Water vapor - Knowledge (XXG)

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which shuttles forth and back between both. The upper temperature level is given by the soil or water surface of the Earth, which absorbs the incoming sun radiation and warms up, evaporating water. The moist and warm air at the ground is lighter than its surroundings and rises up to the upper limit of the troposphere. There the water molecules radiate their thermal energy into outer space, cooling down the surrounding air. The upper atmosphere constitutes the lower temperature level of the atmospheric thermodynamic engine. The water vapor in the now cold air condenses out and falls down to the ground in the form of rain or snow. The now heavier cold and dry air sinks down to ground as well; the atmospheric thermodynamic engine thus establishes a vertical convection, which transports heat from the ground into the upper atmosphere, where the water molecules can radiate it to outer space. Due to the Earth's rotation and the resulting Coriolis forces, this vertical atmospheric convection is also converted into a horizontal convection, in the form of cyclones and anticyclones, which transport the water evaporated over the oceans into the interior of the continents, enabling vegetation to grow.

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as a whole is constantly depleted by precipitation. At the same time it is constantly replenished by evaporation, most prominently from oceans, lakes, rivers, and moist earth. Other sources of atmospheric water include combustion, respiration, volcanic eruptions, the transpiration of plants, and various other biological and geological processes. At any given time there is about 1.29 x 10 litres (3.4 x 10 gal.) of water in the atmosphere. The atmosphere holds 1 part in 2500 of the fresh water, and 1 part in 100,000 of the total water on Earth. The mean global content of water vapor in the atmosphere is roughly sufficient to cover the surface of the planet with a layer of liquid water about 25 mm deep. The mean annual precipitation for the planet is about 1 metre, a comparison which implies a rapid turnover of water in the air – on average, the residence time of a water molecule in the

1730: 1562: 216: 1977: 1879:, where the easterly trade winds from each hemisphere converge and produce near-daily thunderstorms and clouds. Farther from the equator, water vapor concentrations are high in the hemisphere experiencing summer and low in the one experiencing winter. Another pattern that shows up in the time series is that water vapor amounts over land areas decrease more in winter months than adjacent ocean areas do. This is largely because air temperatures over land drop more in the winter than temperatures over the ocean. Water vapor condenses more rapidly in colder air. 1487: 1810: 1176: 207:. The temperatures of the atmosphere and the water surface determine the equilibrium vapor pressure; 100% relative humidity occurs when the partial pressure of water vapor is equal to the equilibrium vapor pressure. This condition is often referred to as complete saturation. Humidity ranges from 0 grams per cubic metre in dry air to 30 grams per cubic metre (0.03 ounce per cubic foot) when the vapor is saturated at 30 °C. 1992: 4705: 4694: 4727: 266: 4422: 375: 1482:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\log _{10}\left(p\right)=&-7.90298\left({\frac {373.16}{T}}-1\right)+5.02808\log _{10}{\frac {373.16}{T}}\\&-1.3816\times 10^{-7}\left(10^{11.344\left(1-{\frac {T}{373.16}}\right)}-1\right)\\&+8.1328\times 10^{-3}\left(10^{-3.49149\left({\frac {373.16}{T}}-1\right)}-1\right)\\&+\log _{10}\left(1013.246\right)\end{aligned}}} 1947:, the barrier that was created by the atmospheric water vapor will ultimately break down from the stored electrical potential energy. This energy will be released to a local oppositely charged region, in the form of lightning. The strength of each discharge is directly related to the atmospheric permittivity, capacitance, and the source's charge generating ability. 236: 4716: 1875:(MODIS) sensor on NASA's Aqua satellite. The most noticeable pattern in the time series is the influence of seasonal temperature changes and incoming sunlight on water vapor. In the tropics, a band of extremely humid air wobbles north and south of the equator as the seasons change. This band of humidity is part of the 987: 1579:. The percentage of water vapor in surface air varies from 0.01% at -42 °C (-44 °F) to 4.24% when the dew point is 30 °C (86 °F). Over 99% of atmospheric water is in the form of vapour, rather than liquid water or ice, and approximately 99.13% of the water vapour is contained in the 1721:

Atmospheric concentration of water vapour is highly variable between locations and times, from 10 ppmv in the coldest air to 5% (50 000 ppmv) in humid tropical air, and can be measured with a combination of land observations, weather balloons and satellites. The water content of the atmosphere

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A number of chemical reactions have water as a product. If the reactions take place at temperatures higher than the dew point of the surrounding air the water will be formed as vapor and increase the local humidity, if below the dew point local condensation will occur. Typical reactions that result

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Water vapor is the "working medium" of the atmospheric thermodynamic engine which transforms heat energy from sun irradiation into mechanical energy in the form of winds. Transforming thermal energy into mechanical energy requires an upper and a lower temperature level, as well as a working medium

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Under certain conditions, such as when the boiling temperature of water is reached, a net evaporation will always occur during standard atmospheric conditions regardless of the percent of relative humidity. This immediate process will dispel massive amounts of water vapor into a cooler atmosphere.

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or equivalent amount of water that could be produced if all the water vapor in the column were to condense. The lowest amounts of water vapor (0 centimeters) appear in yellow, and the highest amounts (6 centimeters) appear in dark blue. Areas of missing data appear in shades of gray. The maps are

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in air has been exceeded. When water vapor condenses onto a surface, a net warming occurs on that surface. The water molecule brings heat energy with it. In turn, the temperature of the atmosphere drops slightly. In the atmosphere, condensation produces clouds, fog and precipitation (usually only

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In the US, the National Weather Service measures the actual rate of evaporation from a standardized "pan" open water surface outdoors, at various locations nationwide. Others do likewise around the world. The US data is collected and compiled into an annual evaporation map. The measurements range

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satellite images shows the distribution of atmospheric water vapor relative to the oceans, clouds and continents of the Earth. Vapor surrounds the planet but is unevenly distributed. The image loop on the right shows monthly average of water vapor content with the units are given in centimeters,

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Cottini, V.; Nixon, C. A.; Jennings, D. E.; Anderson, C. M.; Gorius, N.; Bjoraker, G.L.; Coustenis, A.; Teanby, N. A.; Achterberg, R. K.; Bézard, B.; de Kok, R.; Lellouch, E.; Irwin, P. G. J.; Flasar, F. M.; Bampasidis, G. (2012). "Water vapor in Titan's

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Episodes of surface geothermal activity, such as volcanic eruptions and geysers, release variable amounts of water vapor into the atmosphere. Such eruptions may be large in human terms, and major explosive eruptions may inject exceptionally large masses of water exceptionally high into the

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if placed in a larger region of dry air. As the temperature rises the proportion of water vapor in the air increases, and its buoyancy will increase. The increase in buoyancy can have a significant atmospheric impact, giving rise to powerful, moisture rich, upward air currents when the air

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Generally, radar signals lose strength progressively the farther they travel through the troposphere. Different frequencies attenuate at different rates, such that some components of air are opaque to some frequencies and transparent to others. Radio waves used for broadcasting and other

2313: 3424:. Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (Report). Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, US: Cambridge University Press. 2021. pp. 33−144 . 3511:

Gulev SK, Thorne PW, Ahn J, Dentener FJ, Domingues CM, Gerland S, Gong G, Kaufman DS, Nnamchi HC, Quaas J, Rivera JA, Sathyendranath S, Smith SL, Trewin B, von Shuckmann K, Vose RS (2021). "2.3.1.3.3 Total column water vapour". In Masson-Delmotte V, Zhai P (eds.).

172:. The aggregate measurement of this kinetic energy transfer is defined as thermal energy and occurs only when there is differential in the temperature of the water molecules. Liquid water that becomes water vapor takes a parcel of heat with it, in a process called 474:

glues cure with exposure to atmospheric humidity) or forms changing such as where anhydrous chemicals may absorb enough vapor to form a crystalline structure or alter an existing one, sometimes resulting in characteristic color changes that can be used for

4057:; Zakharov, Vladimir; Lee, Seungwon; von Allmen, Paul; Carry, Benoît; Teyssier, David; Marston, Anthony; Müller, Thomas; Crovisier, Jacques; Barucci, M. Antonietta; Moreno, Raphael (2014). "Localized sources of water vapour on the dwarf planet (1) Ceres". 1137:

the water vapor is heated to form steam so that its vapor pressure is greater than the surrounding air pressure in order to maintain the shape of a theoretical "steam balloon", which yields approximately 60% the lift of helium and twice that of hot air.

