344:
of a strong information sharing environment. The main problem is the risk that certain ideas, while integral to finding a possible solution, may be too controversial to accept by other involved parties. By enhancing the collaborative processes between researchers, this allows for wider coordination of roles within this research. With the inclusion of diverse perspectives into this process, it enhances the potential options and figures considered. The commitment to collaboration in addressing a Wicked problem will likely result in further understanding of the underlying factors and could enhance the means of addressing it.
349:
understanding and commitment to solving a wicked problem is a time-consuming process. Another difficulty is that, in some matters, at least one group of people may hold an absolute belief that necessarily contradicts other absolute beliefs held by other groups. Collaboration then becomes impossible until one set of beliefs is relativized or abandoned entirely.
512:. Convergent problems are those for which attempted solutions gradually converge on one solution or answer. Divergent problems are those for which different answers appear to increasingly contradict each other all the more they are elaborated, requiring a different approach involving faculties of a higher order like love and empathy.
329:
These strategies seek to tame wicked problems by vesting the responsibility for solving the problems in the hands of a few people. The reduction in the number of stakeholders reduces problem complexity, as many competing points of view are eliminated at the start. The disadvantage is that authorities
318:
Wicked problems cannot be tackled by the traditional approach in which problems are defined, analysed and solved in sequential steps. The main reason for this is that there is no clear problem definition of wicked problems. Ultimately, the solution to ‘Wicked’ problems requires additional research to
309:
A recurring theme in research and industry literature is the connection between wicked problems and design. Design problems are typically wicked because they are often ill-defined (no prescribed way forward), involve stakeholders with different perspectives, and have no "right" or "optimal" solution.
348:
In his 1972 paper, Rittel hints at a collaborative approach; one which attempts "to make those people who are being affected into participants of the planning process. They are not merely asked but actively involved in the planning process." A disadvantage of this approach is that achieving a shared
336:
These strategies attempt to solve wicked problems by pitting opposing points of view against each other, requiring parties that hold these views to come up with their preferred solutions. The advantage of this approach is that different solutions can be weighed up against each other and the best one
343:
These strategies aim to engage all stakeholders in order to find the best possible solution for all stakeholders. Typically these approaches involve meetings in which issues and ideas are discussed and a common, agreed approach is formulated. A significant advantage of this approach is the creation
587:
While the items that define a wicked problem relate to the problem itself, the items that define a super wicked problem relate to the agent trying to solve it. Global warming is a super wicked problem, and the need to intervene to tend to our longer term interests has also been taken up by others,
356:
has been used in tackling wicked problems in organizations using a collaborative approach. More recently, in a four-year study of interorganizational collaboration across public, private, and voluntary sectors, steering by government was found to perversely undermine a successful collaboration,
42:
is a problem that is difficult or impossible to solve because of incomplete, contradictory, and changing requirements that are often difficult to recognize. It refers to an idea or problem that cannot be fixed, where there is no single solution to the problem; and "wicked" denotes resistance to
268:
The search for scientific bases for confronting problems of social policy is bound to fail because of the nature of these problems... Policy problems cannot be definitively described. Moreover, in a pluralistic society there is nothing like the indisputable public good; there is no objective
263:
Rittel and Webber coined the term in the context of problems of social policy, an arena in which a purely scientific-engineering approach cannot be applied because of the lack of a clear problem definition and differing perspectives of stakeholders. In their words,
203:
issues. A problem whose solution requires a great number of people to change their mindsets and behavior is likely to be a wicked problem. Therefore, many standard examples of wicked problems come from the areas of public planning and policy. These include global
364:
The first is to shift the goal of action on significant problems from "solution" to "intervention." Instead of seeking the answer that totally eliminates a problem, one should recognize that actions occur in an ongoing process, and further actions will always be
319:
understand the gaps in information pertaining these issues. Governments must invest in more evidence-informed science to address the full scope of these problems. Broader thinking into the appropriate options will allow for more innovation within this process.
337:
chosen. The disadvantage is that this adversarial approach creates a confrontational environment in which knowledge sharing is discouraged. Consequently, the parties involved may not have an incentive to come up with their best possible solution.
