Wigwag (flag signals) - Knowledge (XXG)

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General Service Code is coded as "121", which is "left-right-left". In this code it is coded as "234" which is a motion from the ready position to the left ("2"), followed by a motion from the left to the right ("3"), followed by a motion from the right to the left ("4"). Together these make the motions "left-right-left", the same as the General Service Code. Since the end of the character has been reached, a return to the ready position for the next character is implied.

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heavier. Contemporary flags were heavier than modern equivalents, being made of linen or cotton. Modern large flags designed to be hand held might be made of lighter silk or nylon and are more resistant to moisture retention. Perhaps even more importantly, the signaling elements in wigwag consist of motions rather than positions as in flag semaphore. Motions are easier to distinguish than positions at great distances, thus giving wigwag a range advantage.

112:. The neutral position was the signalman holding the flag vertically and motionless above his head. The first motion was initiated by bringing the device downward on the signalman's right side and then quickly returning it to its upright position. The second motion brought the device down on the left side and then returned it to the starting position. The third motion lowered the device in front of the signalman, then restored it to its vertical position. 504: 33: 820: 330: 615: 371:"foot torch" was placed on the ground before the signalman as a fixed point of reference, making it easier for the recipient to follow the lantern's movements. A 30X telescope was a standard part of the wigwag kit. This was used by a signaler alongside the flagman to read the signals from the remote station, which could be at a distance of up to 20 miles. 495:). Davis's objections were ignored and Myer was made signal officer and promoted to major in June 1860. Myer submitted a patent application in 1860 claiming the rights to all signaling systems based on motions (of which wigwag is an example) as opposed to positions (of which flag semaphore is an example). The patent was granted in January 1861. 363:) size. The size and color of flag was chosen depending on lighting conditions and distance. The white flag was the most common and was used against dark backgrounds. Against light or varied backgrounds, the red flag was more effective and was also used at sea. The black flag was used against a background of snow. The two foot flags, called 391:, although established, was still in its infancy. It was still being worked out how the latter could be used on the battlefield, and portable equipment ruggedized for military use was not available early in the decade. Wigwag provided a method that was both simple to use and faster and more reliable than couriers. By the start of 367:, were used in situations where the signalman needed to stay under cover from enemy fire or wished to signal less obtrusively. Each flag had a number of ties or tapes sewn along the hoist edge. These were used to fix the flag to a four-section staff, each section four feet long and fitted with ferrules for joining. 68:, the number of elements in each character was not fixed, the most common letters being assigned the shortest codes. A number of other codes were used at times, some of them with a fixed number of elements and up to four different motions. Morse code was used with wigwag after it became an international standard. 1503:

An alternative representation of the standard wigwag code uses four symbols (plus a fifth one in control characters). This code is identical in execution to the General Service Code. That is, there is no difference in the signals as observed, only in the notation as written. The difference is that

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in 1863 where these problems were apparent, Myer tried to recruit Morse operators through advertisements. However, this just resulted in Myer's dismissal for exceeding his authority, and replacement by Nicodemus. The inability of the Signal Corps to fully adopt the electrical telegraph ensured that

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in that only one flag is used instead of two. Thus, both arms could be used to raise the flag and a larger, heavier flag could be employed. Nevertheless, signalmen required great strength to use a 4-foot flag on a 16-foot pole. Even a light wind would multiply the difficulty and rain made the flag

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Motion "3" starts with the flag on the ground to the right of the signalman, not in the upright starting position. It can therefore only follow motions that end with the flag on the right; that is, "2" or "4". Similarly, "4" starting on the left can only follow "1" or "3". For example, "C" in the

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as the thesis for his medical doctorate. In this publication Myer used the Bain code as the basis for communication with a deaf person by tapping a hand or cheek. Alternatively, tapping a table with which the person was also in contact could be used to pass messages. In 1854, Myer joined the army

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The disks were 12 to 18 inches (30 to 46 cm) in diameter and were made of metal or wood frames with canvas surfaces. Somewhat easier to handle than the heavy flags, they provided a different method for daylight communications. The lights were kerosene lanterns attached to a staff. A second

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To open communication, the signalman waves the flag continuously from side to side (the "attention" signal) until the receiving station replies with the "understood" signal (22.22.22.3). The transmitting station replies with the "understood" signal and proceeds to send the message. The elements of

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Signalmen were sometimes assigned to ships to maintain communication between the navy and land forces. On large operations they might also be used for ship-to-ship communication. The signalman was posted high up on the masthead of the ship. This was especially common on operations concerning the

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was beginning. Up to this point, Myer had been temporarily assigned men from the units in which he served to work as signalers, often grudgingly. This was impractical for a large scale war and Myer now pressed for Canby's idea of a dedicated signal corps. Many in Washington opposed the idea, and

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The flags came in seven combinations of colors and sizes. They were all square flags with a smaller square (one third the width) of a different color in the center. The colors available were a white flag with a red center, a black flag with a white center, and a red flag with a white center. All

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The notation of the wigwag code was originally defined as "1" representing the motion to the left and "2" representing the motion to the right. That is, all occurrences of "1" and "2" are interchanged in the table. This was changed when the General Service Code was issued. The thinking was that

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Even while the Civil War was still in progress, the electrical telegraph was starting to displace flag signaling. This perhaps did not happen as quickly as it might have done because the US Military Telegraph and the Signal Corps were under different leaderships. Myer made repeated attempts to

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Myer, with Floyd's support, proposed that a new post of signal officer to the Army staff should be created, with him filling it. In February 1860, Myer got a hearing before the Senate Committee on Military Affairs under the chairmanship of Jefferson Davis which supported the introduction of the

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The wigwag system consisted of a signalman waving a single large flag or other display device in different motions sequentially. At night, a lamp on a pole could be used, or over short distances the signalman might hold a small disk. The usual wigwag code was ternary, that is, there were three

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in that it uses one flag rather than two, and the symbols for each letter are represented by the motion of the flag rather than its position. The larger flag and its motion allow messages to be read over greater distances than semaphore. Messages could be sent at night using torches instead of

