Effects of stress on memory

508:, is the intentional recall of past events or learned information and is a discipline of LTM. Explicit memory includes memory for remembering a specific event, such as dinner the week prior, or information about the world, such as the definition for explicit memory. When an anxious state is provoked, percentage recall on explicit memory tasks is enhanced. However, this effect is only present for emotionally associated words. Stress hormones influence the processes carried out in the hippocampus and amygdala which are also associated with emotional responses. Thus, emotional memories are enhanced when stress is induced, as they are both associated with the same areas of the brain, whereas neutral stimuli and stress are not. However, enhancement of explicit memory depends on the time of day. Explicit memory is enhanced by stress when assessed in the afternoon, but impaired when assessed in the morning. Basal cortisol levels are relatively low in the afternoon and much higher in the morning, which can alter the interaction and effects of stress hormones. 628: 818:

that the traumatic event tends to disrupt the stream of memories people obtain through life, creating memories that do not blend in with the rest. This has the effect of creating a split in identity as the person now has good memories they can attribute to one personality and bad memories the can attribute to the "other" personality. For example, a victim of childhood abuse can group their good and happy experiences under the "pleasant" personality and their abuse experiences under one "bad or wicked" personality. This then creates a split personality disorder. Individuals with post traumatic stress disorder often have difficulty remembering facts, appointments and autobiographical details. The traumatic event can result in

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displaying their specific "ritual" to help deal with their anxiety. When asked to forget information they have encoded, OCD patients have difficulty forgetting what they are told to forget only when the subject is negative. Individuals not affected by OCD do not show this tendency. Researchers have proposed a general deficit hypothesis for memory related problems in OCD. There are limited studies investigating this hypothesis. These studies propose that memory is enhanced for menacing events that have occurred during the individuals life. For example, a study demonstrated that individuals with OCD exhibit exceptional recall for previously encountered events, but only when the event promoted anxiety in the individual.

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others believe that acute stress can actually enhance memory. Several studies have shown that stress and glucocorticoids enhance memory formation while they impair memory retrieval. For acute stress to enhance memory certain circumstances must be met. First, the context in which the stress is being perceived must match the context of the information or material being encoded. Second, the brain regions involved in the retrieval of the memory must match the regions targeted by glucocorticoids. There are also differences in the type of information being remembered or being forgotten while being exposed to acute stress. In some cases neutral stimuli tend to be remembered, while emotionally charged (

890:(OCD) involves both obsessions and compulsions that disrupt daily routines and activities. The obsessions include recurrent unwanted thoughts that cause compulsions, including repetitive behaviors. Individuals with OCD may realize that their obsessions are not normal and try to stop their actions, but this only increases the person's anxiety towards the situation, and has an adverse effect. OCD often revolves around themes in one's life; for example, fear of coming in contact with germs (obsession). To deal with the fear of germs one may compulsively wash their hands until they are chapped. OCD is a constituent of many other disorders including 301:) stimuli tend to be forgotten. In other cases the opposite effect is obtained. What seems to be an important factor in determining what will be impaired and what will be enhanced is the timing of the perceived stressful exposure and the timing of the retrieval. For emotionally salient information to be remembered, the perceived stress must be induced before encoding, and retrieval must follow shortly afterwards. In contrast, for emotionally charged stimuli to be forgotten, the stressful exposure must be after encoding and retrieval must follow after a longer delay. 94:

In regard to extrinsic stress, the study focused on stress that was not related to cognitive task but was elicited by other situations. The results determined that intrinsic stress was facilitated by memory consolidation process and extrinsic stress was determined to be heterogeneous in regard to memory consolidation. Researchers found that high stress conditions were a good representative of the effect that extrinsic stress can cause on memory functioning. It was also proven that extrinsic stress does affect spatial learning whereas acute extrinsic stress does not.

814:, medication, and in some circumstance both. Effective psychotherapy involves helping the individual with managing the symptoms, coping with the traumatic event, and working through the traumatic experiences. Medications such as antidepressants has proven to be an effective way to block the effects of stress and to also promote neurogenesis. The medication phenytoin can also block stress caused to the hippocampus with the help of modulation of excitatory amino acids. Preliminary findings indicate that cortisol may be helpful to reduce traumatic memory in PTSD. 269:. When chronic stress is perceived, however, the body is in a continuous state of fight-or-flight response and never reaches a state of homeostasis. The physiological effects of chronic stress can negatively affect memory and learning. One study used rats to show the effects of chronic stress on memory by exposing them to a cat for five weeks and being randomly assigned to a different group each day. Their stress was measured in a naturalistic setting by observing their open field behaviour, and the effect on memory was estimated using the 517: 31: 317:. All of the volunteers participated in two different sessions a month apart. The study consisted on the participants viewing movie clips and pictures that belonged to two different categories: neutral or negative. The participants had to memorize then rate each movie clip or picture by pressing a button with their right hand. They were also monitored in other areas such as their heart rate, pupil diameter, and stress measures by collection of saliva throughout the experiment. The participants mood was assessed by using the 354:, is defined as a memory mechanism that can hold a limited amount of information for a brief period of time, usually around thirty seconds. Stress, which is often perceived as only having negative effects, can aid in memory formation. One example is how stress can benefit memory during encoding. Encoding is the time that memories are formed. An example of this was when researchers found that stress experienced during crimes improved eyewitness memory, especially under the influence of Repeat Testing. 723: 103: 388: 670: 277:

included 61 cognitively typical people and 41 people with mild cognitive impairment. The participants were between 65 and 97 years old. 52 of the participants were followed for three years and repeatedly received stress and cognitive test assessments. Any patient with signs or conditions that would affect their cortisol level or cognitive functioning was exempt from participating.

134:, providing energy to combat or flee the stressor. Blood is redirected to the brain and major muscle groups, diverted away from energy consuming bodily functions unrelated to survival at the present time. There are three important axes, the adrenocorticotropic axis, the vasopressin axis and the thyroxine axis, which are responsible for the physiologic response to stress. 575:

conscious awareness, the less accurate it will become. When stress is induced the memory will be susceptible to other influences, such as suggestions from other people, or emotions unrelated to the event but present during recall. Therefore, stress at the encoding of an event positively influences memory, but stress at the time of recollection impairs memory.

531:, is memory of information without conscious awareness or ability to verbalize the process, and is also a discipline of LTM. There are three types of implicit memory, which are: conditioning (emotional behavior), tasks and priming (verbal behavior). For example, the process of riding a bicycle cannot be verbalized, but the action can still be executed. When 776: 138: 273:(RAWM). In the RAWM, rats are taught the place of a platform that is placed below the surface of the water. They must recall this later to discover the platform to exit the water. It was found that the rats exposed to chronic psychosocial stress could not learn to adapt to new situations and environments, and had impaired memory on the RAWM. 5010: 823:

scored lower than controls on the memory test, indicating a poorer general knowledge. The study revealed that 78% of PTSD patients under-performed, and where in the categories labelled "poor memory" or "impaired memory". PTSD patients were specifically worse at the prospective and orientation items on the Rivermead Behavioural Memory Test.

