestinal or kidney problem. People with no or minimal symptoms are given oral magnesium; however, many people experience diarrhea and other gastrointestinal discomfort. Those who cannot tolerate or receive
129:
Electrolyte disturbances are involved in many disease processes and are an important part of patient management in medicine. The causes, severity, treatment, and outcomes of these disturbances can differ greatly depending on the implicated electrolyte. The most serious electrolyte disturbances
907:. It can also be found in the postoperative state, and in the setting of accidental water intoxication as can be seen with intense exercise. Common causes in pediatric patients may be diarrheal illness, frequent feedings with dilute formula, water intoxication via excessive consumption, and
793:
Hypernatremia means that the concentration of sodium in the blood is too high. An individual is considered to be having high sodium at levels above 145 mEq/L of sodium. Hypernatremia is not common in individuals with no other health concerns. Most individuals with this disorder have either
142:. Other electrolyte imbalances are less common and often occur in conjunction with major electrolyte changes. The kidney is the most important organ in maintaining appropriate fluid and electrolyte balance, but other factors such as hormonal changes and physiological stress play a role.
831:
Symptoms of hypernatremia may vary depending on type and how quickly the electrolyte disturbance developed. Common symptoms are dehydration, nausea, vomiting, fatigue, weakness, increased thirst, and excess urination. Patients may be on medications that caused the imbalance such as
396:
Neurological and cardiovascular symptoms are the most common manifestations of hypocalcemia. Patients may experience muscle cramping or twitching, and numbness around the mouth and fingers. They may also have shortness of breath, low blood pressure, and cardiac arrhythmias.
572:
Major causes of hypomagnesemia are from gastrointestinal losses such as vomiting and diarrhea. Another major cause is from kidney losses from diuretics, alcohol use, hypercalcemia, and genetic disorders. Low dietary intake can also contribute to magnesium deficiency.
981:
It is recommended that an individual consumes less than 2,300 mg of sodium daily as part of a healthy diet. A significant portion of our sodium intake comes from just a few types of food, which may be surprising, as large sources of sodium may not taste salty.
405:
Patients with hypocalcemia may be treated with either oral or IV calcium. Typically, IV calcium is reserved for patients with severe hypocalcemia. It is also important to check magnesium levels in patients with hypocalcemia and to replace magnesium if it is low.
581:
Hypomagnesemia is typically associated with other electrolyte abnormalities, such as hypokalemia and hypocalcemia. For this reason, there may be overlap in symptoms seen in these other electrolyte deficiencies. Severe symptoms include arrhythmias, seizures, and
531:
Hypermagnesemia typically occurs in individuals with abnormal kidney function. This imbalance can also occur with use of antacids or laxatives that contain magnesium. Most cases of hypermagnesemia can be prevented by avoiding magnesium-containing medications.
259:
Though calcium is the most plentiful electrolyte in the body, a large percentage of it is used to form the bones. It is mainly absorbed and excreted through the GI system. The majority of calcium resides extracellularly, and it is crucial for the function of
2493:
2474:
540:
Mild symptoms include nausea, flushing, tiredness. Neurologic symptoms are seen most commonly including decreased deep tendon reflexes. Severe symptoms include paralysis, respiratory failure, and bradycardia progressing to cardiac arrest.
549:
If kidney function is normal, stopping the source of magnesium intake is sufficient. Diuretics can help increase magnesium excretion in the urine. Severe symptoms may be treated with dialysis to directly remove magnesium from the blood.
1090:
Magnesium is found in a variety of vegetables, meats, and grains. Foods high in fiber generally are a source of magnesium. The recommended magnesium intake for adults range from 360 mg to 420 mg depending on age and gender.
480:
Hypochloremia, or low chloride levels, are commonly associated with gastrointestinal (e.g., vomiting) and kidney (e.g., diuretics) losses. Greater water or sodium intake relative to chloride also can contribute to hypochloremia.
761:
Hypokalemia is treated by replacing the body's potassium. This can occur either orally or intravenously. Because low potassium is usually accompanied by low magnesium, patients are often given magnesium alongside potassium.
752:
Hypokalemia is often asymptomatic, and symptoms may not appear until potassium concentration is <2.5 mEq/L. Typical symptoms consist of muscle weakness and cramping. Low potassium can also cause cardiac arrythmias.
770:
Sodium is the most abundant electrolyte in the blood. Sodium and its homeostasis in the human body is highly dependent on fluids. The human body is approximately 60% water, a percentage which is also known as
598:
Hypomagnesemia may prevent the normalization of other electrolyte deficiencies. If other electrolyte deficiencies are associated, normalizing magnesium levels may be necessary to treat the other deficiencies.
523:
Hypermagnesemia, or abnormally high levels of magnesium in the blood, is relatively rare in individuals with normal kidney function. This is defined by a magnesium concentration >2.5 mg/dL.
343:
Primary treatment of hypercalcemia consists of administering IV fluids. If the hypercalcemia is severe and/or associated with cancer, it may be treated with bisphosphonates. For very severe cases,
2032:
Glasdam, Sidsel-Marie; Glasdam, Stinne; Peters, GĂŒnther H. (2016-01-01), Makowski, Gregory S. (ed.), "Chapter Six - The
Importance of Magnesium in the Human Body: A Systematic Literature Review",
949:
Considerations for treatment include symptom severity, time to onset, volume status, underlying cause, and sodium levels. If the sodium level is <120 mEq/L, the person can be treated with
199:
are at especially high risk for an electrolyte imbalance. Severe electrolyte imbalances must be treated carefully as there are risks with overcorrecting too quickly, which can result in
1031:
Good sources of potassium are found in a variety of fruits and vegetables. Recommend potassium intake for adults ranges from 2,300 mg to 3,400 mg depending on age and gender.
904:
564:
Hypomagnesemia, or low magnesium levels in the blood, can occur in up to 12% of hospitalized patients. Symptoms or effects of hypomagnesemia can occur after relatively small deficits.
1065:
Dairy is a major contributor of calcium to diet in the United States. The recommended calcium intake for adults range from 1,000 mg to 1,300 mg depending on age and gender.