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in June 1864. Wherever possible, existing structures were used. Building stations in trees was common, and church steeples were often used. The system, at least on the Union side, took on the nature of a genuine communications network. The Confederates, despite being first in the field with

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in 1863. During that action one of the Union defenders, Captain Davis E. Castle, continued to signal with a bedsheet after the flagman had retreated with the flags. The 125 ft height of the Cobb's Hill tower gave it such a good view of Confederate movements that they assigned a gun battery

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in 1861. The signalmen on this occasion fulfilled an important function by reporting a Union attempt to turn the Confederate flank. Myer had originally promoted the idea as a lightweight mobile system that could be carried by a single man – a common task for signalmen was to act as forward

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the motion to the left should be notated with the lowest digit, but as seen through a telescope (the usual method of observing) the image is inverted with left and right interchanged. The code tabulated in some modern sources shows this earlier notation with "1" and "2" interchanged.

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station as "that wretched little signal station" because he was forced to make roundabout movements of his troops and artillery to avoid being observed (at this time, 1863, Alexander was no longer connected with the Signal Corps, but was in command of the artillery at the

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lists several alternative codes, including a three-element fixed-length code using four symbols (1866 edition), and a three-element fixed-length code using three symbols (1872 edition). There is no indication in the manual that these codes were actually in use.

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system. Davis opposed the creation of the signal officer post when it came before congress; he wanted to use the signaling system but feared the creation of the signal officer post would lead to the creation of a new department (the future

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this representation makes it explicit that there should be no pause at the ready position within a character. Myer's 1872 manual states that this version of the code was used by the US Army, but is superseded by the General Service Code.

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to encode messages. It is believed that the Confederates never broke this code. The Union side was able to read Confederate flag signals without being discovered until at least 1864 when Myer's successor as head of the Signal Corps,

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became an international standard, the British dropped the Myer code for wigwag signaling and used Morse instead with the flag movements indicating dots and dashes. The French had a slight variation of that, using a single flag for

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observers reporting artillery fall of shot. As the war progressed, more substantial stations were constructed. Enormous towers, some well over 100 feet, were built. The Cobb's Hill tower shown in the image was built by the

850:, replaced the Morse key and sounder with a circular alphabet and pointer of his own design that could be operated by any literate person. A further change was the replacement of acid batteries for power with a hand-cranked 448:

as an assistant surgeon and was posted to Texas. It was in Texas that he developed the idea of the wigwag flag or torch code for military use, building on his previous work with the deaf. Myer also incorporated features of

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The most common code used with wigwag had three motions, only two of which were needed to form letters of the alphabet. These two were waving the flag, respectively, to the left and right – the wigwagging motion. A

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who became a strong supporter of the formation of a signal corps, which he thought more efficient than Myer's proposal to train every officer. The Navajo war was over by February 1861, but at the same time the

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it took until 3 March 1863 before the Signal Corps was formally inaugurated, although the signalers had been informally called "signal corps" for some time. Myer was put in charge with the rank of Colonel.

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The fact that the Confederates had personnel able to read the wigwag code was problematic for the Union side. Security concerns led to a reluctance to send important messages by flag signals. General

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was only powerful enough for short distances. These problems resulted in occasions when the Signal Corps had to turn over its lines to the Military Telegraph with their superior equipment. After the

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considered the proposal but thought it had only limited use. They did not put it into operation but allowed Myer to continue with tests. Myer conducted these tests starting in April, initially at

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The Civil War was the high point of the use of wigwag, but there were some other campaigns that included flag signalmen, mainly against Native Americans. Signal parties accompanied general

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wigwag, and the Union side being slow to get going, never succeeded in building a network to the same extent. The Confederate Signal Corps was simply not given resources on the same scale.

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different motions (symbols) that could be displayed. However, only two of these symbols were used for letters, making it largely binary. The third symbol only appeared in

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The wigwag system filled a gap in the history of military communication between the age of close-quarter fighting and the age of modern long-range weapons. In the 1860s,

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in 1886. In good conditions, the heliograph could transmit over distances as great as 50 miles. This is far in excess of anything achievable with flag signaling.

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Numerals could represent a control signal as well as a number. Numbers could alternatively be sent by Roman numerals or the first ten letters of the alphabet.

842:(that is, trains of wagons, not rail locomotives) that carried a combination of electrical telegraph and flag equipment. The original idea was to use the 135:

of July 1864 issued to standardize signals of the US Army and Navy. Further details of the code and an alternate four-symbol representation are given in

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a character are performed rapidly without pause between them, only returning the flag to the rest position at the end of the character. The US Army

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for long distances in regions where the electrical telegraph was not available. The heliograph saw widespread use in Arizona and New Mexico after

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absorb the Military Telegraph but failed due to political rivalries, particularly Myer's rivalry with the civilian head of the Military Telegraph,

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was coded as "222". The table shows the commonly used wigwag code and the diagram shows the flag motions. It is as defined in the

76: 647:, published the fact in a pamphlet. Nicodemus was dismissed in December 1864 for this breach of security and replaced by Fisher. 2524: 775:. The signalmen were used to maintain communications between troop columns. The campaign was a punitive expedition against the 403: 794:

Wigwag was taken up by some European countries, notably the British in African colonial wars. It was used extensively in the

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but failed to get a hearing due to lack of detail in his proposal. In 1857, Totten tried again with a new Secretary of War,

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US Army Signal Museum, "Crossed flags: History of the wigwag", United States Army Signal Center, Fort Gordon, Georgia,

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The mere existence of a flag station could cause problems for the enemy. Alexander, in his memoirs, referred to the

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Heidler, David S.; Heidler, Jeanne T., "Edward Porter Alexander", in, Heidler, David S.; Heidler, Jeanne T. (eds),

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troops on both sides, and was an essential supplement to the electrical telegraph. Its first use in battle was by

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Woods, David L.; Sterling, Christopher H., "Flags", pp. 158–160 in, Christopher H. Sterling (ed),

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finally used were not the same as Bain's. The Bain code, invented 1843, was used on the chemical