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satellite designed to study chemicals in interstellar gas clouds, made the discovery with an onboard spectrometer. Most likely, "the water vapor was vaporized from the surfaces of orbiting comets." Other exoplanets with evidence of water vapor include

1898:(GOME-2). The weaker water vapor absorption lines in the blue spectral range and further into the UV up to its dissociation limit around 243 nm are mostly based on quantum mechanical calculations and are only partly confirmed by experiments. 1054:

in air is very low at 0 °C. The red line on the chart to the right is the maximum concentration of water vapor expected for a given temperature. The water vapor concentration increases significantly as the temperature rises, approaching 100%

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of the air. During times of low humidity, static discharge is quick and easy. During times of higher humidity, fewer static discharges occur. Permittivity and capacitance work hand in hand to produce the megawatt outputs of lightning.

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This can have an effect on respiration. In very warm air (35 °C) the proportion of water vapor is large enough to give rise to the stuffiness that can be experienced in humid jungle conditions or in poorly ventilated buildings.

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is the process by which water molecules directly leave the surface of ice without first becoming liquid water. Sublimation accounts for the slow mid-winter disappearance of ice and snow at temperatures too low to cause melting.

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The formula is valid from about −50 to 102 °C; however there are a very limited number of measurements of the vapor pressure of water over supercooled liquid water. There are a number of other formulae which can be used.

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water vapor would indicate a similar distribution in other planetary systems. Water vapor can also be indirect evidence supporting the presence of extraterrestrial liquid water in the case of some planetary mass objects.

1973:. The presence of water vapor has been detected in the atmospheres of all seven extraterrestrial planets in the Solar System, the Earth's Moon, and the moons of other planets, although typically in only trace amounts. 176:. The amount of water vapor in the air determines how frequently molecules will return to the surface. When a net evaporation occurs, the body of water will undergo a net cooling directly related to the loss of water. 1146:

The amount of water vapor in an atmosphere is constrained by the restrictions of partial pressures and temperature. Dew point temperature and relative humidity act as guidelines for the process of water vapor in the

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from under 30 to over 120 inches per year. Formulas can be used for calculating the rate of evaporation from a water surface such as a swimming pool. In some countries, the evaporation rate far exceeds the

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are possible from satellites above planetary atmospheres. Direct methods may use electronic transducers, moistened thermometers or hygroscopic materials measuring changes in physical properties or dimensions.

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There are several mechanisms of cooling by which condensation occurs: 1) Direct loss of heat by conduction or radiation. 2) Cooling from the drop in air pressure which occurs with uplift of air, also known as

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layers of snow have sublimed, leaving behind whatever non-volatile materials they had contained. This is extremely valuable to certain scientific disciplines, a dramatic example being the collection of

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Global mean water vapour is about 0.25% of the atmosphere by mass and also varies seasonally, in terms of contribution to atmospheric pressure between 2.62 hPa in July and 2.33 hPa in December.

1181: 2055:, are typically considered to "sprout jets and plumes." According to one of the scientists, "The lines are becoming more and more blurred between comets and asteroids." Scientists studying 151:

Water vapor, which reacts to temperature changes, is referred to as a 'feedback', because it amplifies the effect of forces that initially cause the warming. So, it is a greenhouse gas.

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has a disproportionately high warming effect. Oxidation of methane is also a major source of water vapour in the stratosphere, and adds about 15% to methane's global warming effect.

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Thalman, Ryan; Volkamer, Rainer (2013). "Temperature dependent absorption cross-sections of O2-O2 collision pairs between 340 and 630 nm and at atmospherically relevant pressure".

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Water vapor reflects radar to a lesser extent than do water's other two phases. In the form of drops and ice crystals, water acts as a prism, which it does not do as an individual

1166:) of water vapor in air varies with temperature of the air and water vapor mixture. A variety of empirical formulas exist for this quantity; the most used reference formula is the 77:. Water vapor is transparent, like most constituents of the atmosphere. Under typical atmospheric conditions, water vapor is continuously generated by evaporation and removed by 1924:

as found in Earth's atmosphere. The ability of clouds to hold massive amounts of electrical energy is directly related to the amount of water vapor present in the local system.

358:, after which the broken surface is freeze-etched, being eroded by exposure to vacuum until it shows the required level of detail. This technique can display protein molecules, 422:. Air can be lifted by mountains, which deflect the air upward, by convection, and by cold and warm fronts. 3) Advective cooling - cooling due to horizontal movement of air. 1109:. The total air pressure must remain constant. The presence of water vapor in the air naturally dilutes or displaces the other air components as its concentration increases. 1076:

both being greater than the molar mass of water. Thus, any volume of dry air will sink if placed in a larger volume of moist air. Also, a volume of moist air will rise or be

4763: 1714:. In the absence of nuclei, condensation will only occur at much lower temperatures. Under persistent condensation or deposition, cloud droplets or snowflakes form, which 1681:, being well-mixed in the atmosphere, tend to rise above water vapour. The absorption and emission of both compounds contribute to Earth's emission to space, and thus the 168:. Each individual water molecule which transitions between a more associated (liquid) and a less associated (vapor/gas) state does so through the absorption or release of 1704:, possibly more than once. Scientists thus distinguish between non-condensable (driving) and condensable (driven) greenhouse gases, i.e., the above water vapor feedback. 1796: 4618: 4168:

Sridharan, R.; Ahmed, S. M.; Dasa, Tirtha Pratim; Sreelathaa, P.; Pradeepkumara, P.; Naika, Neha; Supriya, Gogulapati (2010). "'Direct' evidence for water (H

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for the Earth, the albedo is 0.306 and the distance is 1.000 AU, so the expected temperature is 254 K or -19 C – significantly below the freezing point of water!

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of an air parcel is the temperature to which it must cool before water vapor in the air begins to condense. Condensation in the atmosphere forms cloud droplets.

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shows this effect to a unique degree because it is by far the continent with the lowest rate of precipitation on Earth. As a result, there are large areas where

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Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

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atmosphere, but as a percentage of total atmospheric water, the role of such processes is trivial. The relative concentrations of the various gases emitted by

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air is almost fully at equilibrium with water vapor at the body temperature. In the cold air the exhaled vapor quickly condenses, thus showing up as a fog or

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Also, a net condensation of water vapor occurs on surfaces when the temperature of the surface is at or below the dew point temperature of the atmosphere.

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varies considerably according to the site and according to the particular event at any one site. However, water vapor is consistently the commonest

2081:, an extrasolar planet in the constellation Pegasus, provides the first evidence of atmospheric water vapor beyond the Solar System. A star called 1151:. Energy input, such as sunlight, can trigger more evaporation on an ocean surface or more sublimation on a chunk of ice on top of a mountain. The 1068:

At the same temperature, a column of dry air will be denser or heavier than a column of air containing any water vapor, the molar mass of diatomic

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In a similar fashion other chemical or physical reactions can take place in the presence of water vapor resulting in new chemicals forming such as

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Provides water for plants and animals: Water vapour gets converted to rain and snow that serve as a natural source of water for plants and animals.

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will have a lower density than dry air. At max. saturation (i. e. rel. humidity = 100% at 0 °C) the density will go down to 28.51 g/mol.

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Tsiaras, Angelos; et al. (September 11, 2019). "Water vapour in the atmosphere of the habitable-zone eight-Earth-mass planet K2-18 b".

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of water droplets and as condensation or frost on surfaces. Forcibly condensing these water droplets from exhaled breath is the basis of

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Measuring the quantity of water vapor in a medium can be done directly or remotely with varying degrees of accuracy. Remote methods such

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and may indicate the presence of substantial quantities of subsurface water. Plumes of water vapor have been detected on Jupiter's moon

488: 3903: 1795: 3147:: "The equilibrium temperature of the Earth is 255 K, well-below the freezing point of water, but because of its atmosphere, the 3252:"Comparison of precipitable water vapor derived from radiosonde, GPS, and Moderate-Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer measurements" 437:

Determines climatic conditions: Excess water vapor in the air produces rain, fog, snow etc. Hence, it determines climatic conditions.

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After a cloud, for instance, has started its way to becoming a lightning generator, atmospheric water vapor acts as a substance (or

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As water vapor absorbs light in the visible spectral range, its absorption can be used in spectroscopic applications (such as

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Vogt, Steven S.; Butler, R. Paul; Rivera, E. J.; Haghighipour, N.; Henry, Gregory W.; Williamson, Michael H. (2010).

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to vapor. Knowing a comet's distance from the sun, astronomers may deduce the comet's water content from its brilliance.