206:. This pathway allows water reabsorption within the body and decreases the amount of water lost through perspiration. ADH has the greatest effect on blood pressure within the body. Under normal circumstances, ADH will regulate the blood pressure and increase or decrease the blood volume when needed. However, when stress becomes chronic, 4998: 855:

disorder include blushing, profuse sweating, trembling, nausea or abdominal distress, rapid heartbeat, shortness of breath, dizziness or lightheadedness, headaches, and feelings of detachment. Development of low self-esteem, poor social skills, and trouble being assertive are also common signs of social anxiety disorder.

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a biased opinion of the situation from the perspective of the social phobic compared to the non-social phobic. Social phobics typically displayed better recall than control participants. However, individuals with social anxiety recalled angry faces rather than happy or neutral faces better than control participants.

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cognitive task. Intrinsic stress can be acutely and chronically experienced by a person. The varying effects of stress on performance or stress hormones are often compared to or known as "inverted-u" which induce areas in learning, memory and plasticity. Chronic stress can affect the brain structure and cognition.

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this persists over an extended period of time, one may be said to be suffering from PTSD. Examples of events that could lead to the onset of PTSD are war, rape, assault, and childhood neglect. It is estimated that approximately 8% of Americans may have this disease which can lead to long-term problems.

661:. Inhibited reversal learning can be associated with the idea that subjects experiencing symptoms of anxiety frustrate easily and are unable to successfully adapt to a changing environment. Thus, anxiety can negatively affect learning when the stimulus and response relationship are reversed or altered. 963:

Obsessive-compulsive individuals have difficulty forgetting unwanted thoughts. When they encode this information into memory they encode it as a neutral or positive thought. This is inconsistent with what a person without OCD would think about this thought, leading the individual with OCD to continue

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has proven to be an effective method for treating OCD. Patients are exposed to the theme that is typically avoided, while being restricted from performing their usual anxiety reducing rituals. Behavior therapy rarely eliminates OCD, but it helps to reduce the signs and symptoms. With medication, this

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Social phobics display a tendency to recall negative emotions about a situation when asked to recall the event. Their emotions typically revolve around themselves, with no recollection of other people's environments. Social anxiety results in negative aspects of the event to be remembered, leading to

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The studies performed on the Vietnam veterans that suffer from PTSD show that there are hippocampal changes in the brain associated with this disorder. The veterans with PTSD showed an 8% reduction in their right hippocampal volume. The patients that suffered from child abuse showed a 12% reduction

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Studies have been conducted on people that were involved in the Vietnam War or the Holocaust, returning Iraq soldiers and people that also suffered from rape and childhood abuse. Different tests were administered such as the Selective Reminding Test, Verbal Learning Test, Paired Associate Recall, the

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PTSD affects memory recall and accuracy. The more the traumatic event is brought to conscious awareness and recalled, the less accurate the memory. PTSD affects the verbal memory of the traumatic event, but does not affect the memory in general. One of the ways traumatic stress affects individuals is

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STM, and the central executive links and controls these systems. The disruption of these components impairs the transfer of information from WM to LTM, thus affecting learning. For instance, several studies have demonstrated that acute stress can impair working memory processing likely though reduced

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that can occur after exposure to horrific events, or after a terrifying ordeal where there is immense physical harm that directly or indirectly affects a person. When the memories of these traumas do not subside, a person may begin to avoid anything that would cause them to relive these events. When

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Other studies have suggested stress can decrease memory function. For instance, Predator Stress has been shown to impair STM. It has been determined that this effect on STM is not due to the fact that a predator is a novel and arousing stimulus, but rather because of the fear that is provoked in the

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The results from the study confirmed that there were physiological measures in regard to stress induction. The participant's heart rate was elevated and pupil dilation was decreased when viewing the pictures. The study also showed psychological measures that proved that stress induction did cause an

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If stressful information is relatable to a person, the event more prone to be stored in permanent memory. When a person is under stress, the sympathetic system will shift to a constantly (tonically) active state. To further study how acute stress affect memory formation, a study would appropriate to

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Studies considered the effects of both intrinsic and extrinsic stress on memory functions, using for both of them Pavlovian conditioning and spatial learning. In regard to intrinsic memory functions, the study evaluated how stress affected memory functions that was triggered by a learning challenge.

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to the females, no gender differences in classical conditioning were observed 24 hours later. Inactivating the mPFC in the male rats did not prevent the enhanced conditioning that the males previously exhibited. This discrepancy between genders has also been shown to be present in humans. In a 2005

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arises from the perception of danger leading to confrontation with or escape from/avoiding the threat. An anxious state at the time of learning can create a stronger aversion to the stimuli. A stronger aversion can lead to stronger associations in memory between the stimulus and response, therefore

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Autobiographical memory, however, is not impaired on a continual decline from the first recall of the information when anxiety is induced. At first recall attempt, the memory is fairly accurate. The impairment begins when reconsolidation is present, such that the more times the memory is brought to

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done on rats, the researchers found that shock induced stress caused the rats to forget what they learned in the phase prior to the shock, but to have distinct memory for where the shock occurred. This negative effect on the retrieval of memories caused by stress can be attributed to cortisol, the

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that is an immediate perceived threat. Unlike chronic stress, acute stress is not ongoing and the physiological arousal associated with acute stress is not nearly as demanding. There are mixed findings on the effects of acute stress on memory. One view is that acute stress can impair memory, while

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regulation of blood pressure is lost. Vasopressin is released and causes a static increase in blood pressure. This increase in blood pressure under stressful conditions ensures that muscles receive the oxygen that they need to be active and respond accordingly. If these stressful conditions remain

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into the bloodstream. Stress can cause acute and chronic changes in certain brain areas which can cause long-term damage. Over-secretion of stress hormones most frequently impairs long-term delayed recall memory, but can enhance short-term, immediate recall memory. This enhancement is particularly

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People with social anxiety disorder have a constant, chronic fear of being watched and judged by peers and strangers, and of doing something that will embarrass them. People with this may physically feel sick from the situation, even when the situation is non-threatening. Physical symptoms of the

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is an anxiety disorder consisting of overwhelming anxiety and excessive self-consciousness in everyday social situations. It is an extreme fear of being scrutinized and judged by others in social and/or performance situations. This fear about a situation can become so severe that it affects work,

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PTSD can affect several parts of the brain such as the amygdala, hippocampus, and the prefrontal cortex. The amygdala controls our memory and emotional processing; the hippocampus helps with organizing, storing and memory forming. Hippocampus is the most sensitive area to stress. The prefrontal

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and in the occurrence of intrusive recollections of the event. Children with PTSD have deficits in cognitive processes essential for learning; their memory systems also under-performs those of normal children. A study using the Rivermead Behavioural Memory Test showed that individuals with PTSD

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Symptoms include persistent frightened thoughts and memories of the trauma or ordeal and emotional numbness. The individual may experience sleeping problems, be easily startled, or experience feelings of detachment or numbness. Sufferers may experience depression and/or display self-destructive

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of the pathways associated with the threatening cues, and thus increases the ability to recall the information present while in a high anxious state. However, when in a high anxious state and presented with positive information, there is no memory bias produced. This occurs because it is not as

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A few studies done in the past proved that PTSD can cause cognition and brain structure changes that involve verbal declarative memory deficits. Children that have experienced child abuse may according to neuropsychological testing experience a deficit in verbal declarative memory functioning.