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Rauch, Steven J., "Confederate Army Signal Corps", pp. 102–103 in, Christopher H. Sterling (ed),

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in the trains, but due to the unavailability of trained Morse operators to Myer, the contractor,

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specifically to destroy it. They failed to achieve this and the tower remained in use until the

532: 512: 472: 440: 432: 408: 80: 586:). The Confederates had tried but failed to seize the position several times, including during 3143: 3128: 3113: 3098: 3090:, vol. 8, no. 4, pp. 12–13, 76, 78, Armed Forces Communications Association, March–April 1954. 3072: 3057: 3040: 3023: 3006: 2980: 2963: 2948: 2933: 2918: 2903: 2888: 2869: 2852: 2837: 2822: 2807: 760: 600: 503: 109: 2974: 883: 578: 570: 464: 32: 895: 843: 460: 3123:

Woods, David L., "Heliograph and mirrors", pp. 208–211 in, Christopher H. Sterling (ed),

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Signal Corps in the American Civil War § Telegraph train and the Beardslee telegraph

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The Telegraph: A History of Morse's Invention and Its Predecessors in the United States

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Wigwag flags being carried by the Signal Corps while extending a telegraph line at

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Encyclopedia of the American Civil War: A Political, Social, and Military History

443:, work he did for a period after his graduation in 1847. In 1851, Myer produced 17: 819: 639: 619: 484: 456: 392: 891: 799: 436: 116: 88: 65: 2992: 428: 384: 99: 64:

was formed by sequentially displaying a number of motions (elements). Like

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not to use signals at all, much to the concern of its chief signal officer

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who became the first Chief Signal Officer of the US Army in command of the

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Myer's code remained in use in the US until 1886 when it was replaced by

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The first live use of the system was in 1860 in a campaign against the

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Wigwag flags, wigwag torches and kerosene canteen, and a signal rocket

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US Army Signal Corp insignia featuring crossed wigwag flags and torch

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Personal Recollections and Observations of General Nelson A. Miles

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was mandated for all types of visual signaling. Inconsistently,

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Military Communications: From Ancient Times to the 21st Century

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Military Communications: From Ancient Times to the 21st Century

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Military Communications: From Ancient Times to the 21st Century

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The New Face of War: How War Will be Fought in the 21st Century

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The wigwag system was invented in the 1850s by US Army surgeon

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that passes messages by waving a single flag. It differs from

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was mandated for Army electrical telegraph lines, but not for

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flag signals remained in widespread use throughout the war.

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The History of Wyoming from the Earliest Known Discoveries

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125 foot wigwag tower used in operations against Richmond

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three were produced in the most commonly used four foot (

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The American Civil War and the Origins of Modern Warfare

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in retaliation for raiding and disrupting travel on the

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of that inventor and was a dot-dash code similar to the

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The wigwag system was invented by US Army surgeon Major

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Wigwag station on the masthead of a US ship at Richmond

