1233:, 149mm guns and 210mm mortars placed on the hills surrounding Cortina. The first column on the western flank, with companies of Alpine troops, fought fiercely during the night of 8 and 9 June at Ponte Alto, which it occupied. From here it carried out various attacks against the Fanes barrage and towards the Val Travenanzes as it tried an enveloping maneuver around the Tofane group, in conjunction with other attacks on the Lagazuoi and against the Castelletto delle Tofane. The Italian offensive continued until June 16 with poor results; the Austro-Hungarians were well entrenched in Val Travenanzes and benefited from the terrain, so eventually the Italian command broke off the attacks. The central column, strong with two infantry battalions, aimed directly at the Som Pouses barrage, strongly fortified and with excellent defensive positions starting from the trench in the Acqua di Campo Croce valley up to the crest of the Ciadenes-I Zuoghi which encloses the Gotres valley. On 9 June a rapid enveloping action allowed the Italians to occupy Podestagno, a wooded cliff overlooking the Alemagna road. The Austro-Hungarian defences could not be breached in this sector however and on the evening of 14 June the Italian command suspended any further attempt to advance. No less unfortunate was the eastern column, which on 7 June, bypassing the Pamagognon, descended along the Val Grande and reached the Alemagna road near the locality of Ospitale. From here, going up the Gotres valley, the attack proceeded as far as the end of the valley, at the Lerosa fork, along wide meadows where the Austro-Hungarians were well entrenched. Divided into three assault groups, the Italians attacked on 9 June, but once they arrived on the wide plateau they were met with heavy fire from automatic weapons that cost large numbers and the loss of more than fifty prisoners, until the attack here was also suspended.
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artillery. Having failed to take the high ground of Forame they decided to try a surprise attack immediately to the west, down the Val
Felizon. When the attack began on 26 November it was plain that the Austro-Hungarians had been expecting it, and they cut down the advancing soldiers with machine gun fire as they struggled through snow 70 cm deep. By the evening when it was evident the attack had failed the brigade command requested permission to withdraw, but the 2nd Division command refused and at 20:45 ordered the action resumed the following morning. At dawn on 27 November, after an hour of artillery barrage to prepare for this assault, the XXXXVIII Bersaglieri should have resumed action. However the temperature was -20° and many of the soldiers had died of cold, with the survivors unable to advance. Nothing moved until at 14:30 Division ordered the action to stop. In two days the Italians had 897 casualties. Among the Bersaglieri 2 officers had died in action while five froze to death; among the men 29 had died in action, 111 were wounded, 20 missing and 318 had frozen to death. This was the last action of 1915 in this sector.
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capturing some
Bavarian JĂ€gers at Ponte Alto, which unequivocally demonstrated the presence of German troops deployed offensively, despite the fact that Italy was not still at war with Germany. These attacks were followed by exactly one year of truce, and in June 1916 the Italians attempted a new assault, this time concentrated against the Croda dell'Ancona and the coston del Forame. Taking these positions would have allowed the Italians to descend into Val Felizon towards Carbonin and in Val Acqua di Campo Croce, from where they would have seriously threatened the Austro-Hungariansâ positions in the Conca d'Ampezzo. To prevent this, the Austro-Hungarians further fortified their positions, and on 7 June they were ready to face the Italian troops who, began their attack up the Alemagna road. Despite the determination of the Italian soldiers, on the evening of June 22, after a last vain and bloody attempt at the Som Pouses, the order was given to suspend the attacks, which had cost the attackers 324 dead, 2826 wounded and 85 missing. After this attack the positions remained unchanged until the Italian retreat in the autumn of 1917.
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Austro-Hungarians back off the southern plateau and conquer
Forcella dei Castrati, but did not take the strategic northern edge of the mountain. On the last day of the attack, July 20, the Italians reported 104 dead, 578 wounded and 151 missing, most of whom had been blown to pieces by enemy artillery. Assaults and counterattacks followed until September, when both sides stopped to prepare for the first winter of the war. The winter was particularly hard for the Austro-Hungarians in their precarious position, lacking water or fuel and supplied only by slow columns of porters ascending from Landro along a steep path targeted by Italian artillery. These months were mainly used to excavate covered trenches, tunnels and caves in the shelter of the northern edge; the paths on the western side were widened, and partly retraced in more sheltered positions, while at the end of November a cableway was erected that kept the Austrian-Hungarian line supplied for the next two years.
1273:(Rautkofel) with several batteries that dominated the entire summit of Monte Piana. During the first days of the war small Italian patrols reconnoitred daily near the Austrian trenches, from where however they were chased back on 7 June 1915, the day the Austro-Hungarians started their first major action on the plateau. Goiginger gave orders for an attack carried out by two companies of LandesschĂŒtzen and some units of StandschĂŒtzen. Coming up at night from Carbonin, they attacked and wiped out the Italian garrison at Piramide Carducci, roughly in the middle of the plateau, where the Austrians had initially been based. Advancing up to the Italian lines the Austro-Hungarians were eventually forced to retreat by artillery and rifle fire, returning in the evening to the positions of Piramide Carducci and Forcella dei Castrati. Sporadic fighting and artillery fire continued until 11 June, when there was a lull for over a month, during which positions stabilized.
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the rock and ice to improve the safety of their soldiers. In early 1917 the
Austrians began to work on an assault tunnel under the snow. Work lasted two months, and on 21 April sixty soldiers, emerged little more than two metres from the enemy lines, attacking the trenches with hand grenades. The defenders were taken completely by surprise and many prisoners were captured while they slept. Although the Austro-Hungarians quickly captured the trenches, the Italians organised a counterattack from caves dug into the rock. At dawn, the Italian artillery began to strike the attackers, while two platoons were sent to reinforce the men hidden in the Sasso di Sesto tunnels. On the morning of April 22 the counterattack began and by the early afternoon the position was again in Italian hands. With this episode, major fighting in the shadow of the Tre Cime also ended.
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Cengia fork. The last column was the first to achieve success with the conquest of the Alpe dei Piani basin, while the other two columns struggled to advance, hampered by their artillery. After three days of fierce fighting the
Italians managed to take the Toblin fork and the Sasso di Sesto, but not Torre Toblin, so the Austrians were still able to block the road towards the fork of San Candido and then towards the Val Pusteria. Later Italian attempts failed but the Italians managed to move the front about 12 kilometers, significantly improving their defensive line. The positions of the two sides were very close here: between the Sasso di Sesto and Torre di Toblin they were separated by just a few hundred meters and this contributed to making that small sector much disputed, although after 30 October, there was no further major action in the Lavaredo area.
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June 1916 began work on a mine that was intended to destroy the
Italian garrison on the Dente del Sief, which they had just conquered. The Italians realized this maneuver late and only in March 1917 did they begin a counter-mine tunnel. This however proved too short, and they destroyed part of their own lines and created a crater between the two armies. The Austro-Hungarians proceeded with their work and on October 27, 45,000 kilograms of explosives tore the mountain to pieces, creating an 80-meter crater and killing 64 Italians. Shortly afterwards, after Caporetto, the Italians fell back to the line of the Piave and Monte Grappa, leaving the mountain in Austro-Hungarian hands and thousands of bodies of fallen men.
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with larger forces but weaker positions, continued their slow advance on the northern plateau. In August they managed to take the so-called "Fosso degli Alpini", a long depression on the eastern edge of the plateau, delimited by a grassy hill known to the Austro-Hungarians as "Kuppe K". This position was important because it tied the Austro-Hungarians down on another side of the mountain, and allowed the
Italians to protect the ascent route along the Castrati valley, from which they could directly attack enemy lines. So at the end of August a short but fierce battle began for "Kuppe K", which was taken and lost several times, until the Italians managed to hold it.
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Cristallo, forcing the Austro-Hungarians back to Cresta del
Costabella and Rauchkofel. After bringing artillery up onto the peak the Italians began to bombard these positions on 26 August. This was followed by another attack in from 11â26 September, but hampered by fog, snow and freezing temperatures, the Italians could not force the Austro-Hungarians off the mountain once and for all, and little ground changed hands. Another costly Italian attack between 20 and 26 October saw a group of volunteers try to outmanoeuvre the Austro-Hungarians by climbing over the glacier in camouflage, but they were detected and repulsed after several days of determined fighting.
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1660:. If the assault had begun earlier the weak Austro-Hungarian presence might have been easily dislodged, but between May and a June the Austrians had fortified the Costone di Salesei and the Costone di Agai, meaning that it would take a frontal attack on Col de Lana to push them out. On 15 June, some Italian patrols sent towards the enemy positions were easily neutralized, and this was followed by series of bloody frontal attacks that achieved nothing. The Italians launched ten further attacks against Col di Lana and five against the adjoining Mount Sief until General Rossi called a halt on 20 July to await reinforcements.
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brought some of the heaviest snows of the century, with the mountainsides often under 8 metres of snow, three times the annual average. This made it extremely difficult for the troops to stay at high altitudes, forcing the men to continually dig and clear the snow because of the risk of avalanches. Heinz Lichem von Löwenbourg stated: "On the basis of unanimous reports from fighters of all nations, the rough rule applies that in 1915â1918, on the mountain front, two thirds of the dead were victims of the elements (avalanches, frostbite, landslides, cold, exhaustion) and only one third victims of direct military action."