445:
Hyperchloremia, or high chloride levels, is usually associated with excess chloride intake (e.g., saltwater drowning), fluid loss (e.g., diarrhea, sweating), and metabolic acidosis.
2547:
953:
saline as extremely low levels are associated with severe neurological symptoms. In non-emergent situations, it is important to correct the sodium slowly to minimize risk of
453:
Patients are usually asymptomatic with mild hyperchloremia. Symptoms associated with hyperchloremia are usually caused by the underlying cause of this electrolyte imbalance.
875:
fluids. The majority of hospitalized patients only experience mild hyponatremia, with levels above 130 mEq/L. Only 1-4% of patients experience levels lower than 130 mEq/L.
489:
Patients are usually asymptomatic with mild hypochloremia. Symptoms associated with hypochloremia are usually caused by the underlying cause of this electrolyte imbalance.
794:
experienced loss of water from diarrhea, altered sense of thirst, inability to consume water, inability of kidneys to make concentrated urine, or increased salt intake.
716:
The most common electrolyte disturbance, hypokalemia means that the concentration of potassium is <3.5 mEq/L. It often occurs concurrently with low magnesium levels.
2840:
973:
Diet significantly contributes to electrolyte stores and blood levels. Below are a list of foods that are associated with higher levels of these electrolytes.
1973:
724:
Low potassium is caused by increased excretion of potassium, decreased consumption of potassium rich foods, movement of potassium into the cells, or certain
682:
7 mEq/L, may experience muscle cramps, numbness, tingling, absence of reflexes, and paralysis. Patients may experience arrhythmias that can result in death.
326:. Hyperparathyroidism and malignancy are the predominant causes. It can also be caused by muscle cell breakdown, prolonged immobilization, dehydration.
243:
work to keep the electrolyte concentrations in blood constant despite changes in the body. For example, during heavy exercise, electrolytes are lost in
2281:
652:
means the concentration of potassium in the blood is too high. This occurs when the concentration of potassium is >5 mEq/L. It can lead to cardiac
957:
syndrome. If a person has low total body water and low sodium they are typically given fluids. If a person has high total body water (such as due to
2739:
2540:
2188:
1753:
1724:
1405:
2642:
2833:
2758:
837:
2533:
126:
too little or too much electrolyte. Examples of electrolytes include calcium, chloride, magnesium, phosphate, potassium, and sodium.
3267:
2915:
2857:
3143:
3111:
2734:
2602:
2590:
2826:
2805:
2753:
2179:
Tintinalli, Judith E.; Stapczynski, J. Stephan; Ma, O. John; Yealy, Donald M.; Meckler, Garth D.; Cline, David M. (2016).
2920:
1927:
Berend, Kenrick; van
Hulsteijn, Leonard Hendrik; Gans, Rijk O. B. (April 2012). "Chloride: the queen of electrolytes?".
298:
Hypercalcemia describes when the concentration of calcium in the blood is too high. This occurs above 10.5 mg/dL.
3190:
2204:
1981:
1517:
Moritz, ML; Ayus, JC (November 2002). "Disorders of water metabolism in children: hyponatremia and hypernatremia".
2228:
119:
2607:
2005:
1216:
Balcı, Arif Kadri; Koksal, Ozlem; Kose, Ataman; Armagan, Erol; Ozdemir, Fatma; Inal, Taylan; Oner, Nuran (2013).
3272:
3213:
2636:
2632:
2508:
808:
122:
and much more. Electrolyte imbalances can develop by consuming too little or too much electrolyte as well as
2925:
2289:
2368:
3003:
2795:
934:
900:
888:
741:
3163:
2964:
2800:
2423:
954:
733:
2257:
820:
361:
Hypocalcemia describes when calcium levels are too low in the blood, usually less than 8.5 mg/dL.
965:. If a person has a normal volume of total body water, they may be placed on fluid restriction alone.
815:, and certain drugs. The third is increased total body sodium which is caused by increased ingestion,
414:
Chloride, after sodium, is the second most abundant electrolyte in the blood and most abundant in the
3074:
3068:
3060:
3045:
3026:
2698:
2675:
2597:
779:. When evaluating sodium imbalances, both total body water and total body sodium must be considered.
559:
848:
It is crucial to first assess the stability of the patient. If there are any signs of shock such as
77:
3180:
3168:
3158:
2497:
812:
691:
415:
307:
281:
224:
2395:
2310:
3231:
3088:
2887:
2564:
2445:
1815:
1542:
1218:"General characteristics of patients with electrolyte imbalance admitted to emergency department"
961:
or kidney disease) they may be placed on fluid restriction, salt restriction, and treated with a
912:
804:
737:
729:
369:
208:
2337:
816:
280:
is responsible for sensing changes in calcium concentration and regulating the electrolyte with
3203:
3198:
3153:
3148:
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2977:
2706:
2184:
2140:
2132:
2091:
2083:
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1807:
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1759:
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1401:
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1233:
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917:
725:
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277:
66:
58:
3116:
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2122:
2075:
2041:
1936:
1849:
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1622:
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1573:
1526:
1482:
1474:
1435:
1245:
1229:
1185:
1175:
938:
921:
624:
315:
236:
232:
204:
42:
656:
and even death. As such it is considered to be the most dangerous electrolyte disturbance.
17:
3138:
3133:
2683:
1740:
Goldstein, David A. (1990), Walker, H. Kenneth; Hall, W. Dallas; Hurst, J. Willis (eds.),
1020:
1016:
518:
381:
311:
115:
3173:
2783:
2688:
2660:
2652:
2572:
1586:
1561:
1487:
1478:
1463:"Disturbances of sodium in critically ill adult neurologic patients: a clinical review"
1462:
1250:
1217:
1190:
1163:
728:. Excretion is the most common cause of hypokalemia and can be caused by diuretic use,
435:
293:
276:. The normal range for calcium concentration in the body is 8.5 - 10.5 mg/dL. The
55:
2440:
3261:
3208:
3106:
2778:
2665:
2628:
2618:
2585:
2577:
1162:
Alfarouk, Khalid O.; Ahmed, Samrein B. M.; Ahmed, Ahmed; et al. (7 April 2020).