467:, proposing his signaling system. He was supported by 355:) size. The white and black flags came in a six-foot ( 79:. Wigwag was used extensively by both sides in the 679:A 130 foot wigwag tower used in operations against 2883:, pp. 305–340 in, Miller, Francis Trevelyan (ed), 654:in the manuals he produced. He called the system 487:, Virginia, and later in New York and Washington. 419:in the 1850s. Myer took his inspiration from the 2990:Myer, Albert J., "Improved system of signaling", 2868:, vol. 1, Chaplin, Spafford & Mathison, 1899 2834:The Oxford Companion to American Military History 3095:The Library of Congress Civil War Desk Reference 2979:, Steam Press of Jewett, Thomas & Co., 1851 898:took over command of the campaign against the 2962:, vol. 2, University of Nebraska Press, 1992 8: 3174:Military equipment of the American Civil War 1548:Wave flag in half circle from left to right 1540:Wave flag in half circle from right to left 2887:, vol. 8, The Review of Reviews Co., 1911 439:. Myer came across it while working as a 387:communications had yet to be invented and 2885:The Photographic History of the Civil War 2519: 2517: 479:. In 1859, a board of examination under 1890: 1779: 1740: 1565: 1506: 1369: 1255: 1128: 953: 914: 452:hand and smoke signals into his system. 140: 3112:, Johns Hopkins University Press, 2013 2024: 886:. The wigwag method was superseded by 669: 83:, where it was an essential adjunct to 3056:, US Government Printing Office, 1996 2945:Circle of Fire: The Indian War of 1865 2806:, Charles Scribner's Sons, April 1907 911:Two-symbol code (General Service Code) 2928:Holzmann, Gerard J.; Pehrson, Björn, 7: 2917:, W. W. Norton & Company, 2000 2680:Myer (1866), pp. 55–56, plates E, F 407:Albert J. Myer (center) during the 142:Wigwag code (General Service Code) 2976:A New Sign Language for Deaf Mutes 2930:The Early History of Data Networks 548:The Cobb's Hill wigwag tower, 1864 445:A New Sign Language for Deaf Mutes 103:The basic wigwag signaling motions 25: 2902:, Indiana University Press, 1992 2803:Military Memoirs of a Confederate 2367:Alexander, pp. 3, 4, 14–16, 30–31 333:Available colors for wigwag flags 136: 2836:, Oxford University Press, 1999 730:Wigwag station in a tree on the 723: 711: 699: 687: 672: 564:(a former pupil of Myer) at the 411:(1862) of the American Civil War 2743:Myer (1872), p. 109, plate XIII 552:Wigwag was used extensively by 1947:Use short pole and small flag 1426:Use short pole and small flag 718:Wigwag station near Washington 1: 2832:Chambers, John Whiteclay II, 2644:Holzmann & Pehrson, p. 15 1958:Use long pole and large flag 1532:Wave flag to ground on right 1437:Use long pole and large flag 932:Wave flag to ground on right 890:for short distances, and the 337:Wigwag has an advantage over 2608:Woods & Sterling, p. 160 2259:Woods & Stirling, p. 160 2157:Woods & Sterling, p. 159 1556:Dip flag to ground in front 1524:Wave flag to ground on left 948:Dip flag to ground in front 940:Wave flag to ground on left 630:went so far as to order the 455:In 1856, while stationed at 3097:, Simon and Schuster, 2002 3053:Getting the Message Through 2821:, Simon and Schuster, 2003 1742:Common words and syllables 1130:Common words and syllables 872:Morse code for flag signals 526:. Myer served under Major 47:) is an historical form of 3190: 864:Battle of Chancellorsville 826: 650:Myer did not use the term 3082:Thompson, George Raynor, 3039:, D. Van Nostrand, 1872, 3022:, D. Van Nostrand, 1868, 3005:, D. Van Nostrand, 1866, 2996:, issued 29 January 1861. 2572:Myer (1872), frontispiece 2563:Myer (1868), frontispiece 2554:Myer (1868), frontispiece 2545:Myer (1866), frontispiece 2536:Myer (1868), frontispiece 2403:Myer (1866), frontispiece 2947:, Stackpole Books, 2003 2943:McDermott, John Dishon, 2725:Myer (1872), pp. 109–110 2232:Myer (1866), pp. 176–178 2223:Myer (1866), pp. 175–176 876:International Morse code 566:First Battle of Bull Run 524:Department of New Mexico 27:Method of flag signaling 2109:Myer (1866), pp. 53, 80 798:in South Africa. Once 765:Powder River Expedition 645:William J. L. Nicodemus 562:Edward Porter Alexander 511:, Maryland, during the 459:, Texas, Myer wrote to 2800:Alexander, Edward P., 2698:Myer (1866), pp. 54–55 2689:Myer (1866), pp. 53–54 824: 756: 666:Signal station gallery 622: 554:Civil War Signal Corps 549: 515: 412: 334: 127:was coded as "1", but 104: 37: 3108:Wolters, Timothy S., 3093:Wagner, Margaret E., 2862:Coutant, Charles G., 2817:Berkowitz, Bruce D., 2448:Heidler & Heidler 822: 746: 617: 547: 506: 469:Joseph Gilbert Totten 406: 389:electrical telegraphy 332: 102: 85:electrical telegraphy 35: 2881:"The signal service" 2430:Berkowitz, pp. 52–53 2031:Myer (1866), plate F 1980:Did you understand? 