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STP conditions imply a temperature of 0 °C, at which the ability of water to become vapor is very restricted. Its

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temperature and sea temperature reaches 25 °C or above. This phenomenon provides a significant driving force for

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contribution to air pressure increases, lowering the partial pressure contribution of the other atmospheric gases

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Artist's illustration of the signatures of water in exoplanet atmospheres detectable by instruments such as the

215: 112:, has been important for cooking, and as a major component in energy production and transport systems since the 4962: 4814: 4550: 4479: 4345: 2237: 2132: 1595:, all of which count among the most significant elements of what we experience as weather. Less obviously, the 1098: 904: 403: 3059:"Water Vapour and Methane Coupling in the Stratosphere observed with SCIAMACHY Solar Occultation Measurements" 1682: 1600: 1599:, which is released to the atmosphere whenever condensation occurs, is one of the most important terms in the 1886:) to determine the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere. This is done operationally, e.g. from the Global 1820:

global mean atmospheric water vapor in atm-cm (centimeters of water in an atmospheric column if it condensed)

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expresses medium confidence in increase of total water vapour at about 1-2% per decade; it is expected to

1858:; however, the existence of water vapor in the atmosphere causes the atmosphere to act as a giant prism. 5217: 5064: 4957: 4947: 4910: 4570: 1943:

its electrical energy. Over a certain amount of time, if the cloud continues to generate and store more

1936: 3314:"Observed Global and Regional Variation in Earth's Water Vapor: Focus on the Weather-Climate Interface" 2347: 2137: 1576: 1101:

in plants and animals. Its contribution to the pressure, increases as its concentration increases. Its

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and warming feedback, contributing more to total greenhouse effect than non-condensable gases such as

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levels. Conversely, adding water vapor at high altitudes has a disproportionate impact, which is why

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Clavin, Whitney; Chou, Felicia; Weaver, Donna; Villard, Ray; Johnson, Michele (September 24, 2014).

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is the amount of water vapor in the air. The vapor content of air is measured with devices known as

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Atmospheric water vapor content is expressed using various measures. These include vapor pressure,

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Whenever a water molecule leaves a surface and diffuses into a surrounding gas, it is said to have

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In the absence of other greenhouse gases, Earth's water vapor would condense to the surface; this

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ref:WMO Guide to Meteorological Instruments and Methods of Observation No. 8 2006, (pages 1.12–1)

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often called primary source, national independent standards developed in US, UK, EU & Japan

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Cook, Jia-Rui C.; Gutro, Rob; Brown, Dwayne; Harrington, J.D.; Fohn, Joe (December 12, 2013).

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22,000 ft., which is considered the upper limit for clouds containing supercooled liquid water

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These maps show the average amount of water vapor in a column of atmosphere in a given month.(

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Being a component of Earth's hydrosphere and hydrologic cycle, it is particularly abundant in

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Held, Isaac M.; Soden, Brian J. (November 2000). "Water vapor feedback and global warming".

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Evidence for increasing amounts of stratospheric water vapor over time in Boulder, Colorado.

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Sublimation is important in the preparation of certain classes of biological specimens for

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Water vapor will only condense onto another surface when that surface is cooler than the

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Water vapor has also been confirmed outside the Solar System. Spectroscopic analysis of

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separate from condensation which leads to the direct formation of ice from water vapor.

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was found to have a ring of vast quantities of water vapor circling the aging, massive

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Feldman DR, Collins WD, Gero PJ, Torn MS, Mlawer EJ, Shippert TR (February 25, 2015).

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Controls evaporation: Excess water vapor in the air decreases the rate of evaporation.

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Water in Earth's atmosphere is not merely below its boiling point (100 °C), but

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Gaseous water represents a small but environmentally significant constituent of the

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in air but has lower vapor pressure than that of air. When water vapor is used as a

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that are left exposed in unparalleled numbers and excellent states of preservation.

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Lloyd, Robin. "Water Vapor, Possible Comets, Found Orbiting Star", 11 July 2001,

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on both local and global scales. For example, latent heat release in atmospheric

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de Pater, I., Lissauer, J., Planetary Sciences, Cambridge University Press, 2007

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Water vapor is a relatively common atmospheric constituent, present even in the

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https://web.stanford.edu/~ajlucas/The%20Atmosphere%20as%20a%20Heat%20Engine.pdf

374: 5153: 5125: 5039: 4834: 4819: 4799: 4195: 3977: 3653: 3628: 3430: 2344:"Geotechnical, Rock and Water Resources Library - Grow Resource - Evaporation" 2202: 2004: 1980: 1969:. Its signature has been detected in the atmospheres of the Sun, occurring in 1844: 1832: 1639: 1635: 1604: 1523: 998: 912: 818: 617: 568: 523: 335: 331: 196: 86: 3074: 2778: 2479: 1545:

depends on the moist air conditions. Non-human comfort situations are called

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Affected by temperature. Adversely affected by prolonged high concentrations

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http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary/search?id=lyman-alpha-hygrometer1

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signals to an extent that depends on whether it is vapor, liquid or solid.

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hypothesize that if water moves about the planet, it does so as vapor.

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Free Windows Program, Water Vapor Pressure Units Conversion Calculator

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O) in the sunlit lunar ambience from CHACE on MIP of Chandrayaan I".

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containing gas mixtures, or as a result of reactions with oxidizers.

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Gleick, P. H. (1996). "Water Resources". In Schneider, S. H. (ed.).

2905: 1769:; as a rule, it comprises more than 60% of total emissions during a 986: 3960: 3842:"Herschel Telescope Detects Water on Dwarf Planet – Release 14-021" 2019:

and are similar to plumes of water vapor detected on Saturn's moon

1654:, unlike e. g., carbon dioxide and methane. Water vapor thus has a 1646:. When combined with its quantity, water vapor then has a relevant 4852: 4515: 4456: 4441: 4382: 4233: 2242: 2162: 2063: 1990: 1975: 1895: 1887: 1836: 1813: 1808: 1791: 1728: 1659: 1560: 1056: 1010: 411: 373: 136: 109: 58: 3250:

Li, Zhenhong; Muller, Jan-Peter; Cross, Paul (October 29, 2003).

4829: 3922: 3846: 3768: 2090: 2086: 2056: 1607:

is directly responsible for powering destructive storms such as

1538: 1527: 463: 4745: 4355: 4212:

planet in the habitable zone of the nearby M3V star Gliese 581"

3918:"NASA Telescopes Find Clear Skies and Water Vapor on Exoplanet" 3312:

Forsythe, John; Haar, Thomas H; Cronk, Heather (May 21, 2014).

2983:"Jets' contrails contribute to heat-trapping high-level clouds" 1685:. This greenhouse forcing is directly observable, via distinct 1155:

between condensation and evaporation gives the quantity called

4862: 4446: 2157: 2067: 1707: 1122: 259: 82: 74: 42: 3629:"Vibration–rotation transition dipoles from first principles" 3464:"The Mass of the Atmosphere: A Constraint on Global Analyses" 1587:

of water vapor to the liquid or ice phase is responsible for

4420: 3814: 3746: 3144: 1689:

versus water vapor, and observed to be rising with rising CO

993:

Water vapor and dry air density calculations at 0 °C:

3345:

International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project (2010).

2834:"Climate scientists confirm elusive tropospheric hot spot" 1170:

for the SVP over liquid water below zero degrees Celsius:

978:

of 0.6 kPa and the much lower density of 0.0048 g/L.

81:. It is less dense than most of the other constituents of 2391:"Summary of Results of all Pool Evaporation Rate Studies" 2066:

tails comes largely from water vapor. On approach to the

1741:

such as increased water vapor concentration) or inhibit (

4351: 1658:

a fraction of that of the bulk atmosphere, as the water

3295:. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 817–823. 1537:

Controlling water vapor in air is a key concern in the

4004:

stratosphere from Cassini CIRS far-infrared spectra".

1670:, the lowest layer of the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide ( 1016:

The average molar mass of air (approx. 78% nitrogen, N

3764:"Hubble Sees Evidence of Water Vapor at Jupiter Moon" 3008:

Ryan, A; Mackenzie, A; et al. (September 2012).

2961:"Jet contrails alter average daily temperature range" 1496:, temperature of the moist air, is given in units of 1179: 3867:

Jakosky, Bruce, et al. "Water on Mars", April 2004,

3462:

Trenberth, Kevin E; Smith, Lesley (March 15, 2005).