1012:
958:
892:
884:
788:
699:
470:
373:
356:
111:
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1819:
1627:
1610:
1546:
3126:
3101:
3055:
2849:
2790:
2729:
1142:
1132:
865:
695:
690:
There are three mainstays of treatment of hyperkalemia. These are stabilization of
649:
644:
423:
385:
377:
344:
323:
196:
103:
2111:"A high prevalence of hypomagnesemia and hypermagnesemia in hospitalized patients"
2079:
1577:
2513:
1782:
Bove-Fenderson, Erin; Mannstadt, Michael (2018-10-01). "Hypocalcemic disorders".
1715:
Tintinalli, JE; Stapczynski, J; Ma, O; Yealy, DM; Meckler, GD; Cline, DM (2016).
3246:
3236:
3121:
2877:
2867:
2748:
1854:
1837:
1127:
853:
849:
711:
319:
273:
228:
200:
184:
107:
2045:
1940:
1795:
2938:
2896:
2614:
1439:
1137:
1008:
950:
772:
666:
653:
220:
71:
2136:
2087:
1948:
1898:
1863:
1803:
1241:
497:
Treat the underlying cause, which commonly includes increasing fluid intake.
461:
Treat the underlying cause, which commonly includes increasing fluid intake.
2721:
2487:
2483:
2127:
2110:
1741:
1180:
1122:
872:
595:
magnesium, or those with severe symptoms can receive intravenous magnesium.
505:
135:
123:
2095:
2053:
1956:
1906:
1871:
1811:
1763:
1636:
1595:
1538:
1496:
1447:
1259:
1199:
2144:
1885:
Powers, F. (September 1999). "The role of chloride in acid-base balance".
1530:
235:. Electrolytes have different functions, and an important one is to carry
3241:
2951:
2910:
2872:
2525:
1117:
962:
896:
833:
670:
180:
176:
172:
2466:
3050:
2236:
2066:
Van Laecke, Steven (2019-01-02). "Hypomagnesemia and hypermagnesemia".
941:. These usually do not occur until sodium levels fall below 120 mEq/L.
776:
702:, or a resin that causes potassium to be excreted in the fecal matter.
265:
156:
139:
1164:"The Interplay of Dysregulated pH and Electrolyte Imbalance in Cancer"
3039:
2770:
2478:
1396:
Walls, Ron M.; Hockberger, Robert S.; Gausche-Hill, Marianne (2018).
583:
306:
The most common causes of hypercalcemia are certain types of cancer,
269:
261:
240:
160:
131:
1974:"Hyperchloremia (High Chloride) - Managing Side Effects - Chemocare"
1784:
Best
Practice & Research Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism
1746:
Clinical
Methods: The History, Physical, and Laboratory Examinations
110:
in the body. They help to regulate heart and neurological function,
2109:
Wong, E. T.; Rude, R. K.; Singer, F. R.; Shaw, S. T. (March 1983).
1426:
Bockenhauer, D; Zieg, J (September 2014). "Electrolyte disorders".
1011:
generally occurs as phosphate. Good sources of phosphorus includes
219:
Electrolytes are important because they are what cells (especially
2006:"Hypochloremia (Low Chloride) - Managing Side Effects - Chemocare"
908:
244:
419:
2822:
2818:
2529:
347:
may be considered for rapid removal of calcium from the blood.
51:
1461:
Tisdall, M; Crocker, M; Watkiss, J; Smith, M (January 2006).
2181:
Tintinalli's
Emergency Medicine: A Comprehensive Study Guide
1717:
Tintinalli's
Emergency Medicine: A Comprehensive Study Guide
744:. Potassium can also be lost through vomiting and diarrhea.
27:
Abnormality in the concentration of electrolytes in the body
2258:"What We Eat In America (WWEIA) Database | Ag Data Commons"
1611:"[Pathophysiology of sodium disorders in children]"
665:
sample break down. Other common causes are kidney disease,
106:
in the body. Electrolytes play a vital role in maintaining
1398:
Rosen's
Emergency Medicine: Concepts and Clinical Practice
905:
syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion
2424:"Part 10.1: Life-Threatening Electrolyte Abnormalities"
1098:
Nuts and seeds (e.g., pumpkin seeds, almonds, peanuts)
840:. Some patients may have no obvious symptoms at all.
2456:
3224:
3189:
3087:
3018:
2895:
2886:
2856:
2769:
2720:
2697:
2674:
2651:
2563:
2460:
155:Calcium, magnesium, potassium, and sodium ions are
85:
65:
35:
2027:
2025:
1560:Dineen, R; Thompson, CJ; Sherlock, M (June 2017).
1400:. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier. pp. 1516â1532.
2282:"Blood Pressure : How to eat more potassium"
1421:
1419:
1417:
1023:, hemp seeds, fortified beverages, dried whey.
998:Savory snacks (e.g., chips, crackers, pretzels)
1562:"Hyponatraemia â presentations and management"
372:and vitamin D deficiency are common causes of
2834:
2541:
937:and include seizures, coma, and death due to
8:
1512:
1510:
1508:
1506:
159:(+), while chloride, and phosphate ions are
102:, is an abnormality in the concentration of
2396:"Office of Dietary Supplements - Magnesium"
2311:"Office of Dietary Supplements - Potassium"
2205:"2015-2020 Dietary Guidelines | health.gov"
418:. Most of the chloride in the body is from
2892:
2841:
2827:
2819:
2548:
2534:
2526:
2457:
76:
41:
32:
2439:
2338:"Office of Dietary Supplements - Calcium"
2126:
1853:
1626:
1609:Ălyarez L, E; GonzĂĄlez C, E (June 2014).
1585:
1486:
1249:
1234:10.5847/wjem.j.issn.1920-8642.2013.02.005
1189:
1179:
673:, and drugs that affect kidney function.