1874:Two circles to right 1459:Did you understand? 1350:Two circles to right 852:electrical generator 753:Spanish–American War 609:siege of Port Hudson 584:Battle of Gettysburg 507:A wigwag station on 133:General Service Code 3084:"Civil War signals" 3036:A Manual of Signals 3019:A Manual of Signals 3002:A Manual of Signals 2898:Hagerman, Edward., 2788:Myer (1872), p. 108 2779:Myer (1872), p. 108 2770:Myer (1872), p. 107 2761:Myer (1872), p. 107 2752:Myer (1872), p. 109 2734:Myer (1872), p. 107 2617:Hagerman, pp. 41–42 2502:Myer (1872), p. 189 2205:Greely, pp. 308–309 2187:Greely, pp. 308–309 2169:Myer (1866), p. 176 2148:Myer (1866), p. 176 1893: 1885:Start of signature 1882:Two circles to left 1782: 1743: 1568: 1509: 1372: 1361:Start of signature 1358:Two circles to left 1258: 1131: 956: 917: 880:American Morse code 860:Beardslee generator 856:George W. Beardslee 732:Upper Potomac River 632:Army of the Potomac 143: 137:§ Code details 3110:Information at Sea 2993:U.S. patent 31,256 2958:Miles, Nelson A., 2851:, McFarland, 2003 2716:Myer (1866), p. 54 2707:Myer (1866), p. 54 2671:Woods, pp. 210–211 2662:Miles, pp. 481–484 2127:Myer (1872), p. 96 2124:Myer (1866), p. 97 2094:Myer (1872), p. 72 2076:Myer (1872), p. 95 2058:Myer (1872), p. 68 2040:Myer (1866), p. 83 1891: 1853:Move to the right 1780: 1741: 1566: 1507: 1370: 1329:Move to the right 1256: 1129: 954: 915: 825: 807:and two flags for 757: 636:Benjamin F. Fisher 628:Daniel Butterfield 623: 605:Vicksburg campaign 593:fall of Petersburg 550: 540:American Civil War 533:American Civil War 516: 513:Battle of Antietam 473:Chief of Engineers 441:telegraph operator 433:printing telegraph 413: 409:Peninsula campaign 335: 141: 110:control characters 105: 81:American Civil War 38: 3142:, ABC-CLIO, 2008 3127:, ABC-CLIO, 2008 3071:, ABC-CLIO, 2008 3050:Raines, Rebecca, 3033:Myer, Albert J., 3016:Myer, Albert J., 2999:Myer, Albert J., 2973:Myer, Albert J., 2635:Raines, pp. 20–21 2626:Raines, pp. 16–18 2581:Raines, pp. 26–27 2493:Raines, pp. 22–23 2457:Raines, pp. 26–27 2439:Raines, pp. 29–30 2340:Raines, pp. 23–29 2017: 2016: 1889: 1888: 1866:Continuous waving 1861:Move to the left 1778: 1777: 1739: 1738: 1560: 1559: 1496: 1495: 1365: 1364: 1342:Continuous waving 1337:Move to the left 1254: 1253: 1127: 1126: 952: 951: 761:Patrick E. Connor 660:aerial telegraphy 601:Mississippi River 595:to Union forces. 323:Manual of Signals 314: 313: 123:. For instance, 45:aerial telegraphy 18:Wig-Wag Signaling 16:(Redirected from 3181: 2995: 2789: 2786: 2780: 2777: 2771: 2768: 2762: 2759: 2753: 2750: 2744: 2741: 2735: 2732: 2726: 2723: 2717: 2714: 2708: 2705: 2699: 2696: 2690: 2687: 2681: 2678: 2672: 2669: 2663: 2660: 2654: 2651: 2645: 2642: 2636: 2633: 2627: 2624: 2618: 2615: 2609: 2606: 2600: 2597: 2591: 2588: 2582: 2579: 2573: 2570: 2564: 2561: 2555: 2552: 2546: 2543: 2537: 2534: 2528: 2521: 2512: 2509: 2503: 2500: 2494: 2491: 2485: 2482: 2476: 2473: 2467: 2464: 2458: 2455: 2449: 2446: 2440: 2437: 2431: 2428: 2422: 2419: 2413: 2410: 2404: 2401: 2395: 2392: 2386: 2383: 2377: 2374: 2368: 2365: 2359: 2356: 2350: 2347: 2341: 2338: 2332: 2331:Raines, pp. 7–13 2329: 2323: 2320: 2314: 2311: 2305: 2302: 2296: 2293: 2287: 2283:Chambers, p. 171 2275: 2269: 2266: 2260: 2257: 2251: 2248: 2242: 2239: 2233: 2230: 2224: 2221: 2215: 2212: 2206: 2203: 2197: 2182: 2176: 2164: 2158: 2155: 2149: 2146: 2140: 2137: 2131: 2119: 2113: 2101: 2095: 2092: 2086: 2085:eg, Raines, p. 7 2083: 2077: 2074: 2068: 2065: 2059: 2056: 2050: 2047: 2041: 2038: 2032: 2029: 1894: 1805:End of sentence 1783: 1744: 1569: 1510: 1499:Four-symbol code 1373: 1281:End of sentence 1259: 1132: 957: 918: 884:radio telegraphy 840:telegraph trains 727: 715: 703: 691: 676: 588:Pickett's Charge 579:Little Round Top 571:Appomattox River 465:Secretary of War 362: 358: 354: 144: 43:(more formally, 21: 3189: 3188: 3184: 3183: 3182: 3180: 3179: 3178: 3154: 3153: 2991: 2879:Greely, A. W., 2797: 2792: 2787: 2783: 2778: 2774: 2769: 2765: 2760: 2756: 2751: 2747: 2742: 2738: 2733: 2729: 2724: 2720: 2715: 2711: 2706: 2702: 2697: 2693: 2688: 2684: 2679: 2675: 2670: 2666: 2661: 2657: 2652: 2648: 2643: 2639: 2634: 2630: 2625: 2621: 2616: 2612: 2607: 2603: 2599:Coutant, ch. 36 2598: 2594: 2589: 2585: 2580: 2576: 2571: 2567: 2562: 2558: 2553: 2549: 2544: 2540: 2535: 2531: 2522: 2515: 2511:Thompson, p. 13 2510: 2506: 2501: 2497: 2492: 2488: 2483: 2479: 2474: 2470: 2465: 2461: 2456: 2452: 2447: 2443: 2438: 2434: 2429: 2425: 2420: 2416: 2411: 2407: 2402: 2398: 2393: 2389: 2384: 2380: 2375: 2371: 2366: 2362: 2357: 2353: 2348: 2344: 2339: 2335: 2330: 2326: 2322:Raines, pp. 7–8 2321: 2317: 2313:Raines, pp. 6–7 2312: 2308: 2303: 2299: 2294: 2290: 2286: 2276: 2272: 2267: 2263: 2258: 2254: 2249: 2245: 2241:Thompson, p. 12 2240: 2236: 2231: 2227: 2222: 2218: 2213: 2209: 2204: 2200: 2196: 2190:Thompson, p. 12 2183: 2179: 2175: 2165: 2161: 2156: 2152: 2147: 2143: 2138: 2134: 2130: 2120: 2116: 2112: 2102: 2098: 2093: 2089: 2084: 2080: 2075: 2071: 2066: 2062: 2057: 2053: 2048: 2044: 2039: 2035: 2030: 2026: 2022: 2002:Use black flag 1991:Use white flag 1925:Are you ready? 