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Chronic stress affects a person's cognitive functioning differently for typical subjects versus subjects with mild cognitive impairment. Chronic stress and elevated cortisol (a biomarker for stress) has been known to lead to dementia in elderly people. A longitudinal study was performed which

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is an effective method of treating social anxiety. In exposure therapy a patient is presented with situations that they are afraid of, gradually building up to facing the situation that the patient fears most. This type of therapy helps the patient learn new techniques to cope with different

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Stress affects many memory functions and cognitive functioning of the brain. There are different levels of stress and the high levels can be intrinsic or extrinsic. Intrinsic stress level is triggered by a cognitive challenge whereas extrinsic can be triggered by a condition not related to a

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that are sensitive to these stress hormones. However, an excess of cortisol can impair the ability of the hippocampus to both encode and recall memories. These stress hormones are also hindering the hippocampus from receiving enough energy by diverting glucose levels to surrounding muscles.

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situations that they fear. Role-playing has proven effective for the treatment or social anxiety. Role-playing therapy helps to boost individuals' confidence relating to other people and helps increase social skills. Medication is another effective method for treating social anxiety.

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A person that shows a constant need to complete a certain "ritual", or is constantly plagued with unwelcome thoughts, may suffer from OCD. Themes of obsessions include fear of germs or dirt, having things orderly and symmetrical, and sexual thoughts and images. Signs of obsessions:

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toward a stimulus will increase ability to recall information, therefore enhancing memory. When threatening information or a stimulus that provokes anxiety are present, it is difficult to release attention from the negative cue. When in a state of high anxiety, a conceptual

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on snails, it was shown that when trained in the presence of a predator, snails' memory persisted for at least 24 hours in adults, while it usually lasts only 3 hours. Juvenile snails, who usually do not have any LTM showed signs of LTM after exposure to a predator.

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Moradi, A. R., Herlihy, J., Yasseri, G., Shahraray, M., Turner, S. & Dalgleish, T. (2008). Specifically of episodic memory and semantic memory aspects of autobiographical memory in relation to symptoms of post traumatic stress disorder. Science Direct: 127,

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Much of the research relating to stress and memory has been conducted on animals and can be generalized to humans. One type of stress that is not easily translatable to humans is predator stress: the anxiety an animal experiences when in the presence of a

571:, the memory system regarding general information about the world, are impaired by an event that induces a stressful response. This causes the recall of an experience of a specific event and the information about the event to be recalled less accurately. 332:

which interfere with the memory formation. During a stressful time, a person's attention and emotional state may be affected, which could hinder the ability to focus while processing an image. Stress can also enhance the neural state of memory formation.

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of memory, while it impairs the retrieval of memory. That is, one will be able to remember information relating to a stressful situation after the fact, but while in a stressful situation it is hard to recall specific information. In a study by Park

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increase in subjective stress. In regard to memory enhancement, participants that were shown a stressful picture, often remembered them a day later, which is in accordance with the theory that negative incidents have lasting effects on our memory.

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In general, higher event-based stress was associated with more rapid cognitive impairment. However, participants with greater cortisol levels showed signs of slower decline. Neither of these effects held for the non-cognitively-impaired group.

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in them. After exposure to an emotional and stressful negative event, flashback memories can be evident. However, the more flashback memories present, the less accurate the autobiographical memory. Both aspects of autobiographical memory,

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difficult to redirect attention from the positive stimulus as it is from the negative stimulus. This is due to the fact that the negative cue is perceived as a factor in the induced stress, whereas the positive cue is not.

77:. Glucocorticoids facilitate and impair the actions of stress in the brain memory process. Cortisol is a known biomarker for stress. Under normal circumstances, the hippocampus regulates the production of cortisol through 182:, and increases serum glucose level and blood pressure, among other effects. On the other hand, aldosterone is responsible for water retention associated with stress. As a result of cells retaining sodium and eliminating 644:

is attempted in male and female humans, compared to a neutral control without anxiety, extinction does not occur. This suggests that memory is enhanced for learning, specifically fear learning, when anxiety is present.

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school, and other typical activities. Social anxiety can be related to one situation (such as talking to people) or it can be much more broad, where a person experiences anxiety around everyone except family members.

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Viau, V.; Soriano, L.; Dallman, M (2001). "Androgens alter corticotropin releasing hormone and arginine vasopressin mrna within forebrain sites known to regulate activity in the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis".

800:: Avoiding reminders of the events, including places, people, thoughts or other activities relating to the specific event. Withdrawal from family and friends and loss of interest in activities may occur from PTSD 367:

is 7±2 objects, and lasts for a matter of seconds. This means that when given a series of items to remember, most people can remember 5-9 of those items. The average is 7. However, this limit can be increased by

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A study published in 2009 tested eighteen young healthy males between 19 and 31 years old. All participants were right-handed and had no history of a head injury, or of any medication that could affect a person

376:(LTM) by rehearsal and association with other information previously stored in LTM. Most of the research on stress and memory has been done on working memory and the processing and storage that occurs rather 831:

California Verbal New Learning Test, and the Rivermead Behavioral Memory Test. The test results showed that the returning Iraq soldiers did have less verbal memory performance as compared to pre-deployment.

682:. In studies, stress is induced by introducing a predator to a subject either before the learning phase or between the learning phase and the testing phase. Memory is measured by various tests, such as the 794:: Through recurring nightmares or images that bring back memories of the events. When people re-live the event they become panicked, and they may have physical and emotional chills or heart palpitations. 264:

is experienced, the body is in a state of continuous physiological arousal. Normally, the body activates a fight-or-flight-response, and when the perceived stress is over the body returns to a state of

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Moradi, A. R.; Doost, H. T. N.; Taghavi, M. R.; Yule, W.; Dalgleish, T. (1999). "Everyday memory deficits in children and adolescents with ptsd: performance on the rivermead behavioural memory test".

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Sundada, H.; Horikoshi, T.; Lukawiak, K.; Sakakibara, M. (2010). "Increase in excitability of RPeD11 results in memory enhancement of juvenile and adult Lymnaea stagnalis by predator-induced stress".

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in participants, while the negative effect of stress causes more false alarms and mistakes when compared to a normal condition. The researchers hypothesize that this could be representative of faster

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Aerni, A; Traber, R; Hock, C; Roozendaal, B; Schelling, G; Papassotiropoulos, A; Nitsch, RM; Schnyder, U; de Quervain, DJ (2004). "Low-dose cortisol for symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder".