301:
Although Rittel and Webber framed the concept in terms of social policy and planning, wicked problems occur in any domain involving stakeholders with differing perspectives. Recognising this, Rittel and Kunz developed a technique called
2139:
Rittel, Horst; "Second
Generation Design Methods," Interview in Design Methods Group, 5th Anniversary Report, DMG Occasional Paper 1, 1972, pp. 5–10. Reprinted in N. Cross (ed.), Developments in Design Methodology,
440:
says that "a Social Mess is a set of interrelated problems and other messes. Complexity—systems of systems—is among the factors that makes Social Messes so resistant to analysis and, more importantly, to resolution."
1982:
Brown, Valerie A. and Harris, John A. and
Russell, Jacqueline Y; "Tackling wicked problems : through the transdisciplinary imagination" Edited by Valerie A. Brown, John A. Harris and Jacqueline Y. Russell
1209:
432:
wrote about complex problems as messes: "Every problem interacts with other problems and is therefore part of a set of interrelated problems, a system of problems.... I choose to call such a system a mess."
139:
Wicked problems do not have an enumerable (or an exhaustively describable) set of potential solutions, nor is there a well-described set of permissible operations that may be incorporated into the plan.
1785:
Levin, Kelly; Cashore, Benjamin; Bernstein, Steven; Auld, Graeme (23 May 2012). "Overcoming the tragedy of super wicked problems: constraining our future selves to ameliorate global climate change".
2044:
1294:
273:
cannot be meaningfully correct or false; and it makes no sense to talk about "optimal solutions" to these problems... Even worse, there are no solutions in the sense of definitive answers.
51:, the effort to solve one aspect of a wicked problem may reveal or create other problems. Due to their complexity, wicked problems are often characterized by organized irresponsibility.
352:
Research over the last two decades has shown the value of computer-assisted argumentation techniques in improving the effectiveness of cross-stakeholder communication. The technique of
844:
At the end of Rittel's presentation, West
Churchman responded with that pensive but expressive movement of voice that some may well remember, 'Hmm, those sound like "wicked problems."'
560:
and Steven
Bernstein introduced the distinction between "wicked problems" and "super wicked problems" in a 2007 conference paper, which was followed by a 2012 journal article in
731:
148:
The existence of a discrepancy representing a wicked problem can be explained in numerous ways. The choice of explanation determines the nature of the problem's resolution.
638:
1242:
701:
862:
243:
In recent years, problems in many areas have been identified as exhibiting elements of wickedness; examples range from aspects of design decision making and
659:
2083:
1361:
Ferlie, E.; McGivern, G.; Fitzgerald, L.; Dopson, S.; Bennett, C. (2011). "Public Policy
Networks & 'Wicked Problems': A Nascent Solution?".
1651:
Courtney, James F (2001). "Decision making and knowledge management in inquiring organizations: toward a new decision-making paradigm for DSS".
1171:
Fischer, Michael D. (28 September 2012). "Organizational
Turbulence, Trouble and Trauma: Theorizing the Collapse of a Mental Health Setting".
2130:
1992:
1925:
1747:
1728:
1707:
1607:
1411:
1308:
1217:
155:
Conklin later generalized the concept of problem wickedness to areas other than planning and policy; Conklin's defining characteristics are:
2024:
607:
2036:
1210:"Resisting hybridisation between modes of clinical risk management: Contradiction, contest, and the production of intractable conflict"
1324:
Ferlie, E.; McGivern, G.; Fitzgerald, L. (2012). "A New Mode of
Organising in Health Care? UK Cancer Services & Governmentality".
735:
1542:
612:
400:
since the 1970s to address problems involving complexity, uncertainty and conflict. PSMs are usually used by a group of people in
1849:
1868:
Rittel, H.W.J (1988). The
Reasoning of Designers (Report). Stuttgart: Institut fur Grundlagen der Planung. Working Paper A-88-4.
1363:
589:
370:
330:
and experts charged with solving the problem may not have an appreciation of all the perspectives needed to tackle the problem.