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1791:. A further attack was launched between 29 and 30 April, towards the Cavento Pass. For the first time in this area, heavy artillery was used to support the infantry. Despite the lack of winter camouflage that forced them to fight in grey-green uniforms, the Italians managed to take the Austro-Hungarian positions on the crozzon del Diavolo between 1 and 4 May. After this the front more or less came to a standstill. To bring light supplies such as food and wine up to their front lines, the Italians changed from using mules to using dogs, as they were faster and needed less food.
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attack, forcing their opponents to retreat to their starting positions. On July 15 the
Austrians pressed a new attack on the Giuseppe Garibaldi refuge but the defenders managed, once again, to resist. On 25 August the Italians renewed their attack in the north; this time the Alpini attacked the creste di Monticelli at night and surprised the Austro-Hungarians; once they had the ridge, fortification works began immediately. However further Italian attacks on the Presena glacier on 14 September and on 30 October failed before winter set in and fighting became impossible.
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threatened the
Italians on Col di Lana, so they occupied the eastern part of the Piz Serauta, fortifying themselves and installing a cableway. From then on, both sides worked intensively to reinforce their positions and protect themselves from the elements and enemy artillery. The Austrians established their central supply point under the tongue of the glacier on the Gran Poz at 2300 meters, at the uppermost point of the cableway, and from there porters took supplies to the positions at "Forcella della Marmolada" , "3259", "Twelve", "Eleven", "2800" and "slot S". Using
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of their trenches. Early in the morning of 29 August this plan was executed. Surprised, the Austro-Hungarians retreated leaving the Italians in control on the first ridge of the Forame, before progress halted. Between 4 and 6 September the Italians tried to push their way down the valley between Forame and Costa Bella, but constant Austrian fire stopped them advancing. Then, in a surprise counterattack in 13 September, the Austro-Hungarians retook the peak of Forame, and quickly hoisted up artillery and mortars to ensure they could not be removed again.
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town of Cortina. To avoid further distress to the population however, in 1916 the Italian commanders moved away, and life in Cortina went on quietly until November 5, 1917, when the Austro-Hungarians, following the rout of Caporetto, took possession of it once again. The last winter of the war also coincided with the hardest period for the civilian population, with the terrible food shortage that hit the Habsburg Empire, compelling the Austro-Hungarian troops to seize the few provisions the inhabitants had in occupied places.
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955:, which had modern fortifications and various defensive works. The IV sector, from the Pale di San Martino to Mount Padonit was held by the 90th Division, with a mountain brigade of seven battalions. The V sector, from Mount Padon to the Croda Nera, was held by a mountain brigade of nine battalions. The massing of the Italian 4th Army meant that on May 27 this sector was removed from the 90th Division and made partially autonomous under the command of General
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Austro-Hungarian garrison increased from 20 to 150 men, and the whole summit was made impregnable. From June 16, the day of the last and failed Italian assault on the Croda, positions remained unchanged until November 1917, and the battle for the Croda Rossa turned into a daily routine of reconnaissance, with occasional small clashes. The harsh winter brought death to many in both sides on this section of the front, from avalanches, hunger, cold and disease.
928:, located on the Carnic watershed just a little east of Forcella Dignas. This meant it was roughly facing the 1st and 4th Italian Armies. The region was divided into five sectors, called ârayonsâ. part of General Scholz's 90th Division, composed of eleven battalions, was assigned to sectors I and II, from the Stelvio to PresĂšna, with support from the fort at Gomagoi on the Stelvio route and modern artillery placed to defend the Passo del Tonale.
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67th Company and caused the first death on the Dolomite front. Over the following days there were clashes between patrols and small groups of soldiers trying to climb up and occupy small portions of rocky ground, but perhaps the most famous action was the Austro-Hungarian offensive on July 4, 1915 where Innerkofler lost his life. Together with some StandschĂŒtzen he attempted to occupy the Passaporto fork to cut off the Italian supplies for the
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1497:. The assault failed but the Austro-Hungarian commander Goiginger decided to attempt other strikes in the Tre Cime area on the evening of the same day. On the night of July 5 a group of StandschĂŒtzen attacked the Mezzo Pass, but was repulsed by two groups of Alpine troops, while a dawn attack on the Arghena fork was repelled by an infantry unit, temporarily putting an end to the Austro-Hungarian initiatives in the Lavaredo sector.
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woods, delayed in issuing orders, advising the commanders of the army corps to operate with great caution; so May 24 passed quietly. Only a few Italian exploratory patrols crossed the border, reaching Passo Tre Croci and the Cinque Torri without encountering the enemy, and only on 27 May did a patrol descend to Cortina, finding it completely free of defenders. The town was finally occupied on the 29th by two Italian columns.
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maintain them. They therefore withdrew to defensive positions behind the border that gave them the advantage of high ground wherever possible and shortened their defensive lines from around 500 km to about 400 km. In contrast the Italians followed the practice of locating their fortifications well behind the border, meaning they had no role in the fighting in the Dolomites. An Austrian advance near
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831:. The III Corps occupied the western side of the Trentino salient, from Stelvio to Lake Garda. The 6th Division was deployed on the border while the 5th was the reserve of the III Corps. To the south, between Garda and the Lessinico plateau, were the troops of the fortress of Verona, while the V Corps with the 9th, 34th and 15th divisions was positioned at the
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failed, but on 20 June 1917 the Italians succeeded in using 32 tons of dynamite to blow up the 2668m high summit of Piccolo Lagazuoi. Despite heavy losses the Austro-Hungarians were still able to hold the attackers off with machine gun fire. There was little movement in this sector following this until the general withdrawal after Caporetto.
1400:, and, from July, support from the German Alpenkorps who hoisted two mountain guns onto the northern slope of the summit, to strike at a possible Italian advance from the Monte Croce pass. Nevertheless the early months of the war were calm, mainly because snow made the peaks above 3,000m impassable. On 7 July Italian artillery destroyed the
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the Costone di Salesei and the Costone di Agai were also broken up by Austro-Hungarian artillery. A major new frontal assault was launched on 21 October, in which the Italians outnumbered the defenders ten to one. Trench by trench, at great cost, the Austro-Hungarians were dislodged from their positions and on 7 November the
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artillery around the surrounding mountains. By spreading their guns over isolated positions on the slopes and peaks, the Austrians exploited the Dolomite terrain very effectively, securing every possible advantage in an attempt to confine the Italians to the lower valleys and prevent them from accessing the strategic passes.
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The conflict proceeded as a work of mining and countermining through rock and ice. The Austrians managed to create a large enough hole from which they could direct artillery fire towards the Italians. But the Italians, after learning that they were under fire, accelerated the countermining work, and
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In the summer of 1916 the Italians mounted fresh attacks on the Austro-Hungarian positions on the Forame heights to the west of Rauhkofel. The plan was for a group of volunteers to work their way behind Austro-Hungarian lines at night and attack at dawn, when the main Italian forces would advance out
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In most sectors there were no major engagements after October each year at the latest, as the troops concentrated in preparing themselves to survive the winter. Unusually the IVth Army Command decided that the firm settled snow and the clear air of November favoured an infantry advance and the use of
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at 3152m. The Cristallo subgroup had been occupied by the Italians in the early days of the war. For their part the Austro-Hungarians garrisoned the peaks that looked down towards the Ospitale - Carbonin road, the Forame at Forcella Verde and Forcella Gialla and the Costabella chain. The north-facing
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Cortina became the seat of the Italian command as well as of hospitals and a resting place for the troops returning from the fighting in the sector; the whole basin was frequently subjected to fire from Austrian artillery, but the bombardments were never particularly intense and scarcely affected the
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and the mouth of the San Pellegrino valley, a few kilometres from the front. All these forts were of modest size, much less impressive than the large fortresses on the Trentino highlands and in the Adige valley. At the beginning of the war they were partially decommissioned because they were outdated
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The major challenge for both armies was to sustain modern warfare in such a hostile environment. The difficult terrain meant supplies had to be brought up on the backs of pack animals or of the men themselves, including heavy artillery and munitions. As the conflict developed a network of roads, mule
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Because this sector was at the western limits of the front, Italian troops were not withdrawn after the defeat at Caporetto as they were in the Dolomites and elsewhere, and fighting continued into 1918. The main operation of the year in this sector, known as the "White Battle", took place between 25
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massif that divided the fighters. Apart from some skirmishes between enemy patrols, who had pushed themselves up onto the Marmolada di Punta Penia at 3344m, the sector remained calm until the spring of 1916, when Austro-Hungarian units occupied a number of strongpoints facing the glacier. This move
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The winter of 1916â1917 was unusually hard, as early as late August, when snow fell it did not melt. By November some positions were effectively isolated by the weather, with cableways and men themselves often affected by avalanches. Both armies excavated an extensive maze of tunnels and shelters in
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As these were not sufficient, the Austrians also drafted in prisoners of war captured on the eastern front, although the Hague Convention of 1907 prohibited this. These men were made to do the hardest and riskiest jobs, such as the construction of cableways and trails. They were also used away from
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The Italians could bring much greater numbers and more regular supplies to the Marmolada, so the Austro-Hungarians were on the defensive, digging more and more shelters in the ice and rock in order to hold their positions. Other than mining and countermining, and artillery and grenade attacks there
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While the Italians dug in and fortified Col di Lana the Austro-Hungarians did likewise on Sief, each side making it effectively impossible for the otherâs soldiers to attack across the intervening ground. Warfare therefore moved underground. The initiative was taken by the Austro-Hungarians, who in
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Despite this pause in infantry attacks the Italian artillery continued to bombard the La Corte and Tre Sassi forts. By the beginning of August, Tre Sassi was practically a pile of rubble, and this prompted the Italians to renew their attacks on 2 August. They were repulsed again. Smaller attacks on
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and the Val Campo di Dentro. Six battalions of infantry were massed behind the Tre Cime with the support of two battalions of mountain guns. The attack began on 14 August with an advance towards the Toblin fork on three different routes: from the Col di Mezzo fork, the Lavaredo fork and the Pian di
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In August and September 1915 the Italians mounted a number of probing attacks at the Sentinella Pass, but autumn weather brought fighting to a standstill, with both sides leaving only small garrisons in position. It was the Italians who took the initiative in February 1916 with a new plan of attack
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1916 saw a progressive strengthening of positions, especially on the Austro-Hungarian side, where the entire summit became a network of fortified defensive works. Soldiers led a mostly underground life in covered trenches, connecting tunnels and caves equipped for different functions. The Italians,
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present and the elderly or veterans repatriated for illness or injuries, retreated behind Som Pouses to reinforce the defences that closed the Conca to the north. Although he had declared taking the Conca d'Ampezzo as his priority, General Nava, worried about strong resistance and ambushes from the
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would have been met at the fort of Listolade, while the Cadore was defended by the Chiusa di Venàs and the fort of Monte Rite, as well as by numerous concealed artillery positions. On the Austrian side, Ampezzo and the Cadore Dolomites area were defended by the Prato Piazza (PlÀtzwiese) and Landro,
762:. From here the Austro-Hungarians could have broken through to threaten the industrial cities of Lombardy, while the Italians could have penetrated deep into the Tyrol. In fact, neither side developed major plans for this sector; once the passes were closed, both sides maintained a static posture.