2229:"CDC - DHDSP - Top 10 Sources of Sodium"
422:(NaCl) in the diet. Chloride is part of
1467:Journal of Neurosurgical Anesthesiology
1154:
1038:Dark leafy greens (e.g., spinach, kale)
883:Hyponatremia has many causes including
509:magnesium levels in this narrow range.
130:involve abnormalities in the levels of
2174:
2115:American Journal of Clinical Pathology
1710:
1708:
1706:
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2168:
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2158:
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2154:
2000:
1998:
1968:
1966:
1929:European Journal of Internal Medicine
1922:
1920:
1918:
1916:
1831:
1829:
1664:
1662:
1660:
1658:
1656:
1654:
1652:
1650:
1648:
1646:
1287:
1285:
1283:
1281:
1279:
1277:
1275:
1273:
1271:
1269:
211:depending on the cause of imbalance.
7:
2643:Familial hypocalciuric hypercalcemia
1211:
1209:
838:nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
318:, excessive ingestion of vitamin D,
233:voltages across their cell membranes
2759:Hypokalemic sensory overstimulation
2434:(24_supplement). 13 December 2005.
1222:World Journal of Emergency Medicine
54:concentrations and charge across a
1479:10.1097/01.ana.0000191280.05170.0f
25:
2441:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.105.166563
2369:"Magnesium-Rich Food Information"
1101:Dark leafy greens (e.g., spinach)
2735:Hyperkalemic periodic paralysis
2603:Disorders of calcium metabolism
1836:Nagami, Glenn T. (2016-07-01).
1628:10.4067/S0370-41062014000300002
2806:Cerebral salt-wasting syndrome
2754:Hypokalemic periodic paralysis
2034:Advances in Clinical Chemistry
1887:Journal of Intravenous Nursing
1838:"Hyperchloremia â Why and how"
1786:. SI: Metabolic bone disease.
1748:(3rd ed.), Butterworths,
916:three factors: volume status,
1:
2183:. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
2080:10.1080/17843286.2018.1516173
1719:. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
1578:10.7861/clinmedicine.17-3-263
2235:. 2018-10-03. Archived from
1615:Revista chilena de pediatria
2916:WernickeâKorsakoff syndrome
2608:Hypercalcemia of malignancy
1855:10.1016/j.nefro.2016.04.001
376:. It can also be caused by
187:and electrolyte imbalance.
100:water-electrolyte imbalance
36:Waterâelectrolyte imbalance
18:Water-electrolyte imbalance
3289:
2046:10.1016/bs.acc.2015.10.002
1941:10.1016/j.ejim.2011.11.013
1796:10.1016/j.beem.2018.05.006
920:, urine sodium levels and
863:
786:
709:
642:
622:
611:
557:
516:
468:
433:
354:
291:
2921:Wernicke's encephalopathy
1440:10.1016/j.clp.2014.05.007
992:Cured meats and cold cuts
49:
40:
3268:Electrolyte disturbances
2637:Dystrophic calcification
2633:Metastatic calcification
809:hypothalamic dysfunction
2286:www.bloodpressureuk.org
1428:Clinics in Perinatology
1181:10.3390/cancers12040898
231:cells) use to maintain
2557:Electrolyte imbalances
935:central nervous system
901:psychogenic polydipsia
889:chronic kidney disease
742:renal tubular acidosis
3097:Electrolyte imbalance
2965:Pyridoxine deficiency
2939:Riboflavin deficiency
2128:10.1093/ajcp/79.3.348
2040:, Elsevier: 169â193,
1531:10.1542/pir.23-11-371
955:osmotic demyelination
734:diabetic ketoacidosis
635:in the blood stream.
380:, blood transfusion,
96:Electrolyte imbalance
3075:Vitamin K deficiency
3069:Vitamin E deficiency
3046:Vitamin D deficiency
3027:Vitamin A deficiency
2926:Korsakoff's syndrome
2598:Milk-alkali syndrome
2068:Acta Clinica Belgica
1519:Pediatrics in Review
560:Magnesium deficiency
2582:Symptoms and signs
813:sickle cell disease
416:extracellular fluid
308:hyperparathyroidism
282:parathyroid hormone
237:electrical impulses
3089:Mineral deficiency
2888:Vitamin deficiency
913:Pseudohyponatremia
821:Cushing's syndrome
805:diabetes insipidus
738:hyperaldosteronism
730:metabolic acidosis
726:endocrine diseases
384:intoxication, and
370:Hypoparathyroidism
209:refeeding syndrome
151:Anions and cations
3255:
3254:
3204:Failure to thrive
3199:Delayed milestone
3083:
3082:
3061:Harrison's groove
2991:Folate deficiency
2978:Biotin deficiency
2816:
2815:
2523:
2522:
2262:data.nal.usda.gov
2190:978-0-07-179476-3
1755:978-0-409-90077-4
1726:978-0-07-179476-3
1566:Clinical Medicine
1407:978-0-323-35479-0
1107:Fortified cereals
1035:Beans and lentils
918:plasma osmolality
895:, treatment with
807:, renal disease,
614:Hyperphosphatemia
608:Hyperphosphatemia
278:parathyroid gland
120:acidâbase balance
93:
92:
59:cellular membrane
30:Medical condition