1877:End of address 1813:End of message 1501: 1481:Use black flag 1470:Use white flag 1404:Are you ready? 1353:End of address 1289:End of message 913: 908: 896:Nelson A. Miles 848:Henry J. Rogers 844:Morse telegraph 831: 817: 741: 739:Other campaigns 734: 728: 719: 716: 707: 704: 695: 692: 683: 677: 668: 542: 501: 461:Jefferson Davis 450:Native American 427:, although the 401: 377: 360: 356: 352: 348: 346:Flags and disks 97: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 3187: 3185: 3177: 3176: 3171: 3166: 3164:Flag practices 3156: 3155: 3152: 3151: 3136: 3121: 3118:978-1421410265 3106: 3091: 3080: 3065: 3048: 3031: 3014: 2997: 2988: 2971: 2956: 2941: 2932:, Wiley, 1995 2926: 2911: 2896: 2877: 2860: 2845: 2830: 2815: 2796: 2793: 2791: 2790: 2781: 2772: 2763: 2754: 2745: 2736: 2727: 2718: 2709: 2700: 2691: 2682: 2673: 2664: 2655: 2646: 2637: 2628: 2619: 2610: 2601: 2592: 2590:McDermott, p.6 2583: 2574: 2565: 2556: 2547: 2538: 2529: 2513: 2504: 2495: 2486: 2477: 2468: 2466:Greely, p. 311 2459: 2450: 2441: 2432: 2423: 2414: 2412:Greely, p. 311 2405: 2396: 2387: 2378: 2369: 2360: 2358:Greely, p. 313 2351: 2349:Wagner, p. 358 2342: 2333: 2324: 2315: 2306: 2297: 2295:Wagner, p. 358 2288: 2285: 2284: 2281: 2277: 2270: 2261: 2252: 2243: 2234: 2225: 2216: 2207: 2198: 2195: 2194: 2191: 2188: 2184: 2177: 2174: 2173: 2170: 2166: 2159: 2150: 2141: 2132: 2129: 2128: 2125: 2121: 2114: 2111: 2110: 2107: 2103: 2096: 2087: 2078: 2069: 2060: 2051: 2049:Wolters, p. 10 2042: 2033: 2023: 2021: 2018: 2015: 2014: 2011: 2008: 2004: 2003: 2000: 1997: 1993: 1992: 1989: 1986: 1982: 1981: 1978: 1975: 1971: 1970: 1967: 1964: 1960: 1959: 1956: 1953: 1949: 1948: 1945: 1942: 1938: 1937: 1934: 1931: 1927: 1926: 1923: 1920: 1916: 1915: 1912: 1909: 1905: 1904: 1901: 1898: 1887: 1886: 1883: 1879: 1878: 1875: 1871: 1870: 1867: 1863: 1862: 1859: 1855: 1854: 1851: 1847: 1846: 1843: 1839: 1838: 1835: 1831: 1830: 1827: 1823: 1822: 1819: 1815: 1814: 1811: 1807: 1806: 1803: 1799: 1798: 1795: 1791: 1790: 1787: 1776: 1775: 1772: 1768: 1767: 1764: 1760: 1759: 1756: 1752: 1751: 1748: 1737: 1736: 1733: 1730: 1727: 1724: 1721: 1718: 1715: 1712: 1709: 1706: 1703: 1700: 1696: 1695: 1692: 1689: 1686: 1683: 1680: 1677: 1674: 1671: 1668: 1665: 1662: 1659: 1655: 1654: 1651: 1650: 1647: 1644: 1641: 1638: 1635: 1632: 1629: 1626: 1623: 1620: 1617: 1614: 1610: 1609: 1606: 1603: 1600: 1597: 1594: 1591: 1588: 1585: 1582: 1579: 1576: 1573: 1558: 1557: 1554: 1550: 1549: 1546: 1542: 1541: 1538: 1534: 1533: 1530: 1526: 1525: 1522: 1518: 1517: 1514: 1500: 1497: 1494: 1493: 1490: 1487: 1483: 1482: 1479: 1476: 1472: 1471: 1468: 1465: 1461: 1460: 1457: 1454: 1450: 1449: 1446: 1443: 1439: 1438: 1435: 1432: 1428: 1427: 1424: 1421: 1417: 1416: 1413: 1410: 1406: 1405: 1402: 1399: 1395: 1394: 1391: 1388: 1384: 1383: 1380: 1377: 1363: 1362: 1359: 1355: 1354: 1351: 1347: 1346: 1343: 1339: 1338: 1335: 1331: 1330: 1327: 1323: 1322: 1319: 1315: 1314: 1311: 1307: 1306: 1303: 1299: 1298: 1295: 1291: 1290: 1287: 1283: 1282: 1279: 1275: 1274: 1271: 1267: 1266: 1263: 1252: 1251: 1248: 1244: 1243: 1240: 1236: 1235: 1232: 1228: 1227: 1224: 1220: 1219: 1216: 1212: 1211: 1208: 1204: 1203: 1200: 1196: 1195: 1192: 1188: 1187: 1184: 1180: 1179: 1176: 1172: 1171: 1168: 1164: 1163: 1160: 1156: 1155: 1152: 1148: 1147: 1144: 1140: 1139: 1136: 1125: 1124: 1121: 1118: 1115: 1112: 1109: 1106: 1103: 1100: 1097: 1094: 1091: 1088: 1084: 1083: 1080: 1077: 1074: 1071: 1068: 1065: 1062: 1059: 1056: 1053: 1050: 1047: 1043: 1042: 1039: 1038: 1035: 1032: 1029: 1026: 1023: 1020: 1017: 1014: 1011: 1008: 1005: 1002: 998: 997: 994: 991: 988: 985: 982: 979: 976: 973: 970: 967: 964: 961: 950: 949: 946: 942: 941: 938: 934: 933: 930: 926: 925: 922: 912: 909: 907: 904: 888:flag semaphore 816: 813: 740: 737: 736: 735: 729: 722: 720: 717: 710: 708: 705: 698: 696: 693: 686: 684: 678: 671: 667: 664: 656:aerial signals 541: 538: 500: 497: 425:Alexander Bain 421:telegraph code 417:Albert J. Myer 400: 397: 376: 373: 347: 344: 339:flag semaphore 312: 311: 308: 