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Conversely, reversal learning is inhibited by the presence of anxiety. Reversal learning is assessed through the reversal learning task; a stimulus and response relationship is learned through the

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than is known about the effect of stress on STM. This could be due to the fact that LTM is not affected as severely as STM and WM are, and is also influenced by the effect of stress on STM and WM.

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Compulsions follow the theme of the obsessions, and are repetitive behaviors that individuals with OCD feel will diminish the effect of the obsession. Compulsions also follow the theme, including

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medications are the most commonly prescribed types of medication to treat social anxiety. Moreover, there are new approaches to treat phobias and enhance exposure therapy with glucocorticoids.

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reduction of the disorder is even more evident. Antidepressants are usually the first prescribed medication to a patient with OCD. Medications that treat OCD typically inhibit the reuptake of

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demonstrated that stress allowed faster classical conditioning of male rats while disrupting the same type of learning in female rats. These gender differences were shown to be caused by the

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in their mean left hippocampal volume. Several of the studies has also shown that people with PTSD have deficits while performing verbal declarative memory task in their hippicampal.

3021:"Stress Integration after Acute and Chronic Predator Stress: Differential Activation of Central Stress Circuitry and Sensitization of the Hypothalamo-Pituitary-Adrenocortical Axis" 1362:

Peavy, G. M.; Salmon, D. P.; Jacobson, M. W.; Hervey, A.; Gamst, A. C.; Wolfson, T.; Patterson, T. L.; Goldman, S.; Mills, P. J.; Khandrika, S.; Galasko, D. (15 September 2009).

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Qin, S; Hermans, EJ; van Marle, H; Luo, J; Fernández, G (2009). "Acute Psychological Stress Reduces Working Memory-Related Activity in the Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex".

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Neupert, S.D.; Almeida, D.M.; Mroczek, D.K.; Spiro, A. (2006). "Daily Stressors and Memory Failure in a Naturalistic Setting: Findings from the VA Normative Aging Study".

3993:"The effect of moderate acute psychological stress on working memory-related neural activity is modulated by a genetic variation in catecholaminergic function in humans" 2401:"The effect of moderate acute psychological stress on working memory-related neural activity is modulated by a genetic variation in catecholaminergic function in humans" 130:

to encourage the body to react to the apparent stressor. This response causes an increase in heart-rate, blood pressure, and accelerated breathing. The kidneys release

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is produced toward the negative stimulus. Therefore, it is difficult to redirect the attention focus away from the negative, anxiety provoking cue. This increases the

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Vriends, N.; Michael, T.; Blechert, J.; Meyer, A.H.; Marhraf, J.; Wilhelm, F. H. (2011). "The influence of state anxiety on the acquisition and extinction of fear".

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Peavy, G. M.; Salmon, D. P.; Jacobson, M. W.; Hervey, A.; Gamst, A. C.; Wolfson, T.; Patterson, T. L.; Goldman, S.; Mills, P. J.; Khandrika, S.; Galasko, D. (2009).

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Parkad, C.R.; Campbella, A.M.; Diamond, D.M. (2001). "Chronic psychosocial stress impairs learning and memory and increases sensitivity to yohimbine in adult rats".

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Bremner, J. Douglas; Krystal, John H.; Southwick, Steven M.; Charney, Dennis S. (1995). "Functional Neuroanatomical Correlates of the Effects of Stress on Memory".

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Hitch, G. J. (1985). Short-term memory and information processing in humans and animals: Towards an integrative framework. In L.-G. Nilsson & T. Archer (Eds.),

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Scott, L; Dinan, T (1998). "Vasopressin and the regulation of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis function: implications for the pathophysiology of depression".

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from the adrenal gland. These substances are the main factors responsible for the stress response in humans. Cortisol for example stimulates the mobilization of

686:(RAWM). In the RAWM, rats are taught the location of a hidden platform and must recall this information later on to find the platform and get out of the water. 35: 4598: 2109:

Jelicic, M.; Geraerts, E.; Merckelbach, H.; Guerrieri, R. (2004). "Acute Stress Enhances Memory For Emotional Words, But Impairs Memory For Neutral Words".

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is the acquisition of knowledge or skills through experience, study, or by being taught and is the modification of behaviour by experience. For example,

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Mellings, T. M. B.; Alden, L. E. (2000). "Cognitive processes in social anxiety: the effects of self- focus, rumination and anticipatory processing".

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Oei, N.Y.L.; Elzinga, B.M.; Wolf, O.T.; de Ruiter, M.B.; Damoiseaux, J.S.; Kuijer, J.P.A.; Veltman, D.J.; Scheltens, P.; Rombouts, S.A.R.B. (2007).

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to avoid certain stimuli such as a tornadoes, thunderstorms, large animals, and toxic chemicals, because they can be harmful. This is classified as

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is the response to emotional pressure suffered for a prolonged period of time in which an individual perceives they have little or no control. When

3070:"Emotion-Induced Amnesia in Rats: Working Memory-Specific Impairment, Corticosterone-Memory Correlation, and Fear Versus Arousal Effects on Memory" 305:

add examine. Acute stress exposure induces the activation of different hormonal and neurotransmitters which effect the memory's working processes.

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Tolin, D. F.; Abramowitz, J. S.; Brigidi, B. D.; Amir, N.; Street, G. P. (2001). "Memory and memory confidence in obsessive–compulsive disorder".

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Bremner, J.D.; Krystal, J.H; Southwick, S.M.; Charney, D.S. (1995). "Functional neuroanatomical correlates of the effects of stress on memory".

428: 403:, similar to STM, is the ability to temporarily store information in order to manipulate it for performing complex tasks, such as reasoning. 391: 1574:

Antoni F. Hypothalamic control of adrenocorticotropin secretion: advances since the discovery of 41-residue corticotropin-releasing factor"

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and the ability to retrieve information. Stimuli, like stress, improved memory when it was related to learning the subject. During times of

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is affected to a greater extent by stress than Long-term memory. Stress has been shown to both improve and impair WM. In a study by Duncko

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Jackson, E.D.; Payne, J.D.; Nadel, L.; Jacobs, W.J. (2005). "Stress differentially modulates fear conditioning in healthy men and women".

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demonstrated that stress enhances recall of information reviewed prior to the stressful situation, and that this effect is long lasting.

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and the amygdala are affected. One class of stress hormone responsible for negatively affecting long-term, delayed recall memory is the

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is the process by which a concentration is focused on a point of interest, such as an event or physical stimulus. It is theorized that

1691: 806:: Symptoms also include an inability to relax, feelings of irritability or sudden anger, sleeping problems, and being easily startled. 1469: 4057: 202:(ADH), is synthesized by the neurons in the supraoptic nucleus of the hypothalamus and regulates fluid loss by manipulating the 2791:

Derryberry, D.; Reed, M. A. (1994). "Temperament and attention: Orienting toward and away from positive and negative signals".