16:(Redirected from
3280:
2893:
2843:
2836:
2829:
2820:
2623:Calcinosis cutis
2550:
2543:
2536:
2527:
2458:
2453:
2443:
2410:
2409:
2407:
2406:
2392:
2383:
2382:
2380:
2379:
2373:Cleveland Clinic
2365:
2352:
2351:
2349:
2348:
2334:
2325:
2324:
2322:
2321:
2307:
2301:
2300:
2298:
2297:
2288:. Archived from
2278:
2272:
2271:
2269:
2268:
2254:
2248:
2247:
2245:
2244:
2225:
2219:
2218:
2216:
2215:
2201:
2195:
2194:
2176:
2149:
2148:
2130:
2106:
2100:
2099:
2063:
2057:
2056:
2029:
2020:
2019:
2017:
2016:
2002:
1993:
1992:
1990:
1989:
1980:. Archived from
1970:
1961:
1960:
1924:
1911:
1910:
1882:
1876:
1875:
1857:
1833:
1824:
1823:
1779:
1773:
1772:
1771:
1770:
1737:
1731:
1730:
1712:
1641:
1640:
1630:
1606:
1600:
1599:
1589:
1557:
1551:
1550:
1514:
1501:
1500:
1490:
1458:
1452:
1451:
1423:
1412:
1411:
1393:
1264:
1263:
1253:
1213:
1204:
1203:
1193:
1183:
1159:
939:brain herniation
922:urine osmolality
773:total body water
625:Hypophosphatemia
619:Hypophosphatemia
316:pheochromocytoma
215:General function
205:brain herniation
175:abuse or severe
81:
80:
45:
33:
21:
3288:
3287:
3283:
3282:
3281:
3279:
3278:
3277:
3273:Causes of death
3258:
3257:
3256:
3251:
3220:
3185:
3079:
3014:
3007:
3000:
2987:
2974:
2961:
2948:
2935:
2907:
2882:
2859:
2852:
2847:
2817:
2812:
2765:
2716:
2693:
2670:
2647:
2559:
2554:
2524:
2519:
2518:
2469:
2422:
2419:
2414:
2413:
2404:
2402:
2394:
2393:
2386:
2377:
2375:
2367:
2366:
2355:
2346:
2344:
2336:
2335:
2328:
2319:
2317:
2309:
2308:
2304:
2295:
2293:
2280:
2279:
2275:
2266:
2264:
2256:
2255:
2251:
2242:
2240:
2227:
2226:
2222:
2213:
2211:
2203:
2202:
2198:
2191:
2178:
2177:
2152:
2108:
2107:
2103:
2065:
2064:
2060:
2031:
2030:
2023:
2014:
2012:
2004:
2003:
1996:
1987:
1985:
1972:
1971:
1964:
1926:
1925:
1914:
1884:
1883:
1879:
1835:
1834:
1827:
1781:
1780:
1776:
1768:
1766:
1756:
1742:"Serum Calcium"
1739:
1738:
1734:
1727:
1714:
1713:
1644:
1608:
1607:
1603:
1559:
1558:
1554:
1516:
1515:
1504:
1460:
1459:
1455:
1425:
1424:
1415:
1408:
1395:
1394:
1267:
1215:
1214:
1207:
1161:
1160:
1156:
1151:
1114:
1088:
1081:Canned sardines
1063:
1029:
1021:cottonseed meal
1017:instant pudding
1005:
979:
971:
969:Dietary sources
947:
930:
881:
868:
862:
846:
829:
817:Conn's syndrome
800:
791:
785:
768:
759:
750:
722:
714:
708:
688:
679:
662:
647:
641:
632:
627:
621:
616:
610:
605:
592:
579:
570:
562:
556:
547:
538:
529:
521:
519:Hypermagnesemia
515:
513:Hypermagnesemia
503:
495:
487:
478:
473:
467:
459:
451:
443:
438:
432:
412:
403:
394:
382:ethylene glycol
367:
359:
353:
341:
332:
312:hyperthyroidism
304:
296:
290:
257:
239:between cells.
217:
193:
169:
153:
148:
116:oxygen delivery
75:
31:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3286:
3284:
3276:
3275:
3270:
3260:
3259:
3253:
3252:
3250:
3249:
3244:
3239:
3234:
3228:
3226:
3222:
3221:
3219:
3218:
3217:
3216:
3206:
3201:
3195:
3193:
3187:
3186:
3184:
3183:
3178:
3177:
3176:
3174:Keshan disease
3166:
3161:
3156:
3151:
3146:
3141:
3136:
3131:
3130:
3129:
3124:
3119:
3114:
3109:
3104:
3093:
3091:
3085:
3084:
3081:
3080:
3078:
3077:
3071:
3065:
3064:
3063:
3058:
3053:
3042:
3036:
3035:
3034:
3022:
3020:
3016:
3015:
3013:
3012:
3011:
3010:
3005:
2998:
2995:
2994:
2993:
2985:
2982:
2981:
2980:
2972:
2969:
2968:
2967:
2959:
2956:
2955:
2954:
2946:
2943:
2942:
2941:
2933:
2930:
2929:
2928:
2923:
2918:
2913:
2905:
2901:
2899:
2890:
2884:
2883:
2881:
2880:
2875:
2870:
2864:
2862:
2858:Protein-energy
2854:
2853:
2848:
2846:
2845:
2838:
2831:
2823:
2814:
2813:
2811:
2810:
2809:
2808:
2803:
2798:
2788:
2787:
2786:
2784:Salt poisoning
2775:
2773:
2767:
2766:
2764:
2763:
2762:
2761:
2756:
2746:
2745:
2744:
2743:
2742:
2726:
2724:
2718:
2717:
2715:
2714:
2709:
2703:
2701:
2695:
2694:
2692:
2691:
2686:
2680:
2678:
2672:
2671:
2669:
2668:
2663:
2657:
2655:
2649:
2648:
2646:
2645:
2640:
2626:
2612:
2611:
2610:
2600:
2595:
2594:
2593:
2591:Trousseau sign
2588:
2580:
2575:
2569:
2567:
2561:
2560:
2555:
2553:
2552:
2545:
2538:
2530:
2521:
2520:
2517:
2516:
2505:
2490:
2470:
2465:
2464:
2462:
2461:Classification
2455:
2454:
2418:
2417:External links
2415:
2412:
2411:
2400:ods.od.nih.gov
2384:
2353:
2342:ods.od.nih.gov
2326:
2315:ods.od.nih.gov
2302:
2273:
2249:
2239:on 3 June 2015
2220:
2196:
2189:
2150:
2121:(3): 348â352.
2101:
2058:
2021:
1994:
1962:
1935:(3): 203â211.
1912:
1893:(5): 286â291.
1877:
1848:(4): 347â353.
1825:
1790:(5): 639â656.
1774:
1754:
1732:
1725:
1642:
1601:
1552:
1525:(11): 371â80.
1502:
1453:
1413:
1406:
1265:
1228:(2): 113â116.