2751:

Tutorial on airborne microwave temperature profilers

466:

on iron or steel, polymerization occurring (certain

5172: 5134: 4986: 4896: 4843: 4777: 4654: 4586: 4513: 4472: 4432: 4389: 4140:Sigurdsson, Haraldur; Houghton, B. F. (2000). 3757: 3755: 3520:(Report). Cambridge University Press. pp. 52–3 2838:

ARC Centre of Excellence for Climate System Science

1920:, usually clouds are the real generators of static 612:prone to becoming saturated/contaminated over time 589:prone to becoming saturated/contaminated over time 3538: 1481: 4331:Calculate the condensation of your exhaled breath 3057:Noël, Stefan; Weigel, Katja; et al. (2017). 3835: 3833: 2799: 1927:The amount of water vapor directly controls the 1835:frequencies, water in the atmosphere attenuates 2811:Norris, G. (December 2, 2013). "Icy Surprise". 2769: 2767: 2534:. World Water rescue Foundation. Archived from 2393:. R. L. Martin & Associates. Archived from 2007:are thought to exist on the surface of several 1642:its freezing point (0 °C), due to water's 4326:National Science Digital Library – Water Vapor 3104:Myhre, Gunnar; et al. (January 9, 2007). 1890:Monitoring Experiment (GOME) spectrometers on 4757: 4367: 1939:) that decreases the ability of the cloud to 1873:Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer 1839:signals. In addition, atmospheric water will 8: 4906:Convective available potential energy (CAPE) 4341:AGU Water Vapor in the Climate System – 1995 3397:"The Study of Earth as an Integrated System" 3256:Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres 1710:and clouds form through condensation around 199:. The measurements are usually expressed as 4273:Weaver, C. P.; Ramanathan, V. (1995). 4205:"The Lick-Carnegie Exoplanet Survey: a 3.1 3307: 3305: 3216:Atmospheric Science: An Introductory Survey 2460:Annual Review of Energy and the Environment 1780:, mixing ratio, dew point temperature, and 1121:Water vapor has lower density than that of 1089:weather systems (typhoons and hurricanes). 294:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 4764: 4750: 4742: 4374: 4360: 4352: 3365: 3363: 3213:Wallace, John M.; Hobbs, Peter V. (2006). 1851:communication experience the same effect. 1539:heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning 494: 350:. Typically the specimens are prepared by 89:currents that can lead to clouds and fog. 4232: 4035: 3959: 3734: 3722: 3710: 3652: 3487: 3429: 3275: 3129: 3073: 3033: 2888: 2682: 2492: 2330: 1455: 1407: 1395: 1377: 1329: 1314: 1296: 1266: 1257: 1226: 1188: 1180: 1178: 314:Learn how and when to remove this message 2863:Sherwood, S; Nishant, N (May 11, 2015). 2747:"Chapter 5:Atmospheric emission sources" 2652: 2650: 3561: 3549: 2616: 2604: 2507:"Why dry air is heavier than humid air" 2284: 1534:, an evolving medical diagnostic test. 933: 378:Clouds, formed by condensed water vapor 4053:Küppers, Michael; O'Rourke, Laurence; 3407:from the original on November 2, 2016. 2775:"The Carbon Dioxide Greenhouse Effect" 2704: 2702: 1028:at standard temperature and pressure ( 447:in water formation are the burning of 4313:from the original on October 9, 2022. 4268:from the original on October 9, 2022. 4106:CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 3840:Harrington, J.D. (January 22, 2014). 3222:(2nd ed.). Elsevier. p. 8. 414:and snow are examples of deposition. 366:with very low degrees of distortion. 187:Evaporative cooling is restricted by 7: 4715: 3514:Changing State of the Climate System 3326:from the original on October 9, 2022 3085:from the original on October 9, 2022 3014:International Journal of Climatology 2813:Aviation Week & Space Technology 2047:. The finding is unexpected because 2039:The detection was made by using the 1005:, as calculated from the sum of the 292:adding citations to reliable sources 4868:Convective condensation level (CCL) 4336:Water Vapor Myths: A Brief Tutorial 3670:Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics 3372:"Water vapor in the climate system" 3293:Encyclopedia of Climate and Weather 2585:"Water Vapor Pressure Formulations" 2559:"Steam Balloons and Steam Airships" 1916:production in the atmosphere. From 1623:bond which strongly absorbs in the 878:slow, slower at lower temperatures 606:2 to 0.05 Hz (temp dependant) 5074:Equivalent potential temperature ( 25: 4926:Conditional symmetric instability 4772:Meteorological data and variables 4144:. San Diego, CA: Academic Press. 3633:Journal of Molecular Spectroscopy 3066:Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 2505:Williams, Jack (August 5, 2013). 1718:when they reach a critical mass. 972:standard temperature and pressure 4873:Lifting condensation level (LCL) 4725: 4714: 4704: 4703: 4692: 3725:, pp. 172–173, 182, 414–416 3539:Sigurdsson & Houghton (2000) 2314:"What is the greenhouse effect?" 2128:Condensation in aerosol dynamics 1912:Water vapor plays a key role in 1757:by around 7% per °C of warming. 264: 234: 214: 4858:Cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) 4283:Journal of Geophysical Research 2472:10.1146/annurev.energy.25.1.441 1871:based on data collected by the 1097:Water vapor is a by-product of 966:Water vapor is lighter or less 123:as well as every planet in the 5121:Wet-bulb potential temperature 4963:Level of free convection (LFC) 3906:. Retrieved December 15, 2006. 2869:Environmental Research Letters 2840:. May 14, 2015. Archived from 2800:Weaver & Ramanathan (1995) 2657:Lacis, A, et al. (2013). 2003:Geological formations such as 1877:Intertropical Convergence Zone 1615:. Water vapor is an important 1162:The maximum partial pressure ( 949:typical measurement frequency 907:Requires frequent calibration 512:typical measurement frequency 1: 5164:Pressure-gradient force (PGF) 5086:Sea surface temperature (SST) 4921:Convective momentum transport 4594:Extraterrestrial liquid water 4117:. Princeton University Press. 2890:10.1088/1748-9326/10/5/054007 1961:Water vapor is common in the 1957:Extraterrestrial liquid water 1619:owing to the presence of the 547:Satellite-based spectroscopy 4978:Bulk Richardson number (BRN) 4163:(2nd ed.). McGraw-Hill. 4113:McElroy, Michael B. (2002). 4028:10.1016/j.icarus.2012.06.014 3577:. Global Maps. July 31, 2018 3370:Mockler SB (December 1995). 