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first, and then brute strength, they dug numerous tunnels inside the glacier to shelter from the Italian artillery firing down on them. The works continued throughout the winter of 1916 until the construction of what was called "the city under the ice" was complete. This was a network of barracks,
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The peacetime defence doctrine of Austria-Hungary assumed that not an inch of land was to be conceded to an invader, and on this basis fortifications had been built up right on the border itself. However at the beginning of the hostilities the Austrians did not have sufficient forces to be able to
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Exactly one year after losing the Corno di Cavento, on June 15, the Austro-Hungarians managed to regain it by digging a tunnel in the glacier, but the Italians were able to eject them again on July 19 and hold it thereafter. In another attack on 13 August the Alpini managed to regain the Torrione
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on the Presena glacier at the north end of the Adamello: however they were detected and forced back by sniper fire. On 5 July the Austro-Hungarians responded with a surprise attack on the Italian garrison of Lago di Campo at the southern end. Despite heavy losses the Italians managed to repel the
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Throughout the winter the Austro-Hungarians dug an intricate system of covered tunnels and walkways that protected the soldiers from Italian artillery. On 1 January, the Austro-Hungarians started the mine war with an explosion on the Lagazuoi, and, picking up the idea, in mid-January the Italians
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Taking the Casteletto turned out not to give the Italians a decisive advantage and they still could not force their way through the Falzarego Pass. Their next attempt was to reach the top of the Piccolo Lagazuoi, digging an over 1 km long tunnel system with a vertical drop of 500m. This also
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Fighting started on the morning of May 24, 1915, with Italian cannon in Torre degli Scarpieri and Monte Rudo firing towards Monte Piana, to which the Austro-Hungarians responded by hitting the Italian positions of Forcella Lavaredo and Forcella Col di Mezzo. Here shrapnel struck two Alpini of the
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before the breakthrough of Caporetto â to divert Italian attention from the movement of troops along the Val Pusteria. Modest initial conquests were soon halted by the Italian artillery, which drove the attackers back to their starting positions. This was the last important action on Monte Piana.
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In early August 1915 the Italians began attacking the Austro-Hungarian positions in the heights. Between 9 and 11 August Alpini units, strongly opposed by artillery and machine gun fire, began the assault on Forame and managed to take it on the night of 13th. Another column took the high peak of
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Throughout that winter and the spring of 1917 the war of attrition continued, with bombings, clashes between patrols, attempts to infiltrate enemy lines and the excavation of mine tunnels, by both sides. The last major attack was carried out by the Austro-Hungarians on 22 October â just two days
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and inadequate to resist modern artillery. Their guns were moved to more favourable positions less detectable by the enemy; the buildings were highly visible and at times the Austro-Hungarians continued to pretend that they were occupied in order to divert Italian fire towards useless targets.
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In the high mountains, temperatures vary widely: above 2,500 meters, temperatures below zero are normal even in summer. In winter, during the war, temperatures as low as -35° were recorded. All year round the weather can change rapidly and storms are common. Finally, the winters of 1916 and 1917
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On the 15th of June, furious fighting took place for the 2,477m spike-like Sasso di Stria which had been fortified by the Austro-Hungarians. The Italian attack was disorganised and easily repelled, and for the next two years small pieces of ground around the Pass were won and lost by both sides
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battalions. On January 30 left they set off from the Zsigmondy ridge. Moving only at night or in bad weather over extreme terrain they advanced slowly through the heavy snowfalls and frequent avalanches of February and March. With the arrival of good weather, they had reached two narrow ravines
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plateau, as a base from which to attack the Veneto. As a result, the defences that opposed the Italian 4th Army were second-rate compared to those of Trentino. In the first days of the war, instead of trying to maintain old strongholds Commander Goiginger had his men retreat and distributed the
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The Italians decided to wait for the arrival of additional artillery and built up overwhelming numerical superiority and it was not until July 15 that General Ottavio Ragni launched the attack on enemy positions. For five days there were attacks in three directions, which managed to drive the
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This series of attacks did not obtain the desired objectives, but allowed the Italians to position themselves along a more advanced and more advantageous line that went from Ponte Alto to Rio Felizon, in the locality of Rufiedo. The Italian command failed to exploit the political advantage of
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The effort of maintaining a solid front line in such extreme conditions was enormous and required enormous reserves of labour. For this reason, the Austro-Hungarian command compelled the local inhabitants of the valleys behind the front line â including women and children â to work for them.
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The Ortles-Cevedale peaks, on average 500m higher than those in the other two sectors, offered the most extreme conditions of all the Alpine battlefields. The ground here was also unusually hard, making the building of trenches and tunnels extremely difficult. These conditions made it almost
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that suffered most from the Italian howitzers. Moso was evacuated by the Austrians and almost completely destroyed by the Italians to prevent the enemy from using it to store supplies. Sesto was not initially evacuated, leading to many civilian casualties as the Italians struck at lodgings,
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However taking the Sentinella Pass would not give the Italians any advantage as long as the Austrians controlled the Croda Rossa. The Austro-Hungarians began reinforcing their positions, under continuous fire from the Italian artillery in the Sentinella valley and on the Dito plateau. The
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which had been complemented with modern structures in the surrounding area (Col Rosson, Alpe di Specie, Col di Specie, Rautkofel). The forts of Haideck and Mitterberg (monte di Mezzo) in val di Sesto were intended to prevent any descent from the Monte Croce di Comelico pass towards
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on July 31, 1914 with the conscription of men between 21 and 42 into the armed forces of Austria-Hungary. In November of the same year twenty-year-olds were also called up, and in May 1915, when Italy also entered the conflict, the draft was extended to men aged up to 50.
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correspondent E. Alexander Powell wrote: âOn no front, not on the sun-scorched plains of Mesopotamia, nor in the frozen Mazurian marshes, nor in the blood-soaked mud of Flanders, does the fighting man lead so arduous an existence as up here on the roof of the world.â
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Despite their numerical superiority, the Italian forces did not take the offensive on this front. The Italian commanders lacked intelligence about the strength of Austro-Hungarian numbers, had no detailed plans for a campaign and were also risk-averse.
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were invited to observe the detonation of the mine followed by the rapid assault by Italian troops held ready in another tunnel to swarm out after the explosion. The attack on 11 July was only partially successful. Many Italian soldiers were killed by
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The first action took place on 8 June 1915 when Italian batteries on Monte Padon and Col Toront bombarded the La Corte and Tre Sassi forts as well as Austro-Hungarian infantry positions. The attack was repeated a week later, and expanded to strike at
1404:, and in August Italian troops occupied the upper Fiscalina valley, pushing up to the Zsigmondy ridge. Despite enormous difficulties they succeeded in taking the 3,042m summit of Monte Popera. Their attention then shifted towards the Sentinella Pass.
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the front line, in the valleys doing agricultural work, taking the place of those who had had to leave for the front. In 1915 there were around 27,000 prisoners in the Tyrol, but after this the count of both the living and the dead was soon lost.
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Both armies, from the beginning of the conflict, began the constant work of excavating caves, tunnels, trenches, walkways, shelters and underground depots, which led to the creation of entire underground towns relatively safe from enemy fire.
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began work on a mine tunnel just below the summit. On April 17, 5020 kilograms of explosives devastated the summit of Col di Lana, killing 110 Austro-Hungarians instantly, while the rest of the garrison was taken prisoner by the I Battalion,
892:, with the 2nd and 10th Divisions deployed close to the border and the 1st Division in reserve. Unlike the Cordevole sector, however, the troops of the Cadore sector could count on the substantial fixed defenses of the Cadore-MaĂš Fortress.
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These men tried to escape every day, sometimes providing intelligence to the Italian Alpini who were only a few hundred metres away. At the CarĂš Alto refuge in Adamello, Russian prisoners built an Orthodox church which still stands today.