1173:
303:
360:
In "Wholesome Design for Wicked
Problems", Robert Knapp stated that there are ways forward in dealing with wicked problems:
2045:"Playing it forward: Path dependency, progressive incrementalism, and the 'Super Wicked' problem of global climate change"
644:
151:
The social planner has no right to be wrong (i.e., planners are liable for the consequences of the actions they generate).
548:) can be construed as an evolution from previous models of software design, and therefore becomes a wicked problem also.
373:, Ferlie and colleagues suggest that managed networks may be the "least bad" way of "making wicked problems governable".
310:
Thus wicked problems cannot be solved by the application of standard (or known) methods; they demand creative solutions.
1326:
64:
281:
The solution depends on how the problem is framed and vice versa (i.e., the problem definition depends on the solution)
2212:
2005:
1976:
Buchanan, R. (1992). Wicked
Problems in Design Thinking. Design Issues, Vol. 8, No. 2, (Spring, 1992), pp. 5–21:
387:
893:
2147:
Shum, Simon J. Buckingham; Albert M. Selvin, Maarten Sierhuis, Jeffrey Conklin, Charles B. Haley, Bashar Nuseibeh;
369:
Examining networks designed to tackle wicked problems in health care, such as caring for older people or reducing
617:
508:
405:
2110:
2207:
1681:
696:
413:
322:
In a paper published in 2000, Nancy Roberts identified the following strategies to cope with wicked problems:
2012:
1554:
1300:
284:
76:"to inform the manager in what respect our 'solutions' have failed to tame his wicked problems." Rittel and
1268:
132:
Every solution to a wicked problem is a "one-shot operation"; because there is no opportunity to learn by
123:
1955:
Stolterman, E. (2008). "The Nature of Design Practice and Implications for Interaction Design Research".
1761:. Institute of Urban and Regional Development, University of California, Berkeley. Working paper no. 131.
306:(IBIS), which facilitates documentation of the rationale behind a group decision in an objective manner.
1977:
1875:
2059:
521:
294:
The constraints that the problem is subject to and the resources needed to solve it change over time.
244:
1390:
Rosenhead, Jonathan (2013). "Problem structuring methods". In Gass, Saul I.; Fu, Michael C. (eds.).
2032:
1999:
669:
397:
196:
73:
2148:
2202:
2075:
1931:
1804:
1772:
1234:
1190:
885:
835:
680:
544:
methodologies. The design and integration of complex software-defined services that use the Web (
525:
221:
2019:
2013:
The Heretic's Guide to Best Practices: The Reality of Managing Complex Problems in Organisations
2141:
2126:
1988:
1921:
1829:
1743:
1724:
1703:
1668:
1603:
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1538:
1534:
1417:
1407:
1343:
1304:
1058:
691:
248:
170:
59:
48:
44:
540:-problems have to be considered equally), and have incorporated Rittel's concepts into their
2122:
Wicked problems – Social messes: Decision support modelling with morphological analysis
2067:
2063:
1943:
1913:
1796:
1660:
1399:
1372:
1335:
1226:
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877:
827:
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664:
627:
602:
533:
499:
353:
237:
225:
77:
2197:
2028:
1787:
1768:"Super Wicked Problems and Climate Change: Restraining the Present to Liberate the Future"
1395:
674:
622:
562:
541:
229:
209:
133:
55:
1720:
Why We Disagree about Climate Change: Understanding Controversy, Inaction and Opportunity
2071:
971:
570:, they define super wicked problems as having the following additional characteristics:
416:, the strategic choice approach, and strategic options development and analysis (SODA).
2112:
Wicked Problems: Today's business problems can be impossible to define, let alone solve
1696:
706:
567:
437:
429:
357:
producing an organizational crisis which led to the collapse of a national initiative.
270:
205:
1683:
New Tools For Resolving Wicked Problems: Mess Mapping and Resolution Mapping Processes
1664:
1568:
1096:
Head, Brian (2015). "Wicked Problems: Implications for Public Policy and Management".