3110:Geophysical Research Letters 2070:, the ice many comets carry 2011:ejecting water vapor due to 875:moderate (with corrections) 348:scanning electron microscopy 143:. Likewise the detection of 69:of liquid water or from the 5182:Maximum potential intensity 4948:Free convective layer (FCL) 4911:Convective inhibition (CIN) 4251:10.1088/0004-637X/723/1/954 4175:Planetary and Space Science 4115:The Atmospheric Environment 4108:(73rd ed.). CRC Press. 3627:Tennyson, Jonathan (2014). 2684:10.3402/tellusb.v65i0.19734 1983:erupting on Jupiter's moon 1788:Radar and satellite imaging 1683:planetary greenhouse effect 1597:latent heat of vaporization 5239: 5208:Atmospheric thermodynamics 5116:Wet-bulb globe temperature 4973:Maximum parcel level (MPL) 4131:Shadowitz, Albert (1975). 4055:Bockelée-Morvan, Dominique 2045:Herschel Space Observatory 1954: 1905: 1568: 1556: 489:electromagnetic absorption 5096:Thermodynamic temperature 5030:Forest fire weather index 4687: 4418: 4220:The Astrophysical Journal 4196:10.1016/j.pss.2010.02.013 4159:Skolnik, Merrill (1990). 4142:Encyclopedia of Volcanoes 4133:The Electromagnetic Field 4126:. Addison Wesley Longman. 4122:Schroeder, David (2000). 3978:10.1038/s41550-019-0878-9 3654:10.1016/j.jms.2014.01.012 3431:10.1017/9781009157896.002 2714:American Chemical Society 2630:"Atmospheric Water Vapor" 1735:effects of global warming 1712:cloud condensation nuclei 1601:atmospheric energy budget 1532:exhaled breath condensate 1093:Respiration and breathing 940:temperature range (degC) 594:Warmed capacitive sensor 503:temperature range (degC) 393:cloud condensation nuclei 386:temperature, or when the 108:. Use of water vapor, as 61:can be produced from the 5018:Equivalent temperature ( 4931:Convective temperature ( 4815:Surface weather analysis 3795:ESA/Hubble Press Release 3075:10.5194/acp-18-4463-2018 2238:Saturation vapor density 2035:, largest object in the 1965:and by extension, other 1824:Because water molecules 1591:, rain, snow, and other 5065:Potential temperature ( 4810:Surface solar radiation 4188:2010P&SS...58..947S 3747:Sridharan et al. (2010) 3598:"GOME-2/MetOp-A at DLR" 2413:Encyclopædia Britannica 2409:"climate - meteorology" 2213:Kinetic theory of gases 1908:Van de Graaff generator 1726:is about 9 to 10 days. 1644:highly polar attraction 770:Piezoelectric sorption 701:Absorption spectroscopy 694:Humidity indicator card 638:prone to contamination 388:water vapor equilibrium 5055:Relative humidity (RH) 4943:Equilibrium level (EL) 4916:Convective instability 4604:Planetary oceanography 4426: 2634:Remote Sensing Systems 2293:"What is Water Vapor?" 2041:far-infrared abilities 2000: 1997:Hubble Space Telescope 1988: 1821: 1806: 1746: 1566: 1483: 1157:vapor partial pressure 990: 379: 189:atmospheric conditions 27:Gaseous phase of water 4424: 3892:on February 18, 2013. 3826:Küppers et al. (2014) 3815:Cottini et al. (2012) 3184:"Surface Temperature" 1994: 1979: 1955:Further information: 1812: 1803:click for more detail 1800: 1732: 1569:Further information: 1564: 1557:In Earth's atmosphere 1504:is given in units of 1484: 1064:At equal temperatures 1024:; 1% other gases) is 989: 962:Impact on air density 377: 114:industrial revolution 96:, where it acts as a 5144:Atmospheric pressure 5111:Wet-bulb temperature 5013:Dry-bulb temperature 5008:Dew point depression 4667:Ocean stratification 4500:Doubly labeled water 4104:Lide, David (1992). 3886:rosetta.jpl.nasa.gov 3882:"Anatomy of a Comet" 3564:, pp. 2.44–2.54 3277:10.1029/2003JD003372 3131:10.1029/2006GL027472 2781:on November 11, 2016 2228:Microwave radiometer 2193:Heat of vaporization 1902:Lightning generation 1737:can either enhance ( 1177: 1168:Goff-Gratch equation 391:when facilitated by 288:improve this section 129:astronomical objects 53:of water within the 5106:Virtual temperature 5091:Temperature anomaly 4785:Adiabatic processes 4672:Lake stratification 4655:Physical parameters 4296:1995JGR...10011585W 4290:(D6): 11585–11591. 4243:2010ApJ...723..954V 4081:10.1038/nature12918 4073:2014Natur.505..525K 4020:2012Icar..220..855C 3970:2019NatAs...3.1086T 3682:2013PCCP...1515371T 3645:2014JMoSp.298....1T 3608:on October 17, 2017 3489:10.1175/JCLI-3299.1 3480:2005JCli...18..864T 3419:"Technical Summary" 3268:2003JGRD..108.4651L 3122:2007GeoRL..34.1807M 3026:2012IJCli..32.1745R 2930:10.1038/nature14240 2922:2015Natur.519..339F 2881:2015ERL....10e4007S 2675:2013TellB..6519734L 2619:, p. 36 example 4.1 2511:The Washington Post 1702:has likely happened 1666:, primarily in the 1571:Atmosphere of Earth 1164:saturation pressure 1009:of its constituent 673:Cobalt(II) chloride 426:Importance and Uses 242:Electron micrograph 174:evaporative cooling 4878:Precipitable water 4619:List of Candidates 4480:Deuterium-depleted 4427: 3713:, pp. 165–171 3690:10.1039/C3CP50968K 3676:(37): 15.371–381. 3468:Journal of Climate 3376:AGU Special Report 3166:The Astronomy Cafe 3151:warms the surface" 3145:Vogt et al. (2010) 2607:, p. 34, Fig. 4.3a 2565:on August 30, 2010 2557:Goodey, Thomas J. 2397:on March 24, 2008. 2153:Evaporative cooler 2138:Earth's atmosphere 2062:The brilliance of 2001: 1989: 1945:static electricity 1868:precipitable water 1822: 1807: 1771:subaerial eruption 1747: 1743:negative feedbacks 1739:positive feedbacks 1567: 1479: 1477: 1142:General discussion 991: 968:dense than dry air 583:2 to 0.05 Hz 524:Sling psychrometer 442:Chemical reactions 380: 133:natural satellites 94:Earth's atmosphere 18:Water condensation 5190: 5189: 5159:Pressure gradient 4968:Lifted index (LI) 4739: 4738: 4679:Ocean temperature 4304:10.1029/95jd00770 4067:(7484): 525–527. 3954:(12): 1086–1091. 3451:on July 21, 2022. 3239:on July 28, 2018. 3229:978-0-12-732951-2 3149:greenhouse effect 3068:(18): 4463–4476. 3020:(11): 1745–1753. 2916:(7543): 339–343. 2538:on April 16, 2013 2350:on April 12, 2008 2173:Gibbs free energy 2148:Equation of state 2118:Atmospheric river 1967:planetary systems 1798: 1782:relative humidity 1778:specific humidity 1687:spectral features 1609:tropical cyclones 1541:(HVAC) industry. 