1492:"Neurocircuitry of stress integration: anatomical pathways regulating the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenocortical axis of the rat" 155: 4545: 764: 3490: 887: 224: 4593: 4494: 4381: 3260: 3167:"The Prefrontal Cortex Communicates with the Amygdala to Impair Learning after Acute Stress in Females but Not in Males" 906:

fear of being contaminated which leads to avoidance of shaking hands with others, or touching items others have touched;

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Eddy, M, F., & Walbroehl, G, S. (1998). Recognition and treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Retrieved from

2465:"Acute predator stress impairs the consolidation and retrieval of hippocampus-dependent memory in male and female rats" 751:

reported that stress enhanced classical conditioning in human males and impaired classical condition in human females.

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Zinbarg, R. E.; Mohlman, J. (1998). "Individual differences in the acquisition of affectivity valenced associations".

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Daleiden, L (1998). "Childhood anxiety and memory functioning: a comparison of systematic and processing accounts".

4719: 4644: 4477: 1958:"Enhanced human memory consolidation with post-learning stress: Interaction with the degree of arousal at encoding" 127: 839:

cortex helps with our expression and personality and helps regulate complex cognitive and our behavior functions.

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Wilhelm, S.; McNally, R.J.; Baer, L.; Florin, I. (1996). "Directed forgetting in obsessive-compulsive disorder".

1228:"Glucocorticoids Decrease Hippocampal and Prefrontal Activation during Declarative Memory Retrieval in Young Men" 3534:

Soravia, LM; Heinrichs, M; Aerni, A; Maroni, C; Schelling, G; Ehlert, U; Roozendaal, B; de Quervain, DJ (2006).

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Marin, M.; Pilgrim, K.; Lupien, S. J. (2010). "Modulatory effects of stress on reactivated emotional memories".

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de Quervain et al., Acute cortisone administration impairs retrieval of long-term declarative memory in humans.

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de Quervain et al., Stress and glucocorticoids impair retrieval of long-term spatial memory.

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Social anxiety disorder can be treated with many different types of therapy and medication.

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683: 654: 568: 564: 547: 532: 524: 501: 318: 270: 167: 70: 2399:

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of self-related information and specific events. Stress tends to impair the accuracy of

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A second physiological response in relation to stress occurs via the vasopressin axis.

115: 57: 18:

Knowledge (XXG):School and university projects/Psyc3330 w11/Group09 - Stress and memory

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has also been shown to adversely affect some of the components of WM, those being the

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method and then without notice, the relationship is reversed, examining the role of

186:, water is retained and blood pressure is increased by increasing the blood volume. 4968: 4932: 4886: 4796: 4639: 4454: 4409: 4396: 4386: 4346: 4066: 3983: 3951: 3926: 3737:

http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/obsessive-compulsive-disorder-ocd/index.shtml

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doubts that you've completed tasks such as locking doors or turning appliances off;

872: 535:

is assessed in tandem with stressful cues there is no change in procedural recall.

212: 3967: 3319:"Neuroimaging in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Other Stress-Related Disorders" 2095: 669: 3872:"Stress signalling pathways that impair prefrontal cortex structure and function" 1588: 4826: 4697: 4651: 3379: 3274:

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Park, C. R.; Zoladz, P. R.; Conrad, C. D.; Fleshner, M.; Diamond, D.M. (2008).

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Predator stress has been shown to increase LTM. In a study done by Sundata

150:

When a receptor within the body senses a stressor, a signal is sent to the

3815: 3430: 2896: 2812: 2766: 2637: 1625: 1431: 1005:"Impaired Memory Retrieval after Psychosocial Stress in Healthy Young Men" 481:

stress hormone that is released in stressful situations. A study by Marin

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Cognitive Psychology: connecting mind, research, and everyday experience

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http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/post-traumatic-stress-disorder/DS00246

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http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/obsessive-compulsive-disorder/DS00189

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neural activity in the prefrontal cortex in both monkeys and humans.

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Woodson, J. C.; Macintosh, D.; Flesner, M.; Diamond, D. M. (2003).

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thoughts about shouting obscenities or acting inappropriately;

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Cavanagh, J. F.; Frank, M. J.; Allen, J. J. B. (7 May 2010).

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There are three categories of symptoms associated with PTSD:

948:

checking locks repeatedly to make sure everything is locked;

2276:"Emotional Stress and Eyewitness Memory: A Critical Review" 945:

arranging food items so that everything faces the same way;

640:

enhancing the memory of the response to the stimulus. When

223:

The third physiological response results in the release of

631:

Fear Response Cat from Darwin's "Expressions of Emotions".

372:

the information. Information in STM can be transferred to

985: 734:

in males and hinder it in females. A study done by Maeng

3595:"Glucocorticoids enhance extinction-based psychotherapy" 1306:

Sandi, Carmen; Pinelo-Nava, M. Teresa (1 January 2007).

912:

skin conditions due to excessive washing of one's hands;

118:

to begin the response in the body. Adrenaline acts as a

2842:

Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry

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The major effect of stress on LTM is that it improves

1467:

http://www.memorylossonline.com/spring2002/stress.htm

1273: 1271: 211:

elevated, muscles will become fatigued, resulting in

4946: 4915: 4774: 4767: 4660: 4632: 4564: 4521: 4493: 4453: 4395: 4290: 4196: 4171: 4123: 4116: 4073: 1409: 1407: 567:, the memory system regarding specific events, and 3312: 3310: 3308: 3306: 3304: 3302: 3300: 3298: 2252:"Short-term Stress Can Affect Learning And Memory" 2967:"Impaired social responses. A case of sociopathy" 1357: 1355: 1353: 61:relative in emotional memory. In particular, the 45:include interference with a person's capacity to 3165:Maeng, L. Y.; Waddell, J.; Shors, T. J. (2010). 2003: 2001: 419:, something helpful in a threatening situation. 3270: 3268: 3009:(p. 119–136). 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ACTH induces the release of 73:(GCs), the most notable of which is 3119:Neurobiology of Learning and Memory 2965:Blair, R.J.; Cipolotti, L. (2000). 2693:Neurobiology of Learning and Memory 2329:Neurobiology of Learning and Memory 1496:Integrative and Comparative Biology 36:hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis 3950:Porcelli, AJ; et al. (2008). 1803:The American Journal of Psychiatry 392:Baddeley's model of working memory 225:thyrotropic hormone-release factor 178:and proteins and the breakdown of 154:. At the reception of the signal, 25: 4463:Deese–Roediger–McDermott paradigm 2374:Journal of Experimental Education 5008: 4996: 1716:Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics 1656:10.1097/00006842-199903000-00002 1591:. Alameda, CA: Hunter House Inc. 1546:10.1046/j.1365-2826.2001.00653.x 701:test subjects by the predators. 146:Adrenocorticotropic hormone axis 2080:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2007.07.001 239:. 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Roediger III 4468:False memory syndrome 4440:Misinformation effect 4420:Imagination inflation 3997:Front Integr Neurosci 3915:Biological Psychiatry 3216:Biological Psychiatry 2068:Biological Psychology 2010:Front Neuroendocrinol 1962:Learning & Memory 1756:Biological Psychology 988:, 394, 787-790 (1998) 778: 725: 691:Measurement of memory 689:Further information: 684:radial arm water maze 672: 659:cognitive flexibility 630: 617:aversion conditioning 519: 497:The human hippocampus 496: 390: 271:radial arm water maze 152:anterior hypothalamus 140: 105: 33: 4372:Motivated forgetting 3870:Arnsten, AF (2010). 3038:10.1210/en.2003-0713 1848:Psychology and Aging 1710:Pasquali, R (2006). 1587:Talbott, S. (2007). 1509:10.1093/icb/42.3.541 527:, or more precisely 241:basal metabolic rate 200:antidiuretic hormone 81:because it has many 4882:Arthur P. Shimamura 4782:Richard C. Atkinson 4599:Effects of exercise 4473:Memory implantation 4357:Interference theory 4273:Selective retention 4253:Meaningful learning 3611:2011PNAS..108.6621D 3552:2006PNAS..103.5585S 3177:(48): 16188–16196. 3074:Learning and Memory 2469:Learning and Memory 2212:(32): 10111–10119. 1907:2009PNAS..10614075Y 1901:(33): 14075–14079. 1578:1986; 7: 351 – 378. 1432:10.1093/scan/nsq041 1281:, 3, 313-314 (2000) 1279:Nature Neuroscience 1184:(32): 10111–10119. 1132:(32): 10111–10119. 1070:2016npjSL...116011V 896:Tourette's syndrome 820:psychogenic amnesia 792:Re-living the event 114:is released by the 4979:Andriy Slyusarchuk 4802:Hermann Ebbinghaus 4708:Involuntary memory 4609:Memory improvement 4594:Effects of alcohol 4556:Transactive memory 4534:Politics of memory 4503:Exceptional memory 3423:10.1007/bf02102888 2630:10.1007/bf02102888 1472:2018-03-03 at the 1325:10.1155/2007/78970 798:Avoiding reminders 781: 728: 675: 633: 522: 506:declarative memory 499: 395: 160:anterior pituitary 143: 108: 39: 5023: 5022: 4987: 4986: 4974:Cosmos Rossellius 4822:Marcia K. Johnson 4693:Exosomatic memory 4678:Context-dependent 4668:Absent-mindedness 4551:Memory conformity 4529:Collective memory 4430:Memory conformity 4367:Memory inhibition 4286: 4285: 4278:Tip of the tongue 3031:(12): 5249–5258. 2481:10.1101/lm.721108 2117:(10): 1343–1351. 1729:10.1159/000090890 1612:(22): 1985–1998. 1374:(12): 1384–1391. 1312:Neural Plasticity 1015:(11): 2977–2982. 755:Anxiety disorders 696:Short-term memory 649:Reversal learning 529:procedural memory 433:central executive 425:phonological loop 343:Short-term memory 337:Short-term memory 330:neural correlates 162:in turn releases 79:negative feedback 67:prefrontal cortex 16:(Redirected from 5048: 5036:Stress (biology) 5013: 5012: 5011: 5001: 5000: 4999: 4954:Jonathan Hancock 4907:Robert Stickgold 4877:Richard Shiffrin 4832:Elizabeth Loftus 4772: 4688:Childhood memory 4495:Research methods 4377:Repressed memory 4352:Forgetting curve 4340:transient global 4211:Autobiographical 4121: 4060: 4053: 4046: 4037: 4032: 4022: 4012: 3987: 3946: 3909: 3899: 3876:Nat Rev Neurosci 3863: 3862: 3826: 3820: 3819: 3791: 3782: 3776: 3767: 3764: 3758: 3752: 3739: 3733: 3724: 3723: 3695: 3689: 3688: 3652: 3643: 3642: 3632: 3622: 3590: 3584: 3583: 3573: 3563: 3531: 3525: 3519: 3508: 3502: 3493: 3487: 3481: 3480: 3452: 3443: 3442: 3406: 3400: 3399: 3363: 3357: 3356: 3346: 3314: 3293: 3287: 3278: 3272: 3263: 3257: 3248: 3247: 3211: 3205: 3204: 3194: 3162: 3151: 3150: 3114: 3108: 3107: 3097: 3086:10.1101/lm.62903 3065: 3059: 3058: 3040: 3016: 3010: 3003: 2997: 2996: 2986: 2977:(6): 1122–1141. 2962: 2953: 2952: 2942: 2925:(7): 1089–1100. 2910: 2901: 2900: 2883:(4): 1024–1040. 