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to the northeast as well as the northern head of the basin itself â Val Travenanzes, Val Fanes and Val Acqua di Campocroce. Another objective strategic objective to be achieved was the occupation of the Alemagna road between Cortina and
745:
stretched around 400 km of border at an altitude above 2,000m. Halfway along this border, between the Trentino and the Kreuzberg, rose the Dolomites, that offered little strategic advantage to either side. Between Switzerland and
1417:
called "Da Col" and "Dal Canton", from where they could attack the Sentinella pass. On the night of 15 and 16 March thirty-six men led by three officers attacked the pass. Achieving complete surprise, they encountered no resistance.
1572:
without either gaining any clear advantage. The Italians decided to focus on dislodging the Austrians from various high points around the eastern entrance to the Pass, particularly the rocky outcrop called the Casteletto on the
1596:
from the explosion as they rushed downhill, while others were killed by falling rocks. They managed to take the south side of the Casteletto but did not manage to drive the Austrians off completely for another three months.
3118:
1436:
basin and on the Comelico side of the Monte Croce Pass. Their shots were guided by observers on the top of the Cristallino di Misurina, on the Popera and on the flanks of Cima Undici from where the view extended to
1257:
the border favored Italy. Except for the northern end, the plateau that formed the upper part of the mountain was in Italian hands, and formed a wedge between the Rienza and the Landro valleys, pointing towards
1847:. The Austrians were no longer able to resist. Whole units surrendered and the Italian army was able to advance rapidly into the entire Val di Sole and on to Trento. This brought the war in Adamello to an end.
1450:
warehouses and telephone services. The bombardment of the villages to the rear of the Austro-Hungarian lines continued until 1917, when the artillery was withdrawn following the breakthrough of Caporetto.
2341:
1621:
is one of the least striking mountains in the Dolomites in its appearance, but its location meant it was hotly disputed by the two armies. The mountain dominated all road traffic moving between the
884:
and the Rocchetta di Pelmo, was garrisoned by the IX Corps under the command of General Marini with the 17th and 18th Divisions serving on the front or in reserve. The Cadore sector, between the
2984:
1985:. Der Erste Weltkrieg im Alpenraum und der bayerische Grenzschutz in Tirol. (Zeitgeschichtliche Forschungen 35), Berlin 2008 (mit ausfĂŒhrlicher Darstellung von Forschungsstand und Literatur).
1751:
thanks to the help of drilling machines in a short time they managed to reach under the enemy positions, which were blown up in several points, eliminating the danger of artillery attack.
1226:. Thus at the end of May 1915 Italian troops advanced the "line of investment": Col DrusciĂš-Cadin-Staolin, a line from which the attack on the Som Pouses defense line would be attempted.
1167:
On the eve of the hostilities, General Nava, commander of the Italian 4th Army, ordered that the first objectives on the Cadore front were: taking of possession of the entire massif of
1906:
1780:
3108:
1929:
1787:
The following spring hostilities resumed on 12 April, when the Alpini at the Giuseppe Garibaldi refuge successfully attacked the Austrian defensive line between Lobbia Alta and
1579:
Unable to push the Austro-Hungarians off the Casteletto, in 1916 the Italians decided to dig a 500m gallery from their positions to the foot of the outcrop and use 35 tons of
328:
1824:
in the hope of trying to create a Caporetto-style breakthrough in the Alps. Without German support however they made no headway and the attack foundered in its first day.
1742:
1721:
1663:
900:
598:
798:
Servicing the troops on the front line required enormous manpower. To maintain a garrison of 100 men on a 3,000m peak, 900 porters were required, working in relays.
819:, spread over an arc roughly 200 km long as the crow flies or about 300 km on the ground. The III and V Corps were deployed under the command of Generals
722:, cutting off Veneto and Friuli-Venezia from the rest of Italy. Another section, much smaller, favoured Italy around the Kreuzberg Pass and the headwaters of the
1229:
The action planned by the Italian command anticipated attacking the Austrian defences with three assault columns, supported by field artillery and batteries of
931:
The III sector ran from the Adamello to the Pale di San Martino, and was the responsibility of the 91st Division made up of about thirty battalions, under the
1540:
The slowness of the Italian advance to secure Cortina dâAmpezzo allowed the Austrians to fortify and effectively seal off the routes to the north towards the
2349:
1474:
Fighting in the Lavaredo area was less intense and of less strategic importance than on other parts of the front. However because of the popularity of the
1508:
The most notable event of the war in Lavaredo was an inconclusive attack by the Italians when the command of the I Corps decided to force its way into the
967:
assumed command of the Tyrol and the responsibility of the IV and V sectors. He retained this until 14 October, when, having withdrawn the Alpenkorps from
1432:
With the front lines unchanging after March 1916 the only significant action was from the giant 280mm and 305mm Italian howitzers positioned around the
1771:
788:
682:
1919:
1341:
summit of the Rauhkofel/Cima Fumo was fortified and a line of trenches stretched from the slopes below it across the Val Popena, connecting it with
1872:, which took place in August 1918 on Punta San Matteo (3,678 meters). This was the highest altitude fighting seen anywhere in the First World War.
1696:
1673:
321:
1478:
and surrounding areas with climbers and skiers meant that attention to events there was very great. Added to this, the death of the famous guide
2145:. Zweitausendeins: Frankfurt/M. 1979. Eine Neuausgabe erschien 2014, bebildert und mit einem Nachwort von Detlev Claussen. Berenberg, Berlin,
3128:
3059:
2888:
2815:
2694:
2608:
2518:
2472:
2291:
2191:
2150:
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2015:
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impossible for either side to mount a decisive attack in the other, so the front was relatively static here. The major conflict here was the
1202:
Once Cortina was taken it was immediately clear that it could not be held securely without also taking the commanding heights above it â the
1764:
972:
943:
under General Guseck. This defensive system around Trento was of great strategic importance, and was divided into four sub-sectors, Lodaro,
3113:
3076:
2400:
1855:
1813:
On 13 June the Austro-Hungarians launched a last attack to try to break the Italian lines. They threw all their remaining forces into the
987:
The Austro-Hungarians were equally unprepared to take the offensive. In the decades before the war resources had been directed mainly to
2773:
2714:
1924:
778:
1680:
finally conquered the summit. However it fell back into Austro-Hungarian hands on the same day thanks to the LandesschĂŒtzen of Captain
1026:
but they had not been modernised. To make up for this, Mount Dentro di Sesto was used as a fixed location for large calibre artillery.
314:
2132:
2115:
2101:
2080:
2065:
2043:
703:
811:
On the western edge of the front, deployed from the Stelvio Pass to the Cereda Pass, Italy positioned the 1st Army under General
494:
2930:
964:
770:
477:
291:
April 1915: about 32,400 Austro-Hungarians defending the Tyrol + 13 battalions of the German Alpenkorps arrived on May 26, 1915
259:
1409:
1135:
992:
231:
3010:
Schaumann, Walter (1968). "Der österreichische Gegenangriff auf die Punta San Matteo (3692 m ĂŒ. M.) am 3. September 1918".
1583:
to destroy it. The Austro-Hungarians responded by countermining but the Italians were so confident of success that General
1911:
504:
462:
400:
1576:. The fighting to secure thus became so intense that the Austrians called it the âSchreckensteinâ â âThe rock of horror.
1657:
1588:
1053:
514:
482:
420:
1161:
639:
425:
383:
368:
338:
37:
925:
2372:
1288:
579:
447:
430:
395:
378:
358:
3123:
544:
519:
216:
1700:
1677:
1110:
were notable examples of such structures, with impressive defensive systems. Other examples can be found at the
991:
on the Russian front, and in 1915 the objective was simply to hold off any Italian invasion. As chief of staff,
932:
273:
2127:. MilitĂ€rhistorische Schriftenreihe, Heft 2. Ăsterreichischer Bundesverlag Gesellschaft m. b. H., Vienna 1988,
1951:
1860:
1408:
which required Cima Undici to be occupied. The men chosen for the assault were the expert alpine troops of the
1245:
988:
917:
751:
655:
569:
457:
410:
363:
245:
1939:
1810:, machine gunners and around 200 pieces of artillery attacked and took the Presena glacier and nearby peaks.
1739:
kitchens, field hospitals, storerooms and gun emplacements under the ice connected by 12 km of tunnels.
584:
549:
539:
699:
498:
404:
1956:
559:
564:
89:
1944:
1681:
1401:
1253:
The borders of 1866 had given the advantage of ground to the Austro-Hungarians almost everywhere, but on
2904:
1814:
658:. More than two-thirds of this conflict zone lies at an altitude above 2,000m, rising to 3905m at Mount
574:
534:
20:
1194:
554:
1691:, and the Italians withdrew just below the summit, only 80 meters from the Austro-Hungarian trenches.
1479:
1420:
1390:
1309:
1171:
and the Cortina d'Ampezzo basin, both in the operational area of the 1st Army Corps of General Ragni.
1118:, more excavated than any other mountain in the Dolomites; within it, a bloody battle was fought with
1869:
1475:
1318:
1152:, Italian speakers from Trentino and German speakers from Tyrol were grouped into three regiments of
1144:
832:
651:
509:
414:
2008:
Die steinerne Front. Vom Isonzo zur Piave. Auf den Spuren des Gebirgskrieges in den Julischen Alpen.