1415: 1337: 1274: 1234: 1125:and is therefore 959: 958: 866:(Cow Peritoneum) 864:Goldbeater's skin 812:Moisture analysis 788:Moisture analysis 764:Moisture analysis 740:Moisture analysis 643:Lithium chloride 420:adiabatic cooling 324: 323: 316: 244:of freeze-etched 205:relative humidity 201:specific humidity 16:(Redirected from 5230: 5203:Greenhouse gases 4766: 4759: 4752: 4743: 4729: 4718: 4717: 4707: 4706: 4696: 4599:Asteroidal water 4587:Extraterrestrial 4376: 4369: 4362: 4353: 4314: 4312: 4279: 4269: 4267: 4236: 4216: 4199: 4164: 4155: 4136: 4127: 4118: 4109: 4100: 4049: 4039: 4037:2060/20140010836 3990: 3989: 3963: 3947:Nature Astronomy 3941: 3935: 3934: 3932: 3930: 3913: 3907: 3900: 3894: 3893: 3888:. Archived from 3878: 3872: 3865: 3859: 3858: 3856: 3854: 3837: 3828: 3823: 3817: 3812: 3806: 3805: 3803: 3801: 3787: 3781: 3780: 3778: 3776: 3759: 3750: 3744: 3738: 3735:Shadowitz (1975) 3732: 3726: 3723:Shadowitz (1975) 3720: 3714: 3711:Shadowitz (1975) 3708: 3702: 3701: 3665: 3659: 3658: 3656: 3624: 3618: 3617: 3615: 3613: 3604:. Archived from 3602:atmos.eoc.dlr.de 3593: 3587: 3586: 3584: 3582: 3571: 3565: 3559: 3553: 3547: 3541: 3536: 3530: 3529: 3527: 3525: 3508: 3502: 3501: 3491: 3459: 3453: 3452: 3450: 3444:. Archived from 3433: 3423: 3415: 3409: 3408: 3393: 3387: 3386: 3384: 3382: 3367: 3358: 3357: 3355: 3353: 3342: 3336: 3335: 3333: 3331: 3325: 3318: 3309: 3300: 3299: 3288: 3282: 3281: 3279: 3247: 3241: 3240: 3238: 3232:. Archived from 3221: 3210: 3204: 3201: 3195: 3194: 3180: 3174: 3173: 3172:on May 10, 2004. 3168:. Archived from 3158: 3152: 3142: 3136: 3135: 3133: 3101: 3095: 3094: 3092: 3090: 3084: 3077: 3063: 3054: 3048: 3047: 3037: 3035:10.1002/joc.2392 3005: 2999: 2998: 2996: 2994: 2985:. Archived from 2978: 2972: 2971: 2969: 2967: 2956: 2950: 2949: 2901: 2895: 2894: 2892: 2860: 2854: 2853: 2851: 2849: 2844:on April 4, 2019 2830: 2824: 2823: 2808: 2802: 2797: 2791: 2790: 2788: 2786: 2777:. Archived from 2771: 2762: 2761: 2759: 2757: 2742: 2736: 2731: 2725: 2724: 2722: 2720: 2706: 2697: 2696: 2686: 2654: 2645: 2644: 2642: 2640: 2626: 2620: 2614: 2608: 2602: 2596: 2595: 2593: 2591: 2581: 2575: 2574: 2572: 2570: 2561:. Archived from 2554: 2548: 2547: 2545: 2543: 2528: 2522: 2521: 2519: 2517: 2502: 2496: 2493:Schroeder (2000) 2490: 2484: 2483: 2455: 2449: 2448: 2446: 2444: 2430: 2424: 2423: 2421: 2419: 2405: 2399: 2398: 2387: 2381: 2380: 2378: 2376: 2366: 2360: 2359: 2357: 2355: 2346:. Archived from 2340: 2334: 2331:Schroeder (2000) 2328: 2322: 2321: 2310: 2304: 2303: 2301: 2299: 2289: 2223:Latent heat flux 2178:Gibbs phase rule 1987:(artist concept) 1951:Extraterrestrial 1861:A comparison of 1799: 1503: 1495: 1488: 1486: 1485: 1480: 1478: 1474: 1460: 1459: 1444: 1440: 1436: 1429: 1428: 1427: 1423: 1416: 1408: 1385: 1384: 1360: 1356: 1352: 1345: 1344: 1343: 1339: 1338: 1330: 1304: 1303: 1279: 1275: 1267: 1262: 1261: 1246: 1242: 1235: 1227: 1207: 1193: 1192: 1103:partial pressure 1027: 1004: 846:air/other gases 603:moderate to low 534:low to moderate 495: 455:in air or other 408:phase transition 319: 312: 308: 305: 299: 268: 260: 238: 218: 121:solar atmosphere 21: 5238: 5237: 5233: 5232: 5231: 5229: 5228: 5227: 5193: 5192: 5191: 5186: 5168: 5130: 5080: 5024: 5002: 4982: 4937: 4892: 4839: 4773: 4770: 4740: 4735: 4683: 4650: 4582: 4509: 4468: 4428: 4416: 4385: 4380: 4322: 4317: 4310: 4277: 4272: 4265: 4214: 4211: 4202: 4171: 4167: 4158: 4152: 4139: 4130: 4124:Thermal Physics 4121: 4112: 4103: 4052: 4002: 3998: 3993: 3943: 3942: 3938: 3928: 3926: 3915: 3914: 3910: 3901: 3897: 3880: 3879: 3875: 3866: 3862: 3852: 3850: 3839: 3838: 3831: 3824: 3820: 3813: 3809: 3799: 3797: 3789: 3788: 3784: 3774: 3772: 3761: 3760: 3753: 3745: 3741: 3733: 3729: 3721: 3717: 3709: 3705: 3667: 3666: 3662: 3626: 3625: 3621: 3611: 3609: 3596:Loyola, Diego. 3595: 3594: 3590: 3580: 3578: 3573: 3572: 3568: 3560: 3556: 3548: 3544: 3537: 3533: 3523: 3521: 3510: 3509: 3505: 3461: 3460: 3456: 3448: 3442: 3421: 3417: 3416: 3412: 3395: 3394: 3390: 3380: 3378: 3369: 3368: 3361: 3351: 3349: 3344: 3343: 3339: 3329: 3327: 3323: 3316: 3311: 3310: 3303: 3290: 3289: 3285: 3249: 3248: 3244: 3236: 3230: 3219: 3212: 3211: 3207: 3202: 3198: 3188:Astronomy Notes 3182: 3181: 3177: 3160: 3159: 3155: 3143: 3139: 3103: 3102: 3098: 3088: 3086: 3082: 3061: 3056: 3055: 3051: 3007: 3006: 3002: 2992: 2990: 2989:on May 19, 2015 2980: 2979: 2975: 2965: 2963: 2958: 2957: 2953: 2903: 2902: 2898: 2862: 2861: 2857: 2847: 2845: 2832: 2831: 2827: 2810: 2809: 2805: 2798: 2794: 2784: 2782: 2773: 2772: 2765: 2755: 2753: 2745:Gary, Bruce L. 2744: 2743: 2739: 2732: 2728: 2718: 2716: 2708: 2707: 2700: 2656: 2655: 2648: 2638: 2636: 2628: 2627: 2623: 2615: 2611: 2603: 2599: 2589: 2587: 2583: 2582: 2578: 2568: 2566: 2556: 2555: 2551: 2541: 2539: 2530: 2529: 2525: 2515: 2513: 2504: 2503: 2499: 2491: 2487: 2457: 2456: 2452: 2442: 2440: 2432: 2431: 2427: 2417: 2415: 2407: 2406: 2402: 2389: 2388: 2384: 2374: 2372: 2368: 2367: 2363: 2353: 2351: 2342: 2341: 2337: 2329: 2325: 2312: 2311: 2307: 2297: 2295: 2291: 2290: 2286: 2282: 2277: 2258:Supersaturation 2233:Phase of matter 2143:Eddy covariance 2108: 1959: 1953: 1910: 1904: 1792: 1790: 1692: 1675: 1573: 1559: 1543:Thermal comfort 1501: 1493: 1476: 1475: 1464: 1451: 1442: 1441: 1406: 1402: 1391: 1390: 1386: 1373: 1358: 1357: 1322: 1318: 1310: 1309: 1305: 1292: 1277: 1276: 1253: 1225: 1221: 1211: 1197: 1184: 1175: 1174: 1144: 1135:thermal airship 1119: 1095: 1066: 1025: 1023: 1020:; 21% oxygen, O 1019: 1002: 984: 964: 898:high frequency 722:Aluminum oxide 609:medium to high 485: 444: 428: 372: 362:structures and 356:freeze-fracture 320: 309: 303: 300: 285: 269: 258: 253: 252: 251: 250: 249: 239: 231: 230: 225:in Antarctica ( 219: 162: 157: 139:and even large 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 5236: 5234: 5226: 5225: 5223:Psychrometrics 5220: 5215: 5213:Forms of water 5210: 5205: 5195: 5194: 5188: 5187: 5185: 5184: 5178: 5176: 5170: 5169: 5167: 5166: 5161: 5156: 5151: 5146: 5140: 5138: 5132: 5131: 5129: 5128: 5123: 5118: 5113: 5108: 5103: 5101:Vapor pressure 5098: 5093: 5088: 5083: 5078: 5071: 5062: 5057: 5052: 5047: 5042: 5037: 5032: 5027: 5022: 5015: 5010: 5005: 5000: 4992: 4990: 4984: 4983: 4981: 4980: 4975: 4970: 4965: 4960: 4955: 4950: 4945: 4940: 4935: 4928: 4923: 4918: 4913: 4908: 4902: 4900: 4894: 4893: 4891: 4890: 4885: 4880: 4875: 4870: 4865: 4860: 4855: 4849: 4847: 4841: 4840: 4838: 4837: 4832: 4827: 4822: 4817: 4812: 4807: 4802: 4797: 4792: 4787: 4781: 4779: 4775: 4774: 4771: 4769: 4768: 4761: 4754: 4746: 4737: 4736: 4734: 4733: 4722: 4711: 4700: 4688: 4685: 4684: 4682: 4681: 4676: 4675: 4674: 4669: 4662:Stratification 4658: 4656: 4652: 4651: 4649: 4648: 4647: 4646: 4641: 4636: 4631: 4623: 4622: 4621: 4616: 4611: 4606: 4601: 4590: 4588: 4584: 4583: 4581: 4580: 4575: 4574: 4573: 4568: 4558: 4553: 4548: 4547: 4546: 4541: 4531: 4526: 4520: 4518: 4511: 4510: 4508: 4507: 4502: 4497: 4492: 4487: 4482: 4476: 4474: 4470: 4469: 4467: 4466: 4465: 4464: 4454: 4449: 4444: 4438: 4436: 4430: 4429: 4419: 4417: 4415: 4414: 4409: 4404: 4399: 4393: 4391: 4387: 4386: 4381: 4379: 4378: 4371: 4364: 4356: 4350: 4349: 4343: 4338: 4333: 4328: 4321: 4320:External links 4318: 4316: 4315: 4270: 4227:(1): 954–965. 