2872: 2866: 2865: 2837: 2826: 2823: 2817: 2816: 2799:(6): 1128–1130. 2788: 2779: 2778: 2742: 2725: 2724: 2688: 2675: 2671: 2650: 2649: 2613: 2607: 2606: 2572: 2563: 2546: 2545: 2520:(9): 1388–1396. 2509: 2503: 2502: 2492: 2460: 2451: 2450: 2440: 2430: 2420: 2396: 2390: 2389: 2369: 2363: 2362: 2352: 2320: 2314: 2311: 2302: 2299: 2284: 2283: 2272: 2266: 2265: 2263: 2262: 2248: 2242: 2241: 2231: 2221: 2197: 2186: 2185: 2149: 2143: 2142: 2106: 2100: 2099: 2074:(1–2): 116–123. 2059: 2042: 2041: 2005: 1996: 1995: 1985: 1974:10.1101/lm.62403 1953: 1947: 1946: 1936: 1918: 1886: 1880: 1879: 1843: 1837: 1836: 1826: 1794: 1788: 1787: 1762:(12): 994–1004. 1751: 1742: 1741: 1731: 1707: 1698: 1697: 1679: 1668: 1667: 1639: 1630: 1629: 1601: 1592: 1585: 1579: 1572: 1566: 1565: 1528: 1522: 1521: 1511: 1487: 1476: 1463: 1454: 1453: 1443: 1411: 1402: 1401: 1391: 1359: 1348: 1347: 1337: 1327: 1303: 1282: 1275: 1266: 1265: 1255: 1223: 1214: 1213: 1203: 1193: 1169: 1160: 1159: 1149: 1117: 1108: 1107: 1097: 1049: 1043: 1042: 1032: 1000: 989: 982: 953:Behavior therapy 860:Exposure therapy 769:anxiety disorder 705:Long-term memory 458:Long-term memory 452:Long-term memory 374:long-term memory 315:endocrine system 233:triiodothyronine 198:, also known as 190:Vasopressin axis 176:free fatty acids 21: 5056: 5055: 5051: 5050: 5049: 5047: 5046: 5045: 5026: 5025: 5024: 5019: 5009: 5007: 4997: 4995: 4983: 4964:Dominic O'Brien 4942: 4911: 4892:Susumu Tonegawa 4872:Daniel Schacter 4847:Eleanor Maguire 4837:Geoffrey Loftus 4792:Stephen J. Ceci 4787:Robert A. Bjork 4763: 4682:state-dependent 4656: 4628: 4560: 4541:Cultural memory 4517: 4513:Memory disorder 4489: 4449: 4391: 4282: 4192: 4167: 4112: 4069: 4064: 3990: 3949: 3912: 3888:10.1038/nrn2648 3869: 3866: 3828: 3827: 3823: 3793: 3792: 3785: 3777: 3770: 3765: 3761: 3753: 3742: 3734: 3727: 3697: 3696: 3692: 3654: 3653: 3646: 3592: 3591: 3587: 3546:(14): 5585–90. 3533: 3532: 3528: 3520: 3511: 3503: 3496: 3488: 3484: 3454: 3453: 3446: 3408: 3407: 3403: 3368:Am J Psychiatry 3365: 3364: 3360: 3316: 3315: 3296: 3288: 3281: 3273: 3266: 3258: 3251: 3213: 3212: 3208: 3164: 3163: 3154: 3116: 3115: 3111: 3067: 3066: 3062: 3018: 3017: 3013: 3004: 3000: 2964: 2963: 2956: 2912: 2911: 2904: 2874: 2873: 2869: 2839: 2838: 2829: 2824: 2820: 2790: 2789: 2782: 2744: 2743: 2728: 2690: 2689: 2678: 2672: 2653: 2615: 2614: 2610: 2570: 2565: 2564: 2549: 2511: 2510: 2506: 2462: 2461: 2454: 2418:10.1.1.368.5822 2398: 2397: 2393: 2371: 2370: 2366: 2322: 2321: 2317: 2312: 2305: 2300: 2287: 2274: 2273: 2269: 2260: 2258: 2250: 2249: 2245: 2199: 2198: 2189: 2166:10.1038/nrn2651 2151: 2150: 2146: 2108: 2107: 2103: 2061: 2060: 2045: 2007: 2006: 1999: 1955: 1954: 1950: 1888: 1887: 1883: 1845: 1844: 1840: 1809:(12): 1384–91. 1796: 1795: 1791: 1753: 1752: 1745: 1709: 1708: 1701: 1694: 1681: 1680: 1671: 1641: 1640: 1633: 1603: 1602: 1595: 1586: 1582: 1573: 1569: 1530: 1529: 1525: 1489: 1488: 1479: 1474:Wayback Machine 1464: 1457: 1413: 1412: 1405: 1361: 1360: 1351: 1305: 1304: 1285: 1276: 1269: 1225: 1224: 1217: 1171: 1170: 1163: 1119: 1118: 1111: 1051: 1050: 1046: 1002: 1001: 992: 983: 974: 970: 885: 865:Antidepressants 845: 762: 757: 747:study, Jackson 720: 707: 698: 693: 667: 655:trial and error 651: 625: 606: 581: 569:semantic memory 565:episodic memory 548:episodic memory 541: 533:implicit memory 525:Implicit memory 514: 512:Implicit memory 502:Explicit memory 491: 489:Explicit memory 454: 385: 345: 339: 287: 255: 249: 221: 192: 168:corticosteroids 148: 100: 71:glucocorticoids 58:stress hormones 34:Diagram of the 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 5054: 5052: 5044: 5043: 5038: 5028: 5027: 5021: 5020: 5018: 5017: 5005: 4992: 4989: 4988: 4985: 4984: 4982: 4981: 4976: 4971: 4966: 4961: 4959:Paul R. McHugh 4956: 4950: 4948: 4944: 4943: 4941: 4940: 4935: 4930: 4925: 4919: 4917: 4913: 4912: 4910: 4909: 4904: 4899: 4894: 4889: 4884: 4879: 4874: 4869: 4864: 4859: 4854: 4849: 4844: 4839: 4834: 4829: 4824: 4819: 4817:Ivan Izquierdo 4814: 4809: 4804: 4799: 4794: 4789: 4784: 4778: 4776: 4769: 4765: 4764: 4762: 4761: 4754: 4744: 4743: 4742: 4732: 4727: 4722: 4717: 4716: 4715: 4705: 4700: 4695: 4690: 4685: 4675: 4670: 4664: 4662: 4658: 4657: 4655: 4654: 4649: 4648: 4647: 4636: 4634: 4630: 4629: 4627: 4626: 4621: 4616: 4611: 4606: 4601: 4596: 4591: 4590: 4589: 4584: 4574: 4568: 4566: 4562: 4561: 4559: 4558: 4553: 4548: 4543: 4538: 4537: 4536: 4525: 4523: 4519: 4518: 4516: 4515: 4510: 4505: 4499: 4497: 4491: 4490: 4488: 4487: 4482: 4481: 4480: 4470: 4465: 4459: 4457: 4451: 4450: 4448: 4447: 4442: 4437: 4432: 4427: 4422: 4417: 4415:Hindsight bias 4412: 4407: 4401: 4399: 4393: 4392: 4390: 4389: 4384: 4379: 4374: 4369: 4364: 4362:Memory erasure 4359: 4354: 4349: 4344: 4343: 4342: 4337: 4332: 4327: 4322: 4320:post-traumatic 4317: 4312: 4307: 4296: 4294: 4288: 4287: 4284: 4283: 4281: 4280: 4275: 4270: 4265: 4260: 4258:Personal-event 4255: 4250: 4245: 4240: 4235: 4234: 4233: 4228: 4223: 4213: 4208: 4202: 4200: 4194: 4193: 4191: 4190: 4188:Working memory 4185: 4177: 4175: 4169: 4168: 4166: 4165: 4160: 4158:Motor learning 4155: 4150: 4145: 4140: 4135: 4129: 4127: 4118: 4114: 4113: 4111: 4110: 4105: 4100: 4094: 4093: 4088: 4083: 4077: 4075: 4074:Basic concepts 4071: 4070: 4065: 4063: 4062: 4055: 4048: 4040: 4034: 4033: 3988: 3962:(3): 282–289. 3947: 3910: 3865: 3864: 3837:(8): 913–927. 