1205:
1153:
1152:
1150:
1147:
1146:
1145:
1140:
1135:
1130:
1125:
1120:
1113:
1110:
1109:
1108:
1105:
1102:
1099:
1096:
1087:
1084:
1083:
1082:
1079:
1076:
1073:
1070:
1062:
1059:
1058:
1057:
1054:
1051:
1048:
1045:
1042:
1039:
1036:
1028:
1025:
1004:
1001:
1000:
999:
996:
993:
990:
987:
978:
975:
970:
967:
946:
943:
929:
926:
880:
877:
864:Main article:
861:
858:
845:
842:
828:
825:
799:
796:
787:Main article:
784:
781:
767:
764:
758:
755:
749:
746:
721:
718:
710:Main article:
707:
704:
700:loop diuretics
687:
684:
678:
675:
661:
658:
643:Main article:
640:
637:
631:
628:
623:Main article:
620:
617:
612:Main article:
609:
606:
604:
601:
591:
588:
578:
575:
569:
566:
558:Main article:
555:
554:Hypomagnesemia
552:
546:
543:
537:
534:
528:
525:
517:Main article:
514:
511:
502:
499:
494:
491:
486:
483:
477:
474:
469:Main article:
466:
463:
458:
455:
450:
447:
442:
439:
436:Hyperchloremia
434:Main article:
431:
430:Hyperchloremia
428:
411:
408:
402:
399:
393:
390:
366:
363:
355:Main article:
352:
349:
340:
337:
331:
328:
303:
300:
294:Hypercalcaemia
292:Main article:
289:
286:
268:, function of
256:
253:
216:
213:
192:
189:
168:
165:
152:
149:
147:
144:
91:
90:
87:
83:
82:
69:
63:
62:
56:semi-permeable
47:
46:
38:
37:
29:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3285:
3274:
3271:
3269:
3266:
3265:
3263:
3248:
3245:
3243:
3240:
3238:
3235:
3233:
3230:
3229:
3227:
3223:
3215:
3212:
3211:
3210:
3209:Short stature
3207:
3205:
3202:
3200:
3197:
3196:
3194:
3192:
3188:
3182:
3179:
3175:
3172:
3171:
3170:
3167:
3165:
3162:
3160:
3157:
3155:
3152:
3150:
3147:
3145:
3142:
3140:
3137:
3135:
3132:
3128:
3125:
3123:
3120:
3118:
3115:
3113:
3110:
3108:
3105:
3103:
3100:
3099:
3098:
3095:
3094:
3092:
3090:
3086:
3076:
3072:
3070:
3066:
3062:
3059:
3057:
3054:
3052:
3049:
3048:
3047:
3043:
3041:
3037:
3033:
3032:Bitot's spots
3030:
3029:
3028:
3024:
3023:
3021:
3017:
3009:
3002:
3001:
2996:
2992:
2989:
2988:
2983:
2979:
2976:
2975:
2970:
2966:
2963:
2962:
2957:
2953:
2950:
2949:
2944:
2940:
2937:
2936:
2931:
2927:
2924:
2922:
2919:
2917:
2914:
2912:
2909:
2908:
2903:
2902:
2900:
2898:
2894:
2891:
2889:
2885:
2879:
2876:
2874:
2871:
2869:
2866:
2865:
2863:
2861:
2855:
2851:
2844:
2839:
2837:
2832:
2830:
2825:
2824:
2821:
2807:
2804:
2802:
2799:
2797:
2794:
2793:
2792:
2789:
2785:
2782:
2781:
2780:
2777:
2776:
2774:
2772:
2768:
2760:
2757:
2755:
2752:
2751:
2750:
2747:
2741:
2738:
2737:
2736:
2733:
2732:
2731:
2728:
2727:
2725:
2723:
2719:
2713:
2710:
2708:
2705:
2704:
2702:
2700:
2696:
2690:
2687:
2685:
2682:
2681:
2679:
2677:
2673:
2667:
2664:
2662:
2659:
2658:
2656:
2654:
2650:
2644:
2641:
2638:
2634:
2630:
2629:Calcification
2627:
2624:
2620:
2619:Calciphylaxis
2616:
2613:
2609:
2606:
2605:
2604:
2601:
2599:
2596:
2592:
2589:
2587:
2586:Chvostek sign
2584:
2583:
2581:
2579:
2576:
2574:
2571:
2570:
2568:
2566:
2562:
2558:
2551:
2546:
2544:
2539:
2537:
2532:
2531:
2528:
2515:
2511:
2510:
2506:
2504:
2500:
2499:
2495:
2491:
2489:
2485:
2481:
2480:
2476:
2472:
2471:
2468:
2463:
2459:
2451:
2447:
2442:
2437:
2433:
2429:
2425:
2421:
2420:
2416:
2401:
2397:
2391:
2389:
2385:
2374:
2370:
2364:
2362:
2360:
2358:
2354:
2343:
2339:
2333:
2331:
2327:
2316:
2312:
2306:
2303:
2292:on 2020-02-04
2291:
2287:
2283:
2277:
2274:
2263:
2259:
2253:
2250:
2238:
2234:
2230:
2224:
2221:
2210:
2206:
2200:
2197:
2192:
2186:
2182:
2175:
2173:
2171:
2169:
2167:
2165:
2163:
2161:
2159:
2157:
2155:
2151:
2146:
2142:
2138:
2134:
2129:
2124:
2120:
2116:
2112:
2105:
2102:
2097:
2093:
2089:
2085:
2081:
2077:
2073:
2069:
2062:
2059:
2055:
2051:
2047:
2043:
2039:
2035:
2028:
2026:
2022:
2011:
2010:chemocare.com
2007:
2001:
1999:
1995:
1984:on 2020-03-27
1983:
1979:
1978:chemocare.com
1975:
1969:
1967:
1963:
1958:
1954:
1950:
1946:
1942:
1938:
1934:
1930:
1923:
1921:
1919:
1917:
1913:
1908:
1904:
1900:
1896:
1892:
1888:
1881:
1878:
1873:
1869:
1865:
1861:
1856:
1851:
1847:
1843:
1839:
1832:
1830:
1826:
1821:
1817:
1813:
1809:
1805:
1801:
1797:
1793:
1789:
1785:
1778:
1775:
1765:
1761:
1757:
1751:
1747:
1743:
1736:
1733:
1728:
1722:
1718:
1711:
1709:
1707:
1705:
1703:
1701:
1699:
1697:
1695:
1693:
1691:
1689:
1687:
1685:
1683:
1681:
1679:
1677:
1675:
1673:
1671:
1669:
1667:
1665:
1663:
1661:
1659:
1657:
1655:
1653:
1651:
1649:
1647:
1643:
1638:
1634:
1629:
1624:
1621:(3): 269â80.