1634:
1377:
was occupied by Austro-Hungarian troops on the Sesto side. From here they could control the pass of
1716:
1509:
1413:
467:
435:
2747:
1083:
698:
At the outbreak of the war, the border between Italy and Austria-Hungary was as determined at the
2377:
2308:
2206:
1794:
The front remained calm through most of 1917. The main operation was the Italian seizure of the
1057:
631:
472:
353:
1263:
1068:
995:
had also neglected the defence of the Dolomites in favor of a strengthening his position on the
1686:
1262:. Before the war the Austrians had tried to reduce the threat from this position by fortifying
870:
824:
3055:
2884:
2811:
2690:
2604:
2514:
2468:
2287:
2187:
2146:
2128:
2111:
2097:
2076:
2061:
2047:
2039:
2011:
1153:
952:
820:
452:
373:
3030:
L'Esercito Italiano Nella Grande Guerra (1915â1918), Volume V, Tomo 2, Le Operazioni Del 1918
1819:
2218:
2201:
1934:
1795:
1755:
was no movement on this front until the Italians abandoned their positions after Caporetto.
1458:
1374:
1175:
956:
869:, over about 75 km as the crow flies, and about double the distance on the ground. The
726:. In practical terms however, the road and rail systems did not allow the Italian commander
615:
211:
199:
185:
171:
131:
126:
60:
2321:
1996:(= Innsbrucker Forschungen zur Zeitgeschichte, Band 12), Vienna/Innsbruck 1995, pp. 27â60.
1649:
1593:
1573:
1045:
1033:
885:
862:
812:
643:
623:
268:
240:
226:
190:
143:
138:
1544:. Unable to make any progress here, the Italians turned their attention westwards to the
1536:
Italian infantry climbing up a difficult ravine unexpectedly occupies Cima di Falzarego.
1484:
1395:
45:
2138:
2030:
Unterwegs vom Plöckenpass zum Kanaltal. Auf den Spuren der Karnischen Front, 1915â1917.
1975:
1799:
1626:
1545:
1378:
1157:
1149:
1119:
1049:
936:
837:
791:
were built too, and this building work itself was difficult, dangerous and exhausting.
787:
tracks and pathways was established, reaching even the most remote places. Eventually,
664:
64:
3102:
2838:
1832:
1802:
with incendiary bombs and shells, destroying it and forcing its inhabitants to flee.
1779:
The first action in this sector was a surprise Italian attack on 9 June 1915 by the "
1639:
1584:
1549:
1541:
1111:
889:
727:
254:
176:
156:
2213:
1763:
1725:
The so-called âBridge of Sighsâ in the Austrian tunnels under the Marmolada glacier
1553:
1514:
1489:, who had accompanied clients from all over Europe, added greatly to the interest.
1276:
1094:
1023:
828:
755:
742:
690:
1667:
Italian magazine cover celebrating the short-lived taking of the Col di Lana, 1915
1560:, they could dominate the eastern Tyrolean highlands and prepare to attack up the
3049:
2878:
2805:
2684:
2598:
2508:
2462:
2440:
2281:
1970:Ăsterreichisches Bundesministerium fĂŒr Heereswesen; War Records, Vienna (publ.):
1386:
1088:
2401:"The Most Treacherous Battle of World War I Took Place in the Italian Mountains"
1844:
1622:
1618:
1557:
1494:
1466:
1342:
1254:
1168:
1107:
1103:
843:
759:
715:
710:, offered major advantages to Austria-Hungary. Extending southwards towards the
301:
c. 150,000â180,000 overall deaths, only one third of which were caused by combat
108:
1880:
1062:
2001:
Unbesiegt und doch geschlagen. Der Gebirgskrieg an KĂ€rntens Grenze, 1915â1917.
1382:
1337:
1207:
968:
960:
881:
858:
747:
638:) is the name given to the fighting in the high-altitude Alpine sector of the
204:
52:
1268:
1073:
714:, it potentially allowed Austro-Hungarian forces to strike towards the lower
2880:
La guerra fra rocce e ghiacci: La guerra mondiale 1915â1918 in alta montagne
1788:
1730:
1580:
1561:
1211:
1186:
1041:
1029:
921:
908:
854:
827:, and mixed with the troops of the fortress of Verona, under the command of
647:
93:
1729:
During the whole of 1915 neither of the two armies attempted to occupy the
1008:
920:
took command of the defense of Tyrol at the start of hostilities, based in
875:
1827:
1532:
1500:
3032:. Rome: Stato Maggiore dellâEsercito, Ufficio Storico. 1967. p. 788.
2628:
1735:
1645:
1442:
1438:
1433:
1331:
1326:
1322:
1259:
1230:
1221:
1216:
1115:
948:
944:
711:
707:
1609:
63:
from 1916; Austrian infantrymen waiting for the ration in the sector of
1630:
1565:
866:
847:
1369:
Archaeologist studying the remains of WW1 positions on the Croda Rossa
959:
and with three reinforcing battalions until the arrival of the German
2210:. Erstausgabe: Jonathan Cape Limited, 1929. Arrow Books, London 1994.
1807:
1798:
in 15 June 15. On 27 September Austro-Hungarian attacked the town of
1446:
1203:
1018:
996:
940:
846:, defending the Trentino salient with the 35th Reserve Division near
816:
731:
719:
659:
603:
2254:
2177:
Der Tod des Doppeladlers. Ăsterreich-Ungarn und der Erste Weltkrieg.
1884:
Orthodox church built by Russian prisoners of war, rifugio CarĂš Alto
734:
front further east, where he hoped to make a decisive breakthrough.
67:; difficult transport of an Italian artillery piece at high altitude
1974:
1931 vom Verlag der MilitÀrwissenschaftlichen Mitteilungen, Vienna
1843:
On 1 November 1918 the final Italian attack came, this time on the
1365:
686:
Map showing the border as it ran through the various mountain peaks
1879:
1854:
1826:
1770:
1762:
1741:
1720:
1662:
1608:
1531:
1499:
1465:
1457:
1419:
1364:
1308:
1287:
1275:
1244:
1193:
1185:
1134:
1079:
1028:
1007:
935:, while one brigade controlled the garrison of the strongholds of
907:
899:
777:
769:
738:
723:
689:
681:
597:
16:
High-altitude mountain warfare in the Italian front of World War I
2058:
Spielhahnstoss und Edelweiss â Die Geschichte der KaiserschĂŒtzen.
1336:. At its centre stand the peaks of Cristallo itself at 3221m and
924:. His field of operations stretched from the Stelvio Pass to the
1767:
Alpini machine-gunners in the corno di Cavento, facing Adamello.
1389:. The Austro-Hungarians had one of the best guides in the area,
306:
1249:
Trench on Monte Piana, looking towards the Tre Cime di Lavaredo
310:
1746:
Austrian gun inside an ice cave at position "32" on Marmolada
2807:
The White War: Life and Death on the Italian Front, 1915â1919
2184:
The White War. Life and Death on the Italian Front 1915â1919.
2172:
Mohorjeva zaloĆŸba, Celovec/Ljubljana/Dunaj 1993 (slowenisch).
1806:
and 28 May. Seven battalions of Italian troops together with
3119:
Military operations of World War I involving Austria-Hungary
2464:
The White War: Life and Death on the Italian Front 1915â1919
888:
and the sources of the Piave, came under I Corps of General
2774:"La Guerra nelle Dolomiti. Il monte Cristallo, agosto 1916"
2715:"La Guerra nelle Dolomiti. Il monte Cristallo, agosto 1915"
782:
Italian soldier using a cableway to reach extreme positions
730:
to mass his forces here, so instead he concentrated on the
2342:"A Century Later, Relics Emerge From a War Frozen in Time"
2032:
Mohorjeva â Hermagoras, Klagenfurt, 2004 (with tour guide)
1633:
and the tens to the west. It was protected to the west by
3077:"Gli ultimi: prigionieri serbi e russi sul fronte alpino"
2442:
Storia della Grande Guerra sul fronte italiano: 1914â1918
1775:
Austrian forces repel an attack on the Presanella glacier
1373:
At the eastern edge of the 4th Italian Army sector, the
1325:
basin, the Val Popena and road from Rifugio Ospitale to
1174:
In Cortina the gendarmes, the financial police, the few
904:
An Austrian patrol in the highest mountains of the Tyrol
2629:"Fighting in the Falzarego Pass â War in the Dolomites"
1907:
Alpini and Mountain Artillery formations in World War I
1556:. If they could take this and then gain control of the
2108:
Die Dolomitenfront von Trient bis zum Kreuzbergsattel.
1930:
Austro-Hungarian fortifications on the Italian border
1840:
d'Albiolo, lost at the beginning of the war in 1915.
1831:
Italian units attack an Austrian squad on the top of
1012:
The Austrian fortress of Mitterberg near Sexten/Sesto
774:
Italian soldiers haul their cannon up a mountainside
2931:"Vivere sotto il ghiaccio durante la Grande Guerra"
2073:
Der Tiroler Hochgebirgskrieg 1915â1918 im Luftbild.
606:, the highest trench in the First World War (3850m)
1280:The supply route on the north side on Monte Piana
865:, which its forces from the Cereda Pass to Mount
2958:Il 67° Fanteria â Cento anni di storia 1862â1962
1835:, at 3469 meters in the Ortles-Cevedale sector.
1613:Marker for the Austrian positions on Col di Lana
1644:and on the northern side, at the foot of Mount
741:on the upper Isonzo to the Swiss border at the
30:
2221:. Ein Roman aus den Schicksalstagen SĂŒdtirols.
2025:Ghedina & Tassotti Editori, Cortina, 1973.