2191:
2079:
1817:
1808:
1740:
Visualizing Argumentation – Tools for Collaborative and Educational Sense-Making
1525:
1376:
839:
654:
401:
163:
116:
105:
2150:
Hypermedia Support for Argumentation-Based Rationale: 15 Years on from gIBIS and QOC
1935:
1339:
1238:
1194:
889:
1640:"Rethinking Wicked Problems: Unpacking Paradigms, Bridging Universes (Part 2 of 2)"
1623:"Rethinking Wicked Problems: Unpacking Paradigms, Bridging Universes (Part 1 of 2)"
763:
686:
632:
545:
252:
233:
69:
1403:
68:, either repeating his own coinage or responding to a previous use of the term by
2120:
1718:
1917:
1635:
1618:
649:
557:
463:
409:
85:
47:
means that it has no determinable stopping point". Moreover, because of complex
1900:
1850:"On the Planning Crisis: Systems Analysis of the 'First and Second Generations"
1698:
Wicked Problems, Righteous Solutions: A Catalog of Modern Engineering Paradigms
1296:
Making Wicked Problems Governable?: The Case of Managed Networks in Health Care
17:
2184: – Wicked Problems: Structuring Social Messes with Morphological Analysis
1800:
1230:
831:
537:
288:
213:
2035:
presentation to the "Foundations in the Knowledge Economy" conference at the
1833:
1672:
1421:
1186:
1109:
1047:
528:
have pointed out that software development shares many properties with other
129:
There is no immediate and no ultimate test of a solution to a wicked problem.
84:, contrasting "wicked" problems with relatively "tame", solvable problems in
1984:
200:
1347:
818:
Skaburskis, Andrejs (19 December 2008). "The origin of "wicked problems"".
803:
786:
490:
Problem solver(s) out of contact with the problems and potential solutions.
1526:""Systems, Messes, and Interactive Planning" Portions of Chapters 1 and 2"
1293:
Ferlie, E.; Fitzgerald, L.; McGivern, G.; Dopson, S.; Bennett, C. (2013).
145:
Every wicked problem can be considered to be a symptom of another problem.
72:—the origin is uncertain. Churchman discussed the moral responsibility of
976:
192:
81:
31:
520:
In 1990, DeGrace and Stahl introduced the concept of wicked problems to
159:
The problem is not understood until after the formulation of a solution.
881:
734:. Australian Public Service Commission. 25 October 2007. Archived from
1818:"Wicked Problems: Modelling Social Messes with Morphological Analysis"
444:
According to Horn, the defining characteristics of a social mess are:
1639:
1622:
529:
93:
43:
resolution, rather than evil. Another definition is "a problem whose
35:
1767:
758:
1978:
http://web.mit.edu/jrankin/www/engin_as_lib_art/Design_thinking.pdf
1596:
Dialogue mapping: building shared understanding of wicked problems
1569:"Dialog Mapping: Reflections on an Industrial Strength Case Study"
1055:
Dialogue Mapping: Building Shared Understanding of Wicked Problems
89:
2167: – an open-source project to map the world's wicked problems
2101:
2173: – more information on wicked problems and dialogue mapping
217:
412:
about, what needs to change. Some widely adopted PSMs include
277:
Thus wicked problems are also characterised by the following:
577:
There is no central authority dedicated to finding a solution
179:
Every solution to a wicked problem is a "one shot operation".
2181:
574:
There is a significant time deadline on finding the solution
80:
formally described the concept of wicked problems in a 1973
2170:
2164:
451:
Different views of the problem and contradictory solutions;
104:
Rittel and Webber's 1973 formulation of wicked problems in
2176:
1392:
Encyclopedia of operations research and management science
1908:
1576:
1494:
2043:
Levin, K.; Cashore, B.; Bernstein, S.; Auld, G. (2009).
1901:"The Roots of Computer Supported Argument Visualization"
1208:
Fischer, Michael Daniel; Ferlie, Ewan (1 January 2013).
1083:
1071:
856:
854:
852:
1552:
Camillus, J.C. (2008). "Strategy as a Wicked Problem".
732:"Tackling Wicked Problems: A Public Policy Perspective"
112:
There is no definitive formulation of a wicked problem.
2052:
IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science
1912:. Computer Supported Cooperative Work. pp. 3–24.