305: 302: 299: 296: 293: 290: 287: 284: 281: 278: 275: 271: 270: 267: 264: 261: 258: 255: 252: 249: 246: 243: 240: 237: 234: 230: 229: 226: 225: 222: 219: 216: 213: 210: 207: 204: 201: 198: 195: 192: 189: 185: 184: 181: 178: 175: 172: 169: 166: 163: 160: 157: 154: 151: 148: 96: 93: 73:Albert J. Myer 53:flag semaphore 49:flag signaling 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 3186: 3175: 3172: 3170: 3167: 3165: 3162: 3161: 3159: 3149: 3145: 3141: 3137: 3134: 3130: 3126: 3122: 3119: 3115: 3111: 3107: 3104: 3100: 3096: 3092: 3089: 3085: 3081: 3078: 3074: 3070: 3066: 3063: 3059: 3055: 3054: 3049: 3046: 3042: 3038: 3037: 3032: 3029: 3025: 3021: 3020: 3015: 3012: 3008: 3004: 3003: 2998: 2994: 2989: 2986: 2982: 2978: 2977: 2972: 2969: 2965: 2961: 2957: 2954: 2950: 2946: 2942: 2939: 2935: 2931: 2927: 2924: 2920: 2916: 2912: 2909: 2905: 2901: 2897: 2894: 2890: 2886: 2882: 2878: 2875: 2871: 2867: 2866: 2861: 2858: 2854: 2850: 2846: 2843: 2839: 2835: 2831: 2828: 2824: 2820: 2816: 2813: 2809: 2805: 2804: 2799: 2798: 2794: 2785: 2782: 2776: 2773: 2767: 2764: 2758: 2755: 2749: 2746: 2740: 2737: 2731: 2728: 2722: 2719: 2713: 2710: 2704: 2701: 2695: 2692: 2686: 2683: 2677: 2674: 2668: 2665: 2659: 2656: 2650: 2647: 2641: 2638: 2632: 2629: 2623: 2620: 2614: 2611: 2605: 2602: 2596: 2593: 2587: 2584: 2578: 2575: 2569: 2566: 2560: 2557: 2551: 2548: 2542: 2539: 2533: 2530: 2526: 2520: 2518: 2514: 2508: 2505: 2499: 2496: 2490: 2487: 2484:Raines, p. 16 2481: 2478: 2475:Raines, p. 27 2472: 2469: 2463: 2460: 2454: 2451: 2445: 2442: 2436: 2433: 2427: 2424: 2421:Raines, p. 16 2418: 2415: 2409: 2406: 2400: 2397: 2391: 2388: 2382: 2379: 2376:Rauch, p. 102 2373: 2370: 2364: 2361: 2355: 2352: 2346: 2343: 2337: 2334: 2328: 2325: 2319: 2316: 2310: 2307: 2301: 2298: 2292: 2289: 2282: 2279: 2278: 2274: 2271: 2268:Raines, p. 24 2265: 2262: 2256: 2253: 2250:Raines, p. 31 2247: 2244: 2238: 2235: 2229: 2226: 2220: 2217: 2214:Raines, p. 14 2211: 2208: 2202: 2199: 2193:Raines, p. 14 2192: 2189: 2186: 2185: 2181: 2178: 2172:Raines, p. 13 2171: 2168: 2167: 2163: 2160: 2154: 2151: 2145: 2142: 2136: 2133: 2126: 2123: 2122: 2118: 2115: 2108: 2105: 2104: 2100: 2097: 2091: 2088: 2082: 2079: 2073: 2070: 2067:Raines, p. 13 2064: 2061: 2055: 2052: 2046: 2043: 2037: 2034: 2028: 2025: 2019: 2013:Use red flag 2012: 2009: 2006: 2005: 2001: 1998: 1995: 1994: 1990: 1987: 1984: 1983: 1979: 1976: 1973: 1972: 1968: 1965: 1962: 1961: 1957: 1954: 1951: 1950: 1946: 1943: 1940: 1939: 1935: 1932: 1929: 1928: 1924: 1921: 1918: 1917: 1913: 1910: 1907: 1906: 1902: 1899: 1896: 1895: 1884: 1881: 1880: 1876: 1873: 1872: 1868: 1865: 1864: 1860: 1858:114.114.114.5 1857: 1856: 1852: 1850:142.142.142.5 1849: 1848: 1844: 1841: 1840: 1836: 1834:234.234.234.5 1833: 1832: 1829:Stop sending 1828: 1825: 1824: 1820: 1817: 1816: 1812: 1809: 1808: 1804: 1801: 1800: 1796: 1793: 1792: 1788: 1785: 1784: 1773: 1770: 1769: 1765: 1762: 1761: 1757: 1754: 1753: 1749: 1746: 1745: 1734: 1731: 1728: 1725: 1722: 1719: 1716: 1713: 1710: 1707: 1704: 1701: 1698: 1697: 1693: 1690: 1687: 1684: 1681: 1678: 1675: 1672: 1669: 1666: 1663: 1660: 1657: 1656: 1653: 1652: 1648: 1645: 1642: 1639: 1636: 1633: 1630: 1627: 1624: 1621: 1618: 1615: 1612: 1611: 1607: 1604: 1601: 1598: 1595: 1592: 1589: 1586: 1583: 1580: 1577: 1574: 1571: 1570: 1564: 1555: 1552: 1551: 1547: 1544: 1543: 1539: 1536: 1535: 1531: 1528: 1527: 1523: 1520: 1519: 1515: 1512: 1511: 1508:Flag motions 1505: 1498: 1492:Use red flag 1491: 1488: 1485: 1484: 1480: 1477: 1474: 1473: 1469: 1466: 1463: 1462: 1458: 1455: 1452: 1451: 1447: 1444: 1441: 1440: 1436: 1433: 1430: 1429: 1425: 1422: 1419: 1418: 1414: 1411: 1408: 1407: 1403: 1400: 1397: 1396: 1392: 1389: 1386: 1385: 1381: 1378: 1375: 1374: 1368: 1360: 1357: 1356: 1352: 1349: 1348: 1344: 1341: 1340: 1336: 1333: 1332: 1328: 1325: 1324: 1320: 1317: 1316: 1312: 1309: 1308: 1305:Stop sending 1304: 1301: 1300: 1296: 1293: 1292: 1288: 1285: 1284: 1280: 1277: 1276: 1272: 1269: 1268: 1264: 1261: 1260: 1249: 1246: 1245: 1241: 1238: 1237: 1233: 1230: 1229: 1225: 1222: 1221: 1217: 1214: 1213: 1209: 1206: 1205: 1201: 1198: 1197: 1193: 1190: 1189: 1185: 1182: 1181: 1177: 1174: 1173: 1169: 1166: 1165: 1161: 1158: 1157: 1153: 1150: 1149: 1145: 1142: 1141: 1137: 1134: 1133: 1122: 1119: 1116: 1113: 1110: 1107: 1104: 1101: 1098: 1095: 1092: 1089: 1086: 1085: 1081: 1078: 1075: 1072: 1069: 1066: 1063: 1060: 1057: 1054: 1051: 1048: 1045: 1044: 1041: 1040: 1036: 1033: 1030: 1027: 1024: 1021: 1018: 1015: 1012: 1009: 1006: 1003: 1000: 999: 995: 992: 989: 986: 983: 980: 977: 974: 971: 968: 965: 962: 959: 958: 947: 944: 943: 939: 936: 935: 931: 