322:
8:
3109:Military history of Italy during World War I
3083:. Osservatorio Balcani e Caucaso Transeuropa
3012:Allgemeine Schweizerische MilitÀrzeitschrift
1992:In: Klaus Eisterer, Rolf Steininger (eds.):
1036:in 1916, half-destroyed by Italian artillery
2023:SchauplÀtze des Gebirgskrieges in 5 BÀnden.
1972:Ăsterreich-Ungarns letzter Krieg 1914â1918.
1040:The pass between the Ampezzo basin and the
51:Clockwise from above: Austrian barracks in
2872:
2870:
2868:
2866:
2864:
2862:
2860:
2597:Mario Vianelli; Giovanni Cenacchi (2014).
2456:
2454:
2452:
2434:
2432:
2430:
2428:
2426:
2424:
2422:
2163:Kreuze in Ladinien im Herzen von Ladinien.
329:
315:
307:
44:
27:
2678:
2676:
2674:
2672:
2670:
2635:. British Commission for Military History
3043:
3041:
3039:
2668:
2666:
2664:
2662:
2660:
2658:
2656:
2654:
2652:
2650:
2335:
2333:
2331:
2003:Verlagsbuchhandlung Stöhr, Vienna, 2005.
1920:Mines on the Italian front (World War I)
107:âą Austrian defeat and subsequent end of
2979:
2977:
2975:
2973:
2971:
2969:
2967:
2622:
2620:
2502:
2500:
2498:
2496:
2494:
2492:
2490:
2488:
2486:
2484:
2261:. Museo della Guerra Bianca in Adamello
2255:"Museo della Guerra Bianca in Adamello"
2233:
1859:Austrian soldiers in their trenches on
1454:Tre cime di Lavaredo and Sasso di Sesto
602:Austro-Hungarian trench at the peak of
2592:
2590:
2588:
2586:
2584:
2582:
2580:
2578:
2576:
2574:
2572:
2570:
2568:
2566:
2564:
2562:
2560:
2558:
2556:
2554:
2552:
2550:
2317:
2306:
1139:Soldiers maneuver a cannon in the snow
916:On the Austro-Hungarian side, General
2799:
2797:
2795:
2742:
2740:
2738:
2736:
2708:
2706:
2686:1915â1917, guerra in Ampezzo e Cadore
2548:
2546:
2544:
2542:
2540:
2538:
2536:
2534:
2532:
2530:
2373:"The Awful Beauty of the 'White War'"
2348:. National Geographic. Archived from
706:. One section along this border, the
7:
2340:Gravino, Michele (18 October 2014).
2280:Heinz Lichem von Löwenbourg (1980).
2125:Die KÀmpfe um den Plöckenpaà 1915/17
1999:Hubert Fankhauser, Wilfried Gallin:
1629:, connecting Cortina dâAmpezzo with
1130:
288:Two armies for about 100â120,000 men
2748:"Gruppi del Cristallo e del Forame"
2371:Dunlap, David (20 September 2017).
2046:, Athesia, Issues. 2â7, 1976-2007,
1925:Museum of the White War in Adamello
1114:with its tunnels and trenches, and
14:
1321:lies between the Val Grande, the
1056:was blocked upstream of Pieve by
853:The 4th Army was deployed on the
704:Third Italian War of Independence
2197:With focus on the Mountain War:
2028:Gabriele und Walther Schaumann:
267:
253:
239:
225:
210:
198:
184:
170:
149:
137:
125:
2937:. ilsole24ore.com. 20 June 2018
2600:Teatri di guerra sulle Dolomiti
1445:. It was the towns of Moso and
1160:, hurriedly transferred to the
965:Konrad Krafft von Dellmensingen
260:Konrad Krafft von Dellmensingen
80:May 24, 1915 â November 4, 1918
2909:museomarmaladagrandeguerra.com
2186:Faber and Faber, London 2008.
1994:Tirol und der Erste Weltkrieg.
1863:in the Ortles-Cevedale sector.
1759:The Adamello-Presanella sector
1131:Conca d'Ampezzo and Som Pouses
1:
1913:Heldenkampf in Schnee und Eis
3129:Battles of the Italian Front
2804:Mark Thompson (2009-08-06).
2510:Guerra sulle Alpi. 1915â1917
2060:Leopold Stocker, Graz 1977,
1658:Livinallongo del Col di Lana
1054:Livinallongo del Col di Lana
3114:Wars of Italian unification
2985:"Guerra Bianca In Adamello"
2094:Ortler, Adamello, Gardasee.
2090:(3 vols.), Athesia, Bozen.
2010:Ares, Graz, 3rd edn. 2009.
1048:on the stony ground of the
232:Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf
38:Italian front (World War I)
3145:
2157:With focus on combatants:
1851:The Ortles-Cevedale sector
1714:
1385:, the Zsigmondy crest and
18:
2778:storiamemoriadibologna.it
2719:storiamemoriadibologna.it
2175:Manfried Rauchensteiner:
2075:Steiger, Innsbruck 1985,
1952:Zweite Dolomitenoffensive
973:General Roth von Limanowa
896:Empire of Austria-Hungary
702:at the conclusion of the
346:
300:
295:
282:
217:Mario Nicolis di Robilant
163:
118:
72:
43:
35:
2839:"Falzarego pass 1915â17"
2780:. Istituto Boligna Musei
2721:. Istituto Boligna Musei
2439:Gianni Pieropan (1988).
1940:Erste Dolomitenoffensive
1861:Piz da las Trais Linguas
918:Viktor Dankl von Krasnik
752:Adamello-Presanella Alps
656:Adamello-Presanella Alps
246:Viktor Dankl von Krasnik
2877:Gunther Langes (2015).
2088:Gebirgskrieg 1915â1918.
1990:Die SĂŒdfront 1915â1918.
1379:Monte Croce di Comelico
700:Treaty of Vienna (1866)
694:Alpine front, 1915â1917
468:Caporetto (12th Isonzo)
19:For the TV series, see
2683:Antonio Berti (1982).
2513:. Ugo Mursia Editore.
2461:Mark Thompson (2009).
2346:nationalgeographic.com
2283:Gebirgskrieg 1915â1918
2038:Hornung, Munich 1974,
1885:
1864:
1836:
1776:
1768:
1747:
1726:
1697:59th Infantry Regiment
1674:60th Infantry Regiment
1668:
1614:
1537:
1505:
1471:
1463:
1425:
1370:
1314:
1293:
1281:
1250:
1206:to the north-west and
1199:
1191:
1140:
1037:
1013:
913:
905:
783:
775:
695:
687:
673:Geography of the front
635:
627:
619:
607:
499:Capture of Col Moschin
164:Commanders and leaders
90:Southern Rhaetian Alps
2810:. Faber & Faber.
1883:
1858:
1830:
1815:âAvalanche Offensiveâ
1774:
1766:
1745:
1724:
1666:
1612:
1535:
1503:
1469:
1461:
1423:
1368:
1312:
1291:
1279:
1248:
1197:
1189:
1138:
1032:
1011:
933:General Können-Horack
911:
903:
857:sector under General
781:
773:
766:Logistical challenges
693:
685:
646:, principally in the
601:
296:Casualties and losses
21:White War (TV series)
3048:Diego Leoni (2015).
2507:Fritz Weber (2016).
2407:. Smithsonian Museum
2399:Mockenhaupt, Brian.
2259:museoguerrabianca.it
2179:Graz/Wien/Köln 1997.
1988:Wolfgang Etschmann:
1870:Battle of San Matteo
1781:"Morbegno battalion"
1462:Tre Cime di Lavaredo
1375:Croda Rossa di Sesto
1361:Croda Rossa di Sesto
1292:Monte Piana trenches
1126:The Dolomites sector
971:, he handed over to
912:The war in the Tyrol
880:sector, between the
750:the Ortler, and the
652:Ortles-Cevedale Alps
580:Tre Cime di Lavaredo
411:Gorizia (6th Isonzo)
3051:La guerra verticale
2845:. Lagazuoi Dolomiti
2752:frontedolomitico.it
2165:Athesia Bozen 2000.
2021:Walther Schaumann:
1981:Jordan, Alexander:
1717:White Friday (1916)
1682:Kostantin Valentini
882:Pale di San Martino
274:Ludwig Können-Horåk
3081:balcanicaucaso.org
2405:smithsonianmag.com
2378:The New York Times
2352:on August 12, 2019
2316:Unknown parameter
2240:Heinz von Lichem,
2207:A Farewell to Arms
2143:Der Dolomitenkrieg
2086:Heinz von Lichem:
2071:Heinz von Lichem:
2036:Der einsame Krieg.
1983:Krieg um die Alpen
1886:
1865:
1837:
1777:
1769:
1748:
1727:
1701:Brigade "Calabria"
1678:Brigade "Calabria"
1669:
1615:
1538:
1506:
1472:
1464:
1426:
1371:
1315:
1294:
1282:
1251:
1200:
1192:
1141:
1044:was controlled by
1038:
1014:
963:, whose commander
914:
906:
784:
776:
696:
688:
608:
249:(Defence of Tyrol)
65:Dreisprachenspitze
3061:978-88-584-2092-8
2890:978-88-6839-050-1
2817:978-0-571-25008-0
2772:Antolini, Paolo.
2713:Antolini, Paolo.