1876:"Wicked Problems and Network Approaches to Resolution"
580:
Those seeking to solve the problem are also causing it
475:
Often a-logical or illogical or multi-valued thinking;
1738:
Kirschner, P.; Shum, S.J.B; Carr, C.S., eds. (2003).
972:"Trouble in orbit: the growing problem of space junk"
176:
Every wicked problem is essentially novel and unique.
583:
Certain policies irrationally impede future progress
182:
Wicked problems have no given alternative solutions.
62:
in a guest editorial Churchman wrote in the journal
404:(rather than by a solitary individual) to create a
291:
and different frames for understanding the problem.
1948:An Introduction to Information Systems Engineering
1695:
1524:
639:Encyclopedia of World Problems and Human Potential
2001:Building Shared Understanding of Wicked Problems
1780:(5). Georgetown Public Law Research No. 1302623.
27:Problem that is difficult or impossible to solve
1587:Dialog Mapping: An Approach for Wicked Problems
362:
269:definition of equity; policies that respond to
266:
1757:Kunz, Werner; Rittel, Horst W.J. (July 1970).
861:Rittel, Horst W.J.; Webber, Melvin M. (1973).
454:Most problems are connected to other problems;
702:Structured systems analysis and design method
58:. Its modern sense was introduced in 1967 by
8:
1886:(1). International Public Management Network
1482:
1458:
759:"Design for Transitions - from and to what?"
191:Classic examples of wicked problems include
2021:Knowledge Mapping for Complex Social Messes
142:Every wicked problem is essentially unique.
2004:, Rotman Magazine, the alumni magazine of
1680:Horn, Robert E.; Weber, Robert P. (2007).
1033:
1009:
863:"Dilemmas in a General Theory of Planning"
1759:Issues as Elements of Information Systems
1446:
1048:"Wicked Problems & Social Complexity"
802:
297:The problem is never solved definitively.
1694:DeGrace, Peter; Stahl, L. Hulet (1990).
1470:
957:
945:
448:No unique "correct" view of the problem;
108:planning specified ten characteristics:
2103:Wicked Problems: Problems Worth Solving
1644:NextDesign Leadership Institute Journal
1627:NextDesign Leadership Institute Journal
1506:
1158:
1122:
997:
921:
909:
723:
516:Wicked problems in software development
1987:, London; Washington, DC : 2010.
1880:International Public Management Review
1434:
1269:"Wholesome Design for Wicked Problems"
1134:
1084:Conklin, Basadur & VanPatter 2007b
1072:Conklin, Basadur & VanPatter 2007a
1021:
532:practices (particularly that people-,
478:Numerous possible intervention points;
2144:, Chichester, 1984, pp. 317–327.
1218:Accounting, Organizations and Society
933:
136:, every attempt counts significantly.
122:Solutions to wicked problems are not
7:
2106:, a free book available online, 2012
1766:Lazarus, Richard James (July 2009).
1146:
785:Churchman, C. West (December 1967).
757:Tonkinwise, Cameron (4 April 2015).
608:Category:Problem structuring methods
484:Considerable uncertainty, ambiguity;
457:Data are often uncertain or missing;
314:Strategies to tackle wicked problems
2037:David and Lucile Packard Foundation
1899:Shum, Simon J. Buckingham (2003).
1394:(3rd ed.). New York; London:
481:Consequences difficult to imagine;
54:The phrase was originally used in
25:
613:Collaborative information seeking
504:divergent and convergent problems
495:Divergent and convergent problems
408:about, or at least to facilitate
169:Solutions to wicked problems are
2011:Culmsee, Paul; Awati, Kailash .
1377:10.1111/j.1467-9299.2010.01896.x
487:Great resistance to change; and,
377:Communication of wicked problems
1957:International Journal of Design
1340:10.1016/j.socscimed.2011.03.021
556:Kelly Levin, Benjamin Cashore,
371:sexually transmitted infections
1909:Visualizing Argumentation 2003
1723:. Cambridge University Press.
1577:Visualizing Argumentation 2003
820:Planning Theory & Practice
396:(PSMs) have been developed in
304:Issue-Based Information System
1:
2182:Swedish Morphological Society
2072:10.1088/1755-1307/6/50/502002
1665:10.1016/s0167-9236(00)00117-2
1404:10.1007/978-1-4419-1153-7_806
1327:Social Science & Medicine
970:Lewis, Hugh (5 August 2015).