1620:
1616:
1612:
1605:
1602:
1597:
1593:
1588:
1583:
1579:
1575:
1572:(3): 263â69.
1571:
1567:
1563:
1556:
1553:
1548:
1544:
1540:
1536:
1532:
1528:
1524:
1520:
1513:
1511:
1509:
1507:
1503:
1498:
1494:
1489:
1484:
1480:
1476:
1472:
1468:
1464:
1457:
1454:
1449:
1445:
1441:
1437:
1434:(3): 575â90.
1433:
1429:
1422:
1420:
1418:
1414:
1409:
1403:
1399:
1392:
1390:
1388:
1386:
1384:
1382:
1380:
1378:
1376:
1374:
1372:
1370:
1368:
1366:
1364:
1362:
1360:
1358:
1356:
1354:
1352:
1350:
1348:
1346:
1344:
1342:
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1257:
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1243:
1239:
1235:
1231:
1227:
1223:
1219:
1212:
1210:
1206:
1201:
1197:
1192:
1187:
1182:
1177:
1173:
1169:
1165:
1158:
1155:
1148:
1144:
1141:
1139:
1136:
1134:
1131:
1129:
1126:
1124:
1121:
1119:
1116:
1115:
1111:
1106:
1103:
1100:
1097:
1094:
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1092:
1085:
1080:
1077:
1074:
1071:
1068:
1067:
1066:
1060:
1055:
1052:
1049:
1046:
1043:
1040:
1037:
1034:
1033:
1032:
1026:
1024:
1022:
1018:
1014:
1013:baking powder
1010:
1007:In minerals,
1002:
997:
994:
991:
988:
985:
984:
983:
976:
974:
968:
966:
964:
960:
959:heart failure
956:
952:
944:
942:
940:
936:
927:
925:
923:
919:
914:
910:
906:
902:
898:
894:
893:liver disease
890:
886:
885:heart failure
878:
876:
874:
867:
859:
857:
855:
851:
843:
841:
839:
835:
826:
824:
822:
818:
814:
810:
806:
797:
795:
790:
789:Hypernatremia
783:Hypernatremia
782:
780:
778:
774:
765:
763:
756:
754:
747:
745:
743:
739:
735:
731:
727:
719:
717:
713:
705:
703:
701:
697:
693:
692:cardiac cells
685:
683:
676:
674:
672:
668:
659:
657:
655:
651:
646:
638:
636:
629:
626:
618:
615:
607:
602:
600:
596:
589:
587:
585:
576:
574:
567:
565:
561:
553:
551:
544:
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535:
533:
526:
524:
520:
512:
510:
507:
500:
498:
492:
490:
484:
482:
475:
472:
471:Hypochloremia
465:Hypochloremia
464:
462:
456:
454:
448:
446:
440:
437:
429:
427:
425:
421:
417:
409:
407:
400:
398:
391:
389:
387:
383:
379:
375:
371:
364:
362:
358:
357:Hypocalcaemia
350:
348:
346:
338:
336:
329:
327:
325:
321:
317:
313:
309:
301:
299:
295:
288:Hypercalcemia
287:
285:
283:
279:
275:
271:
267:
263:
254:
252:
248:
246:
242:
238:
234:
230:
226:
222:
214:
212:
210:
206:
202:
198:
190:
188:
186:
182:
178:
174:
166:
164:
162:
158:
150:
145:
143:
141:
137:
133:
127:
125:
121:
117:
113:
112:fluid balance
109:
105:
101:
97:
88:
84:
79:
73:
70:
68:
64:
60:
57:
53:
48:
44:
39:
34:
19:
3096:
3056:Osteomalacia
2860:malnutrition
2850:Malnutrition
2556:
2507:
2492:
2473:
2431:
2427:
2403:. Retrieved
2399:
2376:. Retrieved
2372:
2345:. Retrieved
2341:
2318:. Retrieved
2314:
2305:
2294:. Retrieved
2290:the original
2285:
2276:
2265:. Retrieved
2261:
2252:
2241:. Retrieved
2237:the original
2232:
2223:
2212:. Retrieved
2208:
2199:
2180:
2118:
2114:
2104:
2074:(1): 41â47.
2071:
2067:
2061:
2037:
2033:
2013:. Retrieved
2009:
1986:. Retrieved
1982:the original
1977:
1932:
1928:
1890:
1886:
1880:
1845:
1841:
1787:
1783:
1777:
1767:, retrieved
1745:
1735:
1716:
1618:
1614:
1604:
1569:
1565:
1555:
1522:
1518:
1473:(1): 57â63.