2696:978-88-85008-44-1
2610:978-88-520-5149-4
2520:978-88-425-5379-3
2474:978-0-7867-4438-1
2293:978-88-7014-175-7
2242:Der einsame Krieg
2192:978-0-571-22333-6
2151:978-3-937834-71-9
2123:Erwin Steinböck:
2052:978-88-7014-174-0
2016:978-3-902475-62-6
1915:(propaganda film)
1711:Marmolada glacier
1145:Cortina d'Ampezzo
979:Balance of forces
953:Pergine Valsugana
593:
592:
305:
304:
278:
264:
250:
236:
221:
195:
181:
114:
113:
105:Italian victory
68:
3136:
3124:Mountain warfare
3093:
3092:
3090:
3088:
3072:
3066:
3065:
3045:
3034:
3033:
3026:
3020:
3019:
3007:
3001:
3000:
2998:
2996:
2981:
2962:
2961:
2956:Baldrati, P. A.
2953:
2947:
2946:
2944:
2942:
2927:
2921:
2920:
2918:
2916:
2901:
2895:
2894:
2874:
2855:
2854:
2852:
2850:
2835:
2829:
2828:
2826:
2824:
2801:
2790:
2789:
2787:
2785:
2769:
2763:
2762:
2760:
2758:
2744:
2731:
2730:
2728:
2726:
2710:
2701:
2700:
2680:
2645:
2644:
2642:
2640:
2627:Bailey, George.
2624:
2615:
2614:
2594:
2525:
2524:
2504:
2479:
2478:
2458:
2447:
2446:
2436:
2417:
2416:
2414:
2412:
2396:
2390:
2389:
2387:
2385:
2368:
2362:
2361:
2359:
2357:
2337:
2326:
2325:
2319:
2314:
2312:
2304:
2302:
2300:
2277:
2271:
2270:
2268:
2266:
2251:
2245:
2238:
2219:Berge in Flammen
2202:Ernest Hemingway
1960:
1948:
1935:Mountain warfare
1876:Prisoners of war
1823:
1796:Corno di Cavento
1690:
1643:
1518:
1488:
1480:Sepp Innerkofler
1402:Zsigmondy refuge
1399:
1391:Sepp Innerkofler
1335:
1272:
1225:
1143:The war reached
1092:
1078:. Finally, near
1077:
1066:
957:Ludwig Goiginger
879:
841:
807:Kingdom of Italy
515:3rd Monte Grappa
505:2nd Monte Grappa
483:1st Monte Grappa
341:
331:
324:
317:
308:
276:
272:
271:
262:
258:
257:
248:
244:
243:
235:(Chief of staff)
234:
230:
229:
219:
215:
214:
203:
202:
193:
189:
188:
180:(Chief of staff)
179:
175:
174:
159:
155:
153:
152:
142:
141:
132:Kingdom of Italy
130:
129:
74:
73:
61:Achille Beltrame
57:Alpine with mule
50:
48:
28:
3144:
3143:
3139:
3138:
3137:
3135:
3134:
3133:
3099:
3098:
3097:
3096:
3086:
3084:
3074:
3073:
3069:
3062:
3047:
3046:
3037:
3028:
3027:
3023:
3009:
3008:
3004:
2994:
2992:
2983:
2982:
2965:
2955:
2954:
2950:
2940:
2938:
2929:
2928:
2924:
2914:
2912:
2911:. Marmolada Srl
2903:
2902:
2898:
2891:
2876:
2875:
2858:
2848:
2846:
2837:
2836:
2832:
2822:
2820:
2818:
2803:
2802:
2793:
2783:
2781:
2771:
2770:
2766:
2756:
2754:
2746:
2745:
2734:
2724:
2722:
2712:
2711:
2704:
2697:
2682:
2681:
2648:
2638:
2636:
2626:
2625:
2618:
2611:
2596:
2595:
2528:
2521:
2506:
2505:
2482:
2475:
2467:. Basic Books.
2460:
2459:
2450:
2438:
2437:
2420:
2410:
2408:
2398:
2397:
2393:
2383:
2381:
2370:
2369:
2365:
2355:
2353:
2339:
2338:
2329:
2315:
2305:
2298:
2296:
2294:
2279:
2278:
2274:
2264:
2262:
2253:
2252:
2248:
2239:
2235:
2230:
2182:Mark Thompson:
2168:Vasja Klavora:
2110:(Vol. 2) 1997,
2096:(Vol. 1) 1996,
1967:
1965:Further reading
1954:
1942:
1903:
1878:
1853:
1817:
1761:
1719:
1713:
1684:
1650:Forte Tre Sassi
1637:
1607:
1594:carbon monoxide
1589:Victor Emmanuel
1574:Tofana di Rozes
1530:
1512:
1482:
1456:
1393:
1387:it:Monte Popera
1363:
1329:
1319:Cristallo Group
1313:Monte Cristallo
1307:
1305:Monte Cristallo
1266:
1243:
1219:
1198:Monte Cristallo
1133:
1128:
1093:, guarding the
1086:
1071:
1060:
1046:Forte Tre Sassi
1034:Forte Tre Sassi
1006:
981:
898:
886:Valle del Boite
873:
863:Vittorio Veneto
835:
833:Passo Tre Croci
813:Roberto Brusati
809:
804:
802:Military forces
768:
754:controlled the
680:
675:
644:First World War
596:
595:
594:
589:
570:Monte Cristallo
545:Sentinella Pass
520:Vittorio Veneto
495:2nd Piave River
478:1st Piave River
342:
337:
335:
277:(91st Division)
266:
265:
252:
251:
238:
237:
224:
209:
208:
197:
196:
191:Roberto Brusati
183:
182:
169:
150:
148:
147:
146:
144:Austria-Hungary
136:
124:
96:
49:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3142:
3140:
3132:
3131:
3126:
3121:
3116:
3111:
3101:
3100:
3095:
3094:
3075:Abram, Marco.
3067:
3060:
3035:
3021:
3002:
2963:
2948:
2935:Il Sole 24 Ore
2922:
2896:
2889:
2856:
2830:
2816:
2791:
2764:
2732:
2702:
2695:
2646:
2616:
2609:
2526:
2519:
2480:
2473:
2448:
2418:
2391:
2363:
2327:
2292:
2272:
2246:
2232:
2231:
2229:
2226:
2225:
2224:
2211:
2195:
2194:
2180:
2173:
2166:
2161:Walter Gauss:
2155:
2154:
2139:Uwe Nettelbeck
2136:
2121:
2120:
2119:
2105:
2084:
2069:
2055:
2033:
2026:
2019:
2006:Ingomar Pust:
2004:
1997:
1986:
1979:
1966:
1963:
1962:
1961:
1949:
1937:
1932:
1927:
1922:
1917:
1909:
1902:
1899:
1877:
1874:
1852:
1849:
1800:Ponte di Legno
1760:
1757:
1712:
1709:
1635:Forte La Corte
1627:Falzarego Pass
1606:
1603:
1546:Falzarego Pass
1529:
1528:Falzarego Pass
1526:
1455:
1452:
1362:
1359:
1306:
1303:
1242:
1239:
1154:LandesschĂŒtzen
1150:Ladin speakers
1132:
1129:
1127:
1124:
1050:Valparola Pass
1005:
1004:Fortifications
1002:
980:
977:
937:Riva del Garda
897:
894:
808:
805:
803:
800:
767:
764:
679:
678:The front line
676:
674:
671:
665:New York World
591:
590:
588:
587:
582:
577:
572:
567:
562:
557:
552:
547:
542:
537:
523:
522:
517:
512:
507:
502:
486:
485:
480:
475:
470:
465:
460:
455:
450:
439:
438:
433:
428:
423:
418:
408:
398:
387:
386:
381:
376:
371:
366:
361:
356:
347:
344:
343:
336:
334:
333:
326:
319:
311:
303:
302:
298:
297:
293:
292:
289:
285:
284:
280:
279:
222:
166:
165:
161:
160:
134:
121:
120:
116:
115:
112:
111:
102:
98:
97:
88:
86:
82:
81:
78:
70:
69:
41:
40:
33:
32:
26:
25:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3141:
3130:
3127:
3125:
3122:
3120:
3117:
3115:
3112:
3110:
3107:
3106:
3104:
3082:
3078:
3071:
3068:
3063:
3057:
3053:
3052:
3044:
3042:
3040:
3036:
3031:
3025:
3022:
3017:
3013:
3006:
3003:
2990:
2986:
2980:
2978:
2976:
2974:
2972:
2970:
2968:
2964:
2960:. p. 47.
2959:
2952:
2949:
2936:
2932:
2926:
2923:
2910:
2906:
2905:"City of Ice"
2900:
2897:
2892:
2886:
2882:
2881:
2873:
2871:
2869:
2867:
2865:
2863:
2861:
2857:
2844:
2840:
2834:
2831:
2819:
2813:
2809:
2808:
2800:
2798:
2796:
2792:
2779:
2775:
2768:
2765:
2753:
2749:
2743:
2741:
2739:
2737:
2733:
2720:
2716:
2709:
2707:
2703:
2698:
2692:
2688:
2687:
2679:
2677:
2675:
2673:
2671:
2669:
2667:
2665:
2663:
2661:
2659:
2657:
2655:
2653:
2651:
2647:
2634:
2630:
2623:
2621:
2617:
2612:
2606:
2603:. Mondadori.