928: 927: 923: 920: 919: 916:Flag motions 910: 905: 903: 901: 897: 893: 889: 885: 881: 877: 873: 868: 865: 861: 857: 853: 849: 845: 841: 837: 830: 821: 814: 812: 810: 806: 801: 797: 792: 790: 789:Bozeman Trail 786: 782: 778: 774: 770: 766: 762: 754: 750: 745: 738: 733: 726: 721: 714: 709: 702: 697: 690: 685: 682: 675: 670: 665: 663: 661: 657: 653: 648: 646: 641: 637: 633: 629: 621: 616: 612: 610: 606: 602: 596: 594: 589: 585: 580: 575: 572: 567: 563: 559: 555: 546: 539: 537: 534: 529: 525: 521: 514: 510: 505: 498: 496: 494: 488: 486: 482: 481:Robert E. Lee 478: 477:John B. Floyd 474: 470: 466: 462: 458: 453: 451: 446: 442: 438: 434: 430: 426: 422: 418: 410: 405: 398: 396: 394: 390: 386: 382: 374: 372: 368: 366: 345: 343: 340: 331: 327: 324: 318: 309: 306: 303: 300: 297: 294: 291: 288: 285: 282: 279: 276: 273: 272: 268: 265: 262: 259: 256: 253: 250: 247: 244: 241: 238: 235: 232: 231: 228: 227: 223: 220: 217: 214: 211: 208: 205: 202: 199: 196: 193: 190: 187: 186: 182: 179: 176: 173: 170: 167: 164: 161: 158: 155: 152: 149: 146: 145: 139: 138: 134: 130: 126: 122: 118: 113: 111: 101: 94: 92: 90: 86: 82: 78: 74: 69: 67: 63: 57: 54: 50: 46: 42: 34: 30: 19: 3169:Signal flags 3139: 3124: 3109: 3094: 3087: 3068: 3052: 3035: 3018: 3001: 2975: 2959: 2944: 2929: 2914: 2899: 2884: 2864: 2848: 2847:Coe, Lewis, 2833: 2818: 2802: 2795:Bibliography 2784: 2775: 2766: 2757: 2748: 2739: 2730: 2721: 2712: 2703: 2694: 2685: 2676: 2667: 2658: 2649: 2640: 2631: 2622: 2613: 2604: 2595: 2586: 2577: 2568: 2559: 2550: 2541: 2532: 2527:7 July 2007. 2507: 2498: 2489: 2480: 2471: 2462: 2453: 2444: 2435: 2426: 2417: 2408: 2399: 2394:Raines, p. 9 2390: 2385:Raines, p. 5 2381: 2372: 2363: 2354: 2345: 2336: 2327: 2318: 2309: 2304:Raines, p. 6 2300: 2291: 2280:Raines, p. 5 2273: 2264: 2255: 2246: 2237: 2228: 2219: 2210: 2201: 2180: 2162: 2153: 2144: 2139:Raines, p. 5 2135: 2117: 2099: 2090: 2081: 2072: 2063: 2054: 2045: 2036: 2027: 1969:Send faster 1826:11.11.11.555 1797:End of word 1561: 1502: 1448:Send faster 1366: 1302:22.22.22.333 1273:End of word 906:Code details 869: 854:invented by 839: 836:Anson Stager 832: 808: 804: 793: 758: 659: 655: 651: 649: 624: 603:such as the 597: 576: 551: 528:Edward Canby 517: 493:Signal Corps 489: 454: 444: 414: 378: 369: 365:action flags 364: 349: 336: 322: 319: 315: 128: 124: 114: 106: 77:Signal Corps 70: 58: 44: 40: 39: 29: 1936:I am ready 1821:Understood 1415:I am ready 1334:221.221.221 1326:211.211.211 1310:121.121.121 1297:Understood 767:of 1865 in 751:during the 640:cipher disk 620:cipher disk 560:Lieutenant 558:Confederate 485:Fort Monroe 457:Fort Duncan 399:Development 393:World War I 3158:Categories 3148:1851097325 3133:1851097325 3103:0684863502 3077:1851097325 3062:0160872812 2968:0803281811 2953:0811700615 2938:0818667826 2923:039304758X 2908:0253207150 2857:0786418087 2842:0195071980 2827:0743212495 2020:References 1869:Attention 1818:11.11.11.5 1345:Attention 1294:22.22.22.3 892:heliograph 827:See also: 815:Withdrawal 800:Morse code 499:In service 437:Morse code 429:codepoints 117:Morse code 89:heliograph 66:Morse code 3045:682033474 3028:228693537 3011:680380148 2893:180558284 2812:458406698 2653:Coe, p. 3 2106:Coe, p. 3 1897:Codepoint 1892:Numerals 1786:Codepoint 1781:Controls 1747:Codepoint 1376:Codepoint 1371:Numerals 1262:Codepoint 1257:Controls 1135:Codepoint 509:Elk Ridge 471:the Army 385:telephone 121:character 95:Operation 62:character 2874:40744278 2525:archived 1903:Control 1842:143434.5 1789:Meaning 1750:Meaning 1567:Letters 1382:Control 1265:Meaning 1138:Meaning 955:Letters 796:Boer War 781:Cheyenne 681:Richmond 618:A Union 607:and the 56:flags. 3088:Signals 2985:7364112 1900:Numeral 1837:Repeat 1516:Motion 1379:Numeral 1313:Repeat 1178:before 924:Motion 785:Arapaho 773:Montana 769:Wyoming 763:on the 755:in 1898 522:in the 463:, then 375:History 3146: 3131: 3116: 3101: 3075: 3060: 3043: 3026: 3009: 2983: 2966: 2951: 2936: 2921: 2906: 2891: 2872: 2855: 2840: 2825: 2810: 1845:Error 1758:& 1513:Symbol 1321:Error 1318:212121 1170:after 1146:& 921:Symbol 900:Apache 783:, and 749:Manila 652:wigwag 520:Navajo 357:180 cm 353:120 cm 41:Wigwag 2007:11111 1996:22342 1985:22223 1974:22311 1963:23111 1952:11114 1941:11143 1930:11431 1919:23114 1914:Wait 1908:14223 1774:tion 1735:1111 1649:2314 1486:22222 1475:11211 1464:11112 1453:11222 1442:12222 1431:22221 1420:22212 1409:22122 1398:12221 1393:Wait 1387:21112 1250:with 1242:word 1234:your 1194:have 1162:tion 1123:2222 1037:1221 777:Sioux 381:radio 361:60 cm 310:2222 224:1221 115:Like 3144:ISBN 3129:ISBN 3114:ISBN 3099:ISBN 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