4209: 4200: 4182:(6): 947–950. 4169: 4165: 4161:Radar Handbook 4156: 4150: 4137: 4135:. McGraw-Hill. 4128: 4119: 4110: 4101: 4050: 4014:(2): 855–862. 3999: 3997: 3994: 3992: 3991: 3936: 3908: 3895: 3873: 3860: 3829: 3818: 3807: 3782: 3751: 3739: 3727: 3715: 3703: 3660: 3619: 3588: 3566: 3562:Skolnik (1990) 3554: 3552:, p. 23.5 3550:Skolnik (1990) 3542: 3531: 3503: 3474:(6): 864–875. 3454: 3440: 3410: 3403:. NASA. 2016. 3388: 3359: 3337: 3301: 3283: 3242: 3228: 3205: 3196: 3175: 3153: 3137: 3096: 3049: 3000: 2973: 2951: 2896: 2855: 2825: 2803: 2792: 2763: 2737: 2726: 2698: 2646: 2621: 2617:McElroy (2002) 2609: 2605:McElroy (2002) 2597: 2576: 2549: 2532:"Humidity 101" 2523: 2497: 2485: 2466:(1): 441–475. 2450: 2425: 2400: 2382: 2361: 2335: 2323: 2305: 2283: 2281: 2278: 2276: 2275: 2273:Vapor pressure 2270: 2265: 2263:Thermodynamics 2260: 2255: 2250: 2245: 2240: 2235: 2230: 2225: 2220: 2215: 2210: 2205: 2200: 2195: 2190: 2185: 2183:Greenhouse gas 2180: 2175: 2170: 2165: 2160: 2155: 2150: 2145: 2140: 2135: 2130: 2125: 2120: 2115: 2109: 2107: 2104: 1952: 1949: 1903: 1900: 1789: 1786: 1690: 1673: 1617:greenhouse gas 1558: 1555: 1490: 1489: 1473: 1470: 1467: 1463: 1458: 1454: 1450: 1447: 1445: 1443: 1439: 1435: 1432: 1426: 1422: 1419: 1414: 1411: 1405: 1401: 1398: 1394: 1389: 1383: 1380: 1376: 1372: 1369: 1366: 1363: 1361: 1359: 1355: 1351: 1348: 1342: 1336: 1333: 1328: 1325: 1321: 1317: 1313: 1308: 1302: 1299: 1295: 1291: 1288: 1285: 1282: 1280: 1278: 1273: 1270: 1265: 1260: 1256: 1252: 1249: 1245: 1241: 1238: 1233: 1230: 1224: 1220: 1217: 1214: 1212: 1210: 1206: 1203: 1200: 1196: 1191: 1187: 1183: 1182: 1143: 1140: 1118: 1115: 1107:(Dalton's Law) 1094: 1091: 1065: 1062: 1061: 1060: 1048: 1037:Avogadro's Law 1033: 1021: 1017: 1014: 983: 980: 976:vapor pressure 963: 960: 957: 956: 953: 950: 947: 941: 938: 935: 932: 931: 928: 925: 923: 920: 918: 916: 909: 908: 902: 899: 896: 894: 892: 890: 886: 885: 882: 879: 876: 873: 870: 867: 860: 859: 857: 854: 852: 849: 847: 844: 840: 839: 836: 835:low to medium 833: 830: 827: 824: 821: 815: 814: 808: 805: 803: 800: 798: 795: 791: 790: 784: 781: 779: 776: 774: 771: 767: 766: 760: 757: 755: 752: 750: 747: 746:Silicon oxide 743: 742: 736: 733: 731: 728: 726: 723: 719: 718: 716: 713: 711: 708: 706: 703: 697: 696: 692:often used in 690: 687: 684: 681: 678: 675: 669: 668: 662: 659: 656: 653: 650: 647: 640: 639: 636: 633: 630: 627: 624: 621: 614: 613: 610: 607: 604: 601: 598: 595: 591: 590: 587: 584: 581: 578: 575: 572: 565: 564: 562: 559: 557: 554: 551: 548: 544: 543: 541: 538: 535: 532: 529: 526: 520: 519: 516: 513: 510: 504: 501: 498: 484: 481: 443: 440: 439: 438: 435: 432: 427: 424: 371: 368: 364:lipid bilayers 322: 321: 272: 270: 263: 257: 254: 240: 233: 232: 220: 213: 212: 211: 210: 209: 170:kinetic energy 161: 158: 156: 153: 102:carbon dioxide 98:greenhouse gas 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5235: 5224: 5221: 5219: 5216: 5214: 5211: 5209: 5206: 5204: 5201: 5200: 5198: 5183: 5180: 5179: 5177: 5175: 5171: 5165: 5162: 5160: 5157: 5155: 5154:Barotropicity 5152: 5150: 5147: 5145: 5142: 5141: 5139: 5137: 5133: 5127: 5124: 5122: 5119: 5117: 5114: 5112: 5109: 5107: 5104: 5102: 5099: 5097: 5094: 5092: 5089: 5087: 5084: 5082: 5077: 5072: 5070: 5068: 5063: 5061: 5058: 5056: 5053: 5051: 5048: 5046: 5043: 5041: 5038: 5036: 5033: 5031: 5028: 5026: 5021: 5016: 5014: 5011: 5009: 5006: 5004: 4999: 4994: 4993: 4991: 4989: 4985: 4979: 4976: 4974: 4971: 4969: 4966: 4964: 4961: 4959: 4956: 4954: 4951: 4949: 4946: 4944: 4941: 4939: 4934: 4929: 4927: 4924: 4922: 4919: 4917: 4914: 4912: 4909: 4907: 4904: 4903: 4901: 4899: 4895: 4889: 4886: 4884: 4883:Precipitation 4881: 4879: 4876: 4874: 4871: 4869: 4866: 4864: 4861: 4859: 4856: 4854: 4851: 4850: 4848: 4846: 4842: 4836: 4833: 4831: 4828: 4826: 4823: 4821: 4818: 4816: 4813: 4811: 4808: 4806: 4803: 4801: 4798: 4796: 4793: 4791: 4788: 4786: 4783: 4782: 4780: 4776: 4767: 4762: 4760: 4755: 4753: 4748: 4747: 4744: 4732: 4728: 4723: 4721: 4712: 4710: 4701: 4699: 4695: 4690: 4689: 4686: 4680: 4677: 4673: 4670: 4668: 4665: 4664: 4663: 4660: 4659: 4657: 4653: 4645: 4642: 4640: 4637: 4635: 4632: 4630: 4627: 4626: 4624: 4620: 4617: 4615: 4614:Hycean planet 4612: 4610: 4607: 4605: 4602: 4600: 4597: 4596: 4595: 4592: 4591: 4589: 4585: 4579: 4576: 4572: 4569: 4567: 4564: 4563: 4562: 4559: 4557: 4554: 4552: 4549: 4545: 4542: 4540: 4537: 4536: 4535: 4532: 4530: 4527: 4525: 4522: 4521: 4519: 4517: 4512: 4506: 4503: 4501: 4498: 4496: 4493: 4491: 4488: 4486: 4483: 4481: 4478: 4477: 4475: 4471: 4463: 4460: 4459: 4458: 4455: 4453: 4450: 4448: 4445: 4443: 4440: 4439: 4437: 4435: 4431: 4425:Water droplet 4423: 4413: 4410: 4408: 4405: 4403: 4400: 4398: 4395: 4394: 4392: 4388: 4384: 4377: 4372: 4370: 4365: 4363: 4358: 4357: 4354: 4347: 4344: 4342: 4339: 4337: 4334: 4332: 4329: 4327: 4324: 4323: 4319: 4309: 4305: 4301: 4297: 4293: 4289: 4285: 4284: 4276: 4271: 4264: 4260: 4256: 4252: 4248: 4244: 4240: 4235: 4230: 4226: 4222: 4221: 4213: 4208: 4201: 4197: 4193: 4189: 4185: 4181: 4177: 4176: 4166: 4162: 4157: 4153: 4151:9780126431407 4147: 4143: 4138: 4134: 4129: 4125: 4120: 4116: 4111: 4107: 4102: 4098: 4094: 4090: 4086: 4082: 4078: 4074: 4070: 4066: 4062: 4061: 4056: 4051: 4047: 4043: 4038: 4033: 4029: 4025: 4021: 4017: 4013: 4009: 4008: 4001: 4000: 3995: 3987: 