2602:
2601:
2593:
2591:
2589:
2587:
2585:
2583:
2581:
2579:
2577:
2575:
2573:
2571:
2569:
2567:
2565:
2563:
2561:
2559:
2557:
2555:
2553:
2551:
2549:
2547:
2545:
2543:
2541:
2539:
2537:
2535:
2533:
2531:
2527:
2522:
2516:
2512:
2511:
2503:
2501:
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2402:
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2379:
2374:
2367:
2364:
2351:
2347:
2343:
2336:
2334:
2332:
2328:
2323:
2318:|agency=
2310:
2295:
2289:
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2284:
2276:
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2256:
2250:
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2234:
2227:
2222:
2220:
2215:
2212:
2209:
2208:
2203:
2200:
2199:
2198:
2193:
2189:
2185:
2181:
2178:
2174:
2171:
2167:
2164:
2160:
2159:
2158:
2152:
2148:
2144:
2140:
2137:
2134:
2133:3-215-01650-8
2130:
2126:
2122:
2117:
2116:88-7014-236-1
2113:
2109:
2106:
2103:
2102:88-7014-175-6
2099:
2095:
2092:
2091:
2089:
2085:
2082:
2081:3-85423-052-4
2078:
2074:
2070:
2067:
2066:3-7020-0260-X
2063:
2059:
2056:
2053:
2049:
2045:
2044:3-87364-031-7
2041:
2037:
2034:
2031:
2027:
2024:
2020:
2017:
2013:
2009:
2005:
2002:
1998:
1995:
1991:
1987:
1984:
1980:
1977:
1976:(archive.org)
1973:
1969:
1968:
1964:
1958:
1953:
1950:
1946:
1941:
1938:
1936:
1933:
1931:
1928:
1926:
1923:
1921:
1918:
1916:
1914:
1910:
1908:
1905:
1904:
1900:
1898:
1894:
1890:
1882:
1875:
1873:
1871:
1862:
1857:
1850:
1848:
1846:
1841:
1834:
1833:Tuckettspitze
1829:
1825:
1821:
1816:
1811:
1809:
1803:
1801:
1797:
1792:
1790:
1785:
1782:
1773:
1765:
1758:
1756:
1752:
1744:
1740:
1737:
1732:
1723:
1718:
1710:
1708:
1704:
1702:
1698:
1692:
1688:
1683:
1679:
1675:
1665:
1661:
1659:
1653:
1651:
1647:
1641:
1636:
1632:
1628:
1624:
1620:
1611:
1604:
1602:
1598:
1595:
1590:
1586:
1582:
1577:
1575:
1569:
1567:
1563:
1559:
1555:
1551:
1550:Sass de Stria
1547:
1543:
1542:Puster Valley
1534:
1527:
1525:
1521:
1516:
1511:
1510:Val Fiscalina
1502:
1498:
1496:
1490:
1486:
1481:
1477:
1470:Monte Paterno
1468:
1460:
1453:
1451:
1448:
1444:
1440:
1435:
1430:
1422:
1418:
1415:
1414:"Fenestrelle"
1411:
1405:
1403:
1397:
1392:
1388:
1384:
1380:
1376:
1367:
1360:
1358:
1354:
1350:
1346:
1344:
1339:
1333:
1328:
1324:
1320:
1311:
1304:
1302:
1298:
1290:
1286:
1278:
1274:
1270:
1265:
1261:
1256:
1247:
1240:
1238:
1234:
1232:
1227:
1223:
1218:
1213:
1209:
1205:
1196:
1188:
1184:
1180:
1177:
1176:StandschĂŒtzen
1172:
1170:
1165:
1163:
1162:Eastern Front
1159:
1155:
1151:
1146:
1137:
1125:
1123:
1121:
1117:
1113:
1112:Sass de Stria
1109:
1105:
1099:
1096:
1090:
1085:
1081:
1075:
1070:
1064:
1059:
1055:
1051:
1047:
1043:
1035:
1031:
1027:
1025:
1020:
1010:
1003:
1001:
998:
994:
990:
985:
978:
976:
974:
970:
966:
962:
958:
954:
950:
946:
942:
938:
934:
929:
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31:The White War
29:
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3087:19 September
3085:. Retrieved
3080:
3070:
3050:
3029:
3024:
3015:
3011:
3005:
2995:19 September
2993:. Retrieved
2991:. Museo Pejo
2989:museopejo.it
2988:
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2951:
2941:18 September
2939:. Retrieved
2934:
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2915:17 September
2913:. Retrieved
2908:
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2847:. Retrieved
2842:
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2806:
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2354:. Retrieved
2350:the original
2345:
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2282:
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2265:13 September
2263:. Retrieved
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1548:between the
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1504:Torre Toblin
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1156:and four of
1142:
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1095:Fassa Valley
1084:Forte Someda
1052:, while the
1039:
1024:Val Pusteria
1015:
986:
982:
930:
915:
852:
810:
797:
793:
785:
756:Stelvio Pass
743:Stelvio Pass
736:
697:
663:
636:FehĂ©r HĂĄborĂș
628:Gebirgskrieg
611:
609:
526:
525:
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488:
487:
441:
440:
436:White Friday
405:Monte Cengio
389:
388:
348:
263:(Alpenkorps)
119:Belligerents
104:
59:painting by
56:
3054:. Einaudi.
2883:. Athesia.
2843:lagazuoi.it
2633:bcmh.org.uk
2286:. Athesia.
2170:Plavi KriĆŸ.
1955: [
1943: [
1845:Tonale Pass
1818: [
1685: [
1638: [
1623:Pordoi Pass
1619:Col di Lana
1605:Col di Lana
1558:Col di Lana
1513: [
1483: [
1443:San Candido
1424:Croda Rossa
1394: [
1383:Cima Undici
1343:Monte Piana
1330: [
1267: [
1255:Monte Piana
1241:Monte Piana
1220: [
1169:Monte Piana
1158:KaiserjÀger
1108:Col di Lana
1104:Monte Piana
1087: [
1072: [
1061: [
1058:Forte Corte
874: [
861:, based in
844:Cereda Pass
836: [
760:Tonale Pass
662:. In 1917
642:during the
575:Monte Piana
560:Col di Lana
529:(1915â1918)
463:11th Isonzo
448:10th Isonzo
109:World War I
3103:Categories
2689:. Arcana.
2228:References
1789:Monte Fumo
1715:See also:
1338:Piz Popena
1264:Mount Rudo
1210:and Monte
1208:Pomagagnon
1190:Pomagagnon
1069:Forte Ruaz
969:Alto Adige
961:Alpenkorps
926:Croda Nera
859:Luigi Nava
748:Lake Garda
510:San Matteo
431:9th Isonzo
426:8th Isonzo
421:7th Isonzo
396:5th Isonzo
384:4th Isonzo
379:3rd Isonzo
369:2nd Isonzo
364:Col Basson
359:1st Isonzo
220:(4th Army)
205:Luigi Nava
194:(1st Army)
53:East Tyrol
2445:. Mursia.
2320:ignored (
2309:cite book
2299:1 October
1731:Marmolada
1587:and King
1581:gelignite
1562:Val Badia
1231:howitzers
1212:Cristallo
1042:Val Badia
922:Innsbruck
871:Cordevole
855:Dolomites
825:Aliprindi
815:based in
789:cableways
648:Dolomites
632:Hungarian
612:White War
550:Marmolada
527:White War
94:Dolomites
2244:, p. 240
1901:See also
1736:ecrasite
1646:Lagazuoi
1625:and the
1564:towards
1552:and the
1476:Tre Cime
1439:Dobbiaco
1434:Misurina
1410:"Cadore"
1327:Carbonin
1323:Misurina
1260:Dobbiaco
1217:Carbonin
1116:Lagazuoi
949:Rovereto
945:Lavarone
842:and the
821:Camerana
758:and the
712:River Po
708:Trentino
654:and the
555:Lagazuoi
535:Adamello
473:Pozzuolo
458:Ortigara
354:Hill 383
283:Strength
85:Location
36:Part of
1699:of the
1676:of the
1631:Canazei
1585:Cadorna
1566:Bruneck
1495:Paterno
989:Galicia
867:Peralba
848:Brescia
616:Italian
540:Pasubio
453:Flondar
415:DoberdĂČ
374:Podgora
157:Germany
3058:
3018:: 582.
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2079:
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2050:
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2014:
1808:Arditi
1204:Tofane
1082:stood
1019:Agordo
997:Asiago
993:Conrad
941:Trento
817:Verona
732:Isonzo
720:Mincio
660:Ortler
650:, the
624:German
604:Ortler
565:Tofane
401:Asiago
154:
101:Result
2223:1931.
1959:]
1947:]
1822:]
1689:]
1648:, by
1642:]
1517:]
1487:]
1447:Sesto
1398:]
1334:]
1271:]
1224:]
1120:mines
1091:]
1080:Moena
1076:]
1065:]
878:]
840:]
739:Bovec
737:From
724:Drava
716:Adige
3089:2020
3056:ISBN
2997:2020
2943:2020
2917:2020
2885:ISBN
2851:2020
2825:2020
2812:ISBN
2786:2020
2759:2020
2727:2020
2691:ISBN
2641:2020
2605:ISBN
2515:ISBN
2469:ISBN
2413:2020
2386:2020
2358:2020
2322:help
2301:2015
2288:ISBN
2267:2020
2188:ISBN
2147:ISBN
2129:ISBN
2112:ISBN
2098:ISBN
2077:ISBN
2062:ISBN
2048:ISBN
2040:ISBN
2012:ISBN
1617:The
1441:and
1412:and
1317:The
1106:and
1067:and
951:and
939:and
823:and
718:and
610:The
489:1918
442:1917
390:1916
349:1915
77:Date
3105::
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