645:Hard problem of consciousness
392:A range of approaches called
1098:Administration & Society
524:. In the last decade, other
2006:Rotman School of Management
1918:10.1007/978-1-4471-0037-9_1
1822:Acta Morphologica Generalis
394:problem structuring methods
388:Problem structuring methods
382:Problem structuring methods
2229:
1689:. Strategy Kinetics L.L.C.
385:
2177:Knowledge Media Institute
1801:10.1007/s11077-012-9151-0
1638:; VanPatter, GK (2007b).
1621:; VanPatter, GK (2007a).
1594:Conklin, Jeffrey (2006).
1231:10.1016/j.aos.2012.11.002
832:10.1080/14649350802041654
618:Collective action problem
566:. In their discussion of
509:A Guide for the Perplexed
466:and cultural constraints;
460:Multiple value conflicts;
287:have radically different
1653:Decision Support Systems
1523:Ackoff, Russell (1974).
1483:Sølvberg & Kung 1993
1459:DeGrace & Stahl 1990
1187:10.1177/0170840612448155
1110:10.1177/0095399713481601
697:Soft systems methodology
425:Messes and social messes
414:soft systems methodology
162:Wicked problems have no
115:Wicked problems have no
2064:2009E&ES....6X2002L
2015:. iUniverse Star, 2013.
1598:. Chichester, England:
1585:Conklin, Jeff (2003b).
1555:Harvard Business Review
1301:Oxford University Press
1946:; Kung, David (1993).
1874:Roberts, N.C. (2000).
1816:Ritchey, Tom (2013) .
1567:Conklin, Jeff (2003).
1531:Redesigning the Future
1398:. pp. 1162–1172.
1267:Knapp, Robert (2008).
1046:Conklin, Jeff (2005).
1010:Kunz & Rittel 1970
804:10.1287/mnsc.14.4.B141
660:Morphological analysis
502:distinguishes between
469:Political constraints;
367:
275:
126:, but better or worse.
2142:John Wiley & Sons
2119:Ritchey, Tom (2011).
1589:. CogNexus Institute.
1447:Horn & Weber 2007
1364:Public Administration
1273:Public Sphere Project
899:on 30 September 2007.
568:global climate change
552:Super wicked problems
472:Economic constraints;
2125:. Berlin: Springer.
1717:Hulme, Mike (2009).
1174:Organization Studies
522:software development
245:knowledge management
2165:The Wicked7 Project
2033:Stanford University
1848:Rittel, H. (1972).
1580:. pp. 117–136.
670:Post-normal science
526:computer scientists
398:operations research
74:operations research
2213:1967 introductions
2171:CogNexus Institute
2109:Richardson, Adam;
2027:2008-05-15 at the
1773:Cornell Law Review
882:10.1007/bf01405730
797:(4): B-141–B-146.
791:Management Science
681:Small Is Beautiful
436:Extending Ackoff,
222:pandemic influenza
171:not right or wrong
65:Management Science
2132:978-3-642-19653-9
2018:Horn, Robert E.,
1993:978-1-84407-925-4
1927:978-1-85233-664-6
1749:978-1-4471-0037-9
1730:978-1-107-26889-0
1709:978-0-13-590126-7
1702:. Yourdon Press.
1609:978-0-470-01768-5
1495:Levin et al. 2012
1413:978-1-4419-1137-7
1310:978-0-19-164142-8
787:"Wicked Problems"
692:Societal collapse
430:Russell L. Ackoff
249:business strategy
60:C. West Churchman
49:interdependencies
45:social complexity
16:(Redirected from
2220:
2136:
2097:
2095:
2094:
2088:
2082:. Archived from
2049:
1964:
1951:
1939:
1905:
1895:
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1290:
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1258:
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1255:
1253:
1247:
1241:. Archived from
1214:
1205:
1199:
1198:
1181:(9): 1153–1173.