1470:
1466:
1456:
1431:
1427:
1397:
1225:
1221:
1171:
1167:
1157:
1143:Sports drink
1133:Malnutrition
1089:
1064:
1030:
1006:
980:
972:
948:
931:
882:
869:
866:Hyponatremia
860:Hyponatremia
847:
830:
801:
792:
769:
760:
751:
723:
715:
696:hemodialysis
689:
680:
663:
650:Hyperkalemia
648:
645:Hyperkalemia
639:Hyperkalemia
633:
597:
593:
580:
571:
563:
548:
539:
530:
522:
504:
496:
488:
479:
460:
452:
444:
424:gastric acid
413:
404:
395:
386:pancreatitis
378:malnutrition
374:hypocalcemia
368:
360:
351:Hypocalcemia
345:hemodialysis
342:
333:
324:tuberculosis
305:
297:
266:muscle cells
258:
249:
218:
197:malnutrition
195:People with
194:
191:Malnutrition
183:can lead to
170:
154:
128:
104:electrolytes
99:
95:
94:
89:hypocalcemia
3247:Underweight
3237:Weight loss
2878:Catabolysis
2868:Kwashiorkor
2428:Circulation
2233:www.cdc.gov
1128:Dehydration
899:diuretics,
854:hypotension
850:tachycardia
712:Hypokalemia
706:Hypokalemia
654:arrhythmias
320:sarcoidosis
274:coagulation
201:arrhythmias
185:dehydration
108:homeostasis
50:Diagram of
3262:Categories
3214:Idiopathic
3164:Molybdenum
3008:deficiency
2897:B vitamins
2615:Calcinosis
2405:2020-03-27
2378:2020-03-25
2347:2020-03-27
2320:2020-03-27
2296:2020-03-27
2267:2020-03-27
2243:2020-03-27
2214:2020-03-27
2209:health.gov
2015:2020-03-27
1988:2020-03-27
1842:NefrologĂa
1769:2020-03-11
1617:(Review).
1174:(4): 898.
1149:References
1138:Starvation
1095:Epsom salt
1009:phosphorus
951:hypertonic
667:cell death
72:Nephrology
3144:Manganese
3122:Potassium
3117:Phosphate
3112:Magnesium
3004:Vitamin B
2796:Hypotonic
2722:Potassium
2699:Phosphate
2676:Magnesium
2137:0002-9173
2088:1784-3286
1949:1879-0828
1899:0896-5846
1864:0211-6995
1804:1521-690X
1242:1920-8642
1123:Alkalosis
1086:Magnesium
1027:Potassium
1003:Phosphate
945:Treatment
873:Hypotonic
844:Treatment
834:diuretics
757:Treatment
686:Treatment
630:Potassium
603:Phosphate
590:Treatment
545:Treatment
506:Magnesium
501:Magnesium
493:Treatment
457:Treatment
401:Treatment
339:Treatment
136:potassium
124:excreting
67:Specialty
3242:Cachexia
3232:Anorexia
3181:Fluorine
3169:Selenium
3159:Chromium
3107:Chloride
2952:Pellagra
2911:Beriberi
2873:Marasmus
2801:Isotonic
2653:Chloride
2450:79026294
2096:30220246
2054:26975973
1957:22385875
1907:10776193
1872:27267918
1820:53951967
1812:30449546
1764:21250094
1637:25697243
1596:28572229
1547:40511233
1539:12415016
1497:16369141
1448:25155728
1260:25215103
1200:32272658
1118:Acidosis
1112:See also
1047:Potatoes
1044:Apricots
963:diuretic
928:Symptoms
897:thiazide
827:Symptoms
748:Symptoms
677:Symptoms
671:acidosis
577:Symptoms
536:Symptoms
485:Symptoms
449:Symptoms
410:Chloride
392:Symptoms
330:Symptoms
181:vomiting
177:diarrhea
173:laxative
171:Chronic
146:Overview
3225:General
3102:Calcium
3051:Rickets
2565:Calcium
2514:D014883
2145:6829504
1587:6297575
1488:1513666
1251:4129840
1191:7226178
1168:Cancers
1061:Calcium
1053:Bananas
777:osmosis
270:enzymes
262:neurons
255:Calcium
241:Kidneys
157:cations
140:calcium
3191:Growth
3154:Iodine
3149:Copper
3127:Sodium
3040:Scurvy
2771:Sodium
2740:equine
2448:
2187:
2143:
2135:
2094:
2086:
2052:
1955:
1947:
1905:
1897:
1870:
1862:
1818:
1810:
1802:
1762:
1752:
1723:
1635:
1594:
1584:
1545:
1537:
1495:
1485:
1446:
1404:
1258:
1248:
1240:
1198:
1188:
1072:Cheese
1069:Yogurt
1050:Squash
1041:Apples
995:Cheese
986:Breads
977:Sodium
909:enemas
903:, and
879:Causes
798:Causes
766:Sodium
740:, and
720:Causes
660:Causes
584:tetany
568:Causes
527:Causes
476:Causes
441:Causes
365:Causes
322:, and
302:Causes
272:, and
229:muscle
167:Causes
161:anions
132:sodium
86:Causes
74:
3019:Other
2446:S2CID
1816:S2CID
1543:S2CID
1104:Beans
1056:Dates
989:Soups
819:, or
245:sweat
225:heart
221:nerve
207:, or
163:(â).
98:, or
3139:Zinc
3134:Iron
2779:High
2730:High
2707:High
2684:High
2661:High
2573:High
2509:MeSH
2498:9-CM
2185:ISBN
2141:PMID
2133:ISSN
2092:PMID
2084:ISSN
2050:PMID
1953:PMID
1945:ISSN
1903:PMID
1895:ISSN
1868:PMID
1860:ISSN
1808:PMID
1800:ISSN
1760:PMID
1750:ISBN
1721:ISBN
1633:PMID
1592:PMID
1535:PMID
1493:PMID
1444:PMID
1402:ISBN
1256:PMID
1238:ISSN
1196:PMID
1078:Tofu
1075:Milk
420:salt
227:and
3073:K:
3067:E:
3044:D:
3038:C:
3025:A:
2791:Low
2749:Low
2712:Low
2689:Low
2666:Low
2578:Low
2503:276
2494:ICD
2488:E87
2484:E86
2475:ICD
2436:doi
2432:112
2123:doi
2076:doi
2042:doi
1937:doi
1850:doi
1792:doi
1623:doi
1582:PMC
1574:doi
1527:doi
1483:PMC
1475:doi
1436:doi
1246:PMC
1230:doi
1186:PMC
1176:doi
852:or
836:or
179:or
138:or
52:ion
3264::
3006:12
2999:12
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2621:,
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264:,
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118:,
114:,
2997:B
2986:9
2984:B
2973:7
2971:B
2960:6
2958:B
2947:3
2945:B
2934:2
2932:B
2906:1
2904:B
2842:e
2835:t
2828:v
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2631:(
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20:)
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