3983: 3979: 3975: 3971: 3967: 3962: 3957: 3953: 3949: 3948: 3940: 3937: 3929:September 24, 3925: 3924: 3919: 3912: 3909: 3905: 3899: 3896: 3891: 3887: 3883: 3877: 3874: 3870: 3869:Physics Today 3864: 3861: 3849: 3848: 3843: 3836: 3834: 3830: 3827: 3822: 3819: 3816: 3811: 3808: 3796: 3792: 3786: 3783: 3771: 3770: 3765: 3758: 3756: 3752: 3749:, p. 947 3748: 3743: 3740: 3737:, p. 172 3736: 3731: 3728: 3724: 3719: 3716: 3712: 3707: 3704: 3699: 3695: 3691: 3687: 3683: 3679: 3675: 3671: 3664: 3661: 3655: 3650: 3646: 3642: 3638: 3634: 3630: 3623: 3620: 3607: 3603: 3599: 3592: 3589: 3576: 3575:"Water Vapor" 3570: 3567: 3563: 3558: 3555: 3551: 3546: 3543: 3540: 3535: 3532: 3519: 3515: 3507: 3504: 3499: 3495: 3490: 3485: 3481: 3477: 3473: 3469: 3465: 3458: 3455: 3447: 3443: 3441:9781009157896 3437: 3432: 3427: 3420: 3414: 3411: 3406: 3402: 3398: 3392: 3389: 3377: 3373: 3366: 3364: 3360: 3348: 3341: 3338: 3322: 3315: 3308: 3306: 3302: 3298: 3294: 3287: 3284: 3278: 3273: 3269: 3265: 3261: 3257: 3253: 3246: 3243: 3235: 3231: 3225: 3218: 3217: 3209: 3206: 3200: 3197: 3193: 3189: 3185: 3179: 3176: 3171: 3167: 3163: 3157: 3154: 3150: 3146: 3141: 3138: 3132: 3127: 3123: 3119: 3115: 3111: 3107: 3100: 3097: 3081: 3076: 3071: 3067: 3060: 3053: 3050: 3045: 3041: 3036: 3031: 3027: 3023: 3019: 3015: 3011: 3004: 3001: 2988: 2984: 2977: 2974: 2962: 2955: 2952: 2947: 2943: 2939: 2935: 2931: 2927: 2923: 2919: 2915: 2911: 2907: 2900: 2897: 2891: 2886: 2882: 2878: 2875:(5): 054007. 2874: 2870: 2866: 2859: 2856: 2843: 2839: 2835: 2829: 2826: 2822: 2818: 2814: 2807: 2804: 2801: 2796: 2793: 2780: 2776: 2770: 2768: 2764: 2752: 2748: 2741: 2738: 2735: 2730: 2727: 2715: 2711: 2705: 2703: 2699: 2694: 2690: 2685: 2680: 2676: 2672: 2668: 2664: 2660: 2653: 2651: 2647: 2635: 2631: 2625: 2622: 2618: 2613: 2610: 2606: 2601: 2598: 2586: 2580: 2577: 2564: 2560: 2553: 2550: 2537: 2533: 2527: 2524: 2512: 2508: 2501: 2498: 2494: 2489: 2486: 2481: 2477: 2473: 2469: 2465: 2461: 2454: 2451: 2439: 2435: 2429: 2426: 2414: 2410: 2404: 2401: 2396: 2392: 2386: 2383: 2371: 2365: 2362: 2349: 2345: 2339: 2336: 2332: 2327: 2324: 2319: 2315: 2309: 2306: 2294: 2288: 2285: 2279: 2274: 2271: 2269: 2266: 2264: 2261: 2259: 2256: 2254: 2251: 2249: 2246: 2244: 2241: 2239: 2236: 2234: 2231: 2229: 2226: 2224: 2221: 2219: 2216: 2214: 2211: 2209: 2206: 2204: 2201: 2199: 2196: 2194: 2191: 2189: 2188:Heat capacity 2186: 2184: 2181: 2179: 2176: 2174: 2171: 2169: 2166: 2164: 2161: 2159: 2156: 2154: 2151: 2149: 2146: 2144: 2141: 2139: 2136: 2134: 2131: 2129: 2126: 2124: 2123:Boiling point 2121: 2119: 2116: 2114: 2111: 2110: 2105: 2103: 2101: 2097: 2092: 2088: 2084: 2080: 2075: 2073: 2069: 2065: 2060: 2058: 2054: 2050: 2046: 2042: 2038: 2037:asteroid belt 2034: 2030: 2026: 2022: 2018: 2014: 2013:tidal heating 2010: 2006: 1998: 1993: 1986: 1982: 1978: 1974: 1972: 1968: 1964: 1958: 1950: 1948: 1946: 1942: 1938: 1933: 1930: 1925: 1923: 1919: 1918:cloud physics 1915: 1909: 1901: 1899: 1897: 1893: 1889: 1885: 1880: 1878: 1874: 1869: 1866:which is the 1864: 1859: 1857: 1852: 1848: 1846: 1842: 1838: 1834: 1830: 1827: 1819: 1815: 1811: 1804: 1787: 1785: 1783: 1779: 1774: 1772: 1768: 1764: 1758: 1756: 1752: 1744: 1740: 1736: 1731: 1727: 1725: 1719: 1717: 1713: 1709: 1705: 1703: 1698: 1696: 1688: 1684: 1680: 1676: 1669: 1665: 1661: 1657: 1653: 1649: 1645: 1641: 1637: 1632: 1628: 1626: 1622: 1618: 1614: 1613:thunderstorms 1610: 1606: 1602: 1598: 1594: 1593:precipitation 1590: 1586: 1582: 1578: 1572: 1563: 1554: 1552: 1548: 1547:refrigeration 1544: 1540: 1535: 1533: 1529: 1525: 1521: 1517: 1513: 1511: 1507: 1499: 1471: 1468: 1465: 1461: 1456: 1452: 1448: 1446: 1437: 1433: 1430: 1424: 1420: 1417: 1412: 1409: 1403: 1399: 1396: 1392: 1387: 1381: 1378: 1374: 1370: 1367: 1364: 1362: 1353: 1349: 1346: 1340: 1334: 1331: 1326: 1323: 1319: 1315: 1311: 1306: 1300: 1297: 1293: 1289: 1286: 1283: 1281: 1271: 1268: 1263: 1258: 1254: 1250: 1247: 1243: 1239: 1236: 1231: 1228: 1222: 1218: 1215: 1213: 1208: 1204: 1201: 1198: 1194: 1189: 1185: 1173: 1172: 1171: 1169: 1165: 1160: 1158: 1154: 1150: 1141: 1139: 1136: 1132: 1128: 1124: 1116: 1114: 1110: 1108: 1104: 1100: 1092: 1090: 1088: 1084: 1079: 1075: 1072:and diatomic 1071: 1063: 1058: 1053: 1052:concentration 1049: 1046: 1042: 1041:ideal gas law 1038: 1034: 1031: 1015: 1012: 1008: 1007:atomic masses 1000: 996: 995: 994: 988: 981: 979: 977: 973: 969: 961: 954: 951: 948: 946: 942: 939: 936: 934: 929: 926: 924: 921: 919: 917: 914: 911: 910: 906: 903: 900: 897: 895: 893: 891: 888: 887: 883: 880: 877: 874: 871: 868: 865: 862: 861: 858: 855: 853: 850: 848: 845: 843:Nephelometer 842: 841: 837: 834: 831: 828: 825: 822: 820: 817: 816: 813: 809: 806: 804: 801: 799: 796: 794:Electrolytic 793: 792: 789: 785: 782: 780: 777: 775: 772: 769: 768: 765: 761: 758: 756: 753: 751: 748: 745: 744: 741: 737: 734: 732: 729: 727: 724: 721: 720: 717: 714: 712: 709: 707: 704: 702: 699: 698: 695: 691: 688: 685: 682: 679: 676: 674: 671: 670: 667: 663: 660: 657: 654: 651: 648: 646: 642: 641: 637: 634: 631: 628: 625: 622: 619: 616: 615: 611: 608: 605: 602: 599: 596: 593: 592: 588: 585: 582: 579: 576: 573: 570: 567: 566: 563: 560: 558: 555: 552: 549: 546: 545: 542: 539: 536: 533: 530: 527: 525: 522: 521: 517: 514: 511: 509: 505: 502: 499: 497: 496: 493: 490: 482: 480: 478: 473: 472:cyanoacrylate 469: 465: 460: 458: 454: 450: 441: 436: 433: 430: 429: 425: 423: 421: 415: 413: 409: 405: 400: 398: 394: 389: 385: 376: 369: 367: 365: 361: 357: 353: 349: 344: 342: 337: 333: 328: 318: 315: 307: 297: 293: 289: 283: 282: 278: 273:This section 271: 267: 262: 261: 255: 247: 243: 237: 228: 224: 217: 208: 206: 202: 198: 194: 190: 185: 183: 182:precipitation 177: 175: 171: 167: 159: 154: 152: 149: 146: 142: 138: 134: 130: 126: 122: 117: 115: 111: 107: 103: 99: 95: 90: 88: 85:and triggers 84: 80: 76: 72: 68: 64: 60: 56: 52: 48: 44: 40: 39:aqueous vapor 36: 32: 19: 5218:Water in gas 5075: 5066: 5060:Mixing ratio 5035:Haines Index 5019: 4997: 4932: 4887: 4845:Condensation 4544:Hydrobiology 4529:Distribution 4451: 4287: 4281: 4224: 4218: 4206: 4179: 4173: 4160: 4141: 4132: 4123: 4114: 4105: 4064: 4058: 4011: 4005: 3996:Bibliography 3951: 3945: 3939: 3927:. 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