1168:
1162:
1156:
1150:
1144:
1138:
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931:
925:
919:
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892:. Archived from
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420:Related concepts
354:dialogue mapping
238:social injustice
226:drug trafficking
224:, international
78:Melvin M. Webber
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1998:Conklin, Jeff;
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2100:Kolko, Jon;
2091:. Retrieved
2084:the original
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2020:
2000:
1960:
1956:
1947:
1907:
1888:. Retrieved
1883:
1879:
1860:
1856:
1837:. Retrieved
1825:
1821:
1792:
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1777:
1771:
1758:
1742:. Springer.
1739:
1719:
1697:
1682:
1659:(1): 17–38.
1656:
1652:
1643:
1636:Basadur, Min
1626:
1619:Basadur, Min
1595:
1586:
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1516:Bibliography
1507:Lazarus 2009
1502:
1490:
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1442:
1430:
1391:
1385:
1368:
1362:
1356:
1334:(3): 340–7.
1331:
1325:
1319:
1295:
1288:
1276:. Retrieved
1272:
1262:
1252:17 September
1250:. Retrieved
1243:the original
1225:(1): 30–49.
1222:
1216:
1203:
1178:
1172:
1166:
1159:Conklin 2003
1154:
1142:
1130:
1123:Roberts 2000
1118:
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1029:
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1005:
998:Conklin 2006
993:
981:. Retrieved
975:
965:
953:
941:
929:
922:Conklin 2006
917:
910:Ritchey 2013
905:
894:the original
873:
869:
843:
823:
819:
813:
794:
790:
780:
768:. Retrieved
764:Academia.edu
762:
752:
740:. Retrieved
736:the original
726:
687:Social issue
679:
637:
633:Drama theory
586:
561:
555:
546:web services
519:
507:
506:in his book
503:
498:
443:
435:
428:
410:negotiations
393:
391:
368:
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351:
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321:
317:
308:
300:
285:Stakeholders
276:
267:
262:
253:space debris
242:
234:homelessness
190:
154:
103:
70:Horst Rittel
63:
53:
39:
29:
2115:, Fall 2006
1950:. Springer.
1435:Ackoff 1974
1135:Rittel 1972
1022:Rittel 1988
1000:, p. .
650:Hyperobject
558:Graeme Auld
464:Ideological
438:Robert Horn
333:Competitive
289:world views
86:mathematics
2192:Categories
2093:2012-05-10
1533:. London:
1278:8 November
934:Hulme 2009
770:9 November
714:References
588:including
538:technology
259:Background
220:epidemic,
214:healthcare
2203:Cognition
2080:250682896
1985:Earthscan
1890:7 October
1839:7 October
1834:2001-2241
1809:153744625
1673:0167-9236
1562:: 98–101.
1422:751832290
1147:Shum 2003
840:145667746
406:consensus
201:political
96:solving.
2025:Archived
1963:: 55–65.
1936:55421878
1348:21501913
1239:44146410
1195:52219788
983:26 April
977:BBC News
890:18634229
603:Catch 22
596:See also
193:economic
187:Examples
82:treatise
32:planning
2060:Bibcode
742:26 July
536:-, and
534:process
365:needed.
2198:Policy
2129:
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1991:
1934:
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1237:
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530:design
236:, and
216:, the
199:, and
94:puzzle
36:policy
2087:(PDF)
2076:S2CID
2048:(PDF)
1932:S2CID
1904:(PDF)
1853:(PDF)
1828:(1).
1805:S2CID
1687:(PDF)
1600:Wiley
1572:(PDF)
1535:Wiley
1246:(PDF)
1235:S2CID
1213:(PDF)
1191:S2CID
1059:Wiley
1051:(PDF)
897:(PDF)
886:S2CID
866:(PDF)
836:S2CID
719:Notes
92:, or
90:chess
2127:ISBN
2031:, a
1989:ISBN
1922:ISBN
1892:2017
1841:2017
1830:ISSN
1744:ISBN
1725:ISBN
1704:ISBN
1669:ISSN
1604:ISBN
1539:ISBN
1418:OCLC
1408:ISBN
1344:PMID
1305:ISBN
1280:2015
1254:2019
985:2019
772:2017
744:2012
218:AIDS
38:, a
34:and
2068:doi
1914:doi
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