3821: 3802:(8): 633–641. 3783: 3768: 3759: 3740: 3725: 3706:(4): 421–440. 3690: 3663:(3): 243–257. 3644: 3605:(16): 6621–5. 3585: 3526: 3509: 3494: 3482: 3463:(3): 357–361. 3444: 3417:(4): 527–553. 3401: 3374:(8): 1488–90. 3358: 3329:(4): 523–538. 3294: 3279: 3264: 3249: 3222:(6): 516–522. 3206: 3152: 3125:(2): 269–277. 3109: 3080:(5): 326–336. 3060: 3011: 2998: 2954: 2902: 2867: 2827: 2818: 2780: 2753:(3): 216–235. 2726: 2699:(2): 153–157. 2676: 2651: 2624:(4): 527–553. 2608: 2581:(3): 446–454. 2547: 2504: 2475:(4): 271–280. 2452: 2391: 2380:(3): 218–225. 2364: 2335:(4): 377–381. 2315: 2303: 2285: 2267: 2243: 2187: 2144: 2101: 2043: 1997: 1968:(4): 270–274. 1948: 1881: 1854:(2): 424–429. 1838: 1789: 1743: 1699: 1693:978-1337408271 1692: 1669: 1650:(2): 139–140. 1631: 1593: 1580: 1567: 1540:(5): 442–452. 1523: 1502:(3): 541–551. 1477: 1455: 1426:(3): 311–320. 1403: 1349: 1283: 1267: 1238:(1–2): 31–41. 1215: 1161: 1109: 1044: 990: 971: 969: 966: 950: 949: 946: 943: 940: 937: 923: 922: 919: 916: 913: 910: 907: 884: 881: 844: 841: 808: 807: 804:Being on guard 801: 795: 761: 758: 756: 753: 719: 716: 706: 703: 697: 694: 666: 663: 650: 647: 624: 621: 605: 602: 580: 577: 540: 537: 513: 510: 490: 487: 453: 450: 399:Working memory 384: 383:Working memory 381: 352:Working Memory 341:Main article: 338: 335: 286: 283: 262:chronic stress 258:Chronic stress 253:Chronic stress 251:Main article: 248: 247:Chronic stress 245: 220: 219:Thyroxine axis 217: 191: 188: 147: 144: 116:adrenal glands 99: 96: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5053: 5042: 5039: 5037: 5034: 5033: 5031: 5016: 5006: 5004: 4994: 4993: 4990: 4980: 4977: 4975: 4972: 4970: 4967: 4965: 4962: 4960: 4957: 4955: 4952: 4951: 4949: 4945: 4939: 4938:Clive Wearing 4936: 4934: 4931: 4929: 4926: 4924: 4921: 4920: 4918: 4914: 4908: 4905: 4903: 4902:Endel Tulving 4900: 4898: 4897:Anne Treisman 4895: 4893: 4890: 4888: 4885: 4883: 4880: 4878: 4875: 4873: 4870: 4868: 4865: 4863: 4860: 4858: 4857:Brenda Milner 4855: 4853: 4850: 4848: 4845: 4843: 4842:James McGaugh 4840: 4838: 4835: 4833: 4830: 4828: 4825: 4823: 4820: 4818: 4815: 4813: 4810: 4808: 4807:Sigmund Freud 4805: 4803: 4800: 4798: 4795: 4793: 4790: 4788: 4785: 4783: 4780: 4779: 4777: 4773: 4770: 4766: 4760: 4759: 4755: 4752: 4751:retrospective 4748: 4745: 4741: 4738: 4737: 4736: 4733: 4731: 4730:Muscle memory 4728: 4726: 4723: 4721: 4718: 4714: 4711: 4710: 4709: 4706: 4704: 4701: 4699: 4696: 4694: 4691: 4689: 4686: 4683: 4679: 4676: 4674: 4671: 4669: 4666: 4665: 4663: 4659: 4653: 4650: 4646: 4643: 4642: 4641: 4638: 4637: 4635: 4631: 4625: 4622: 4620: 4617: 4615: 4612: 4610: 4607: 4605: 4602: 4600: 4597: 4595: 4592: 4588: 4585: 4583: 4580: 4579: 4578: 4577:Art of memory 4575: 4573: 4570: 4569: 4567: 4563: 4557: 4554: 4552: 4549: 4547: 4544: 4542: 4539: 4535: 4532: 4531: 4530: 4527: 4526: 4524: 4520: 4514: 4511: 4509: 4506: 4504: 4501: 4500: 4498: 4496: 4492: 4486: 4483: 4479: 4476: 4475: 4474: 4471: 4469: 4466: 4464: 4461: 4460: 4458: 4456: 4452: 4446: 4443: 4441: 4438: 4436: 4433: 4431: 4428: 4426: 4425:Memory biases 4423: 4421: 4418: 4416: 4413: 4411: 4408: 4406: 4405:Confabulation 4403: 4402: 4400: 4398: 4397:Memory errors 4394: 4388: 4385: 4383: 4380: 4378: 4375: 4373: 4370: 4368: 4365: 4363: 4360: 4358: 4355: 4353: 4350: 4348: 4345: 4341: 4338: 4336: 4333: 4331: 4328: 4326: 4323: 4321: 4318: 4316: 4315:post-hypnotic 4313: 4311: 4308: 4306: 4303: 4302: 4301: 4298: 4297: 4295: 4293: 4289: 4279: 4276: 4274: 4271: 4269: 4268:Rote learning 4266: 4264: 4261: 4259: 4256: 4254: 4251: 4249: 4246: 4244: 4243:Hyperthymesia 4241: 4239: 4236: 4232: 4229: 4227: 4224: 4222: 4219: 4218: 4217: 4214: 4212: 4209: 4207: 4206:Active recall 4204: 4203: 4201: 4199: 4195: 4189: 4186: 4183: 4179: 4178: 4176: 4174: 4170: 4164: 4161: 4159: 4156: 4154: 4151: 4149: 4146: 4144: 4141: 4139: 4136: 4134: 4131: 4130: 4128: 4126: 4122: 4119: 4115: 4109: 4106: 4104: 4103:Consolidation 4101: 4099: 4096: 4095: 4092: 4089: 4087: 4084: 4082: 4079: 4078: 4076: 4072: 4068: 4061: 4056: 4054: 4049: 4047: 4042: 4041: 4038: 4030: 4026: 4021: 4016: 4011: 4006: 4002: 3998: 3994: 3989: 3985: 3981: 3977: 3973: 3969: 3965: 3961: 3957: 3953: 3948: 3944: 3940: 3936: 3932: 3928: 3924: 3920: 3916: 3911: 3907: 3903: 3898: 3893: 3889: 3885: 3882:(6): 410–22. 3881: 3877: 3873: 3868: 3867: 3860: 3856: 3852: 3848: 3844: 3840: 3836: 3832: 3825: 3822: 3817: 3813: 3809: 3805: 3801: 3797: 3790: 3788: 3784: 3781: 3775: 3773: 3769: 3763: 3760: 3757: 3751: 3749: 3747: 3745: 3741: 3738: 3732: 3730: 3726: 3721: 3717: 3713: 3709: 3705: 3701: 3694: 3691: 3686: 3682: 3678: 3674: 3670: 3666: 3662: 3658: 3651: 3649: 3645: 3640: 3636: 3631: 3626: 3621: 3616: 3612: 3608: 3604: 3600: 3596: 3589: 3586: 3581: 3577: 3572: 3567: 3562: 3557: 3553: 3549: 3545: 3541: 3537: 3530: 3527: 3524: 3518: 3516: 3514: 3510: 3507: 3501: 3499: 3495: 3492: 3486: 3483: 3478: 3474: 3470: 3466: 3462: 3458: 3451: 3449: 3445: 3440: 3436: 3432: 3428: 3424: 3420: 3416: 3412: 3405: 3402: 3397: 3393: 3389: 3385: 3381: 3377: 3373: 3369: 3362: 3359: 3354: 3350: 3345: 3340: 3336: 3332: 3328: 3324: 3320: 3313: 3311: 3309: 3307: 3305: 3303: 3301: 3299: 3295: 3292: 3286: 3284: 3280: 3277: 3271: 3269: 3265: 3262: 3256: 3254: 3250: 3245: 3241: 3237: 3233: 3229: 3225: 3221: 3217: 3210: 3207: 3202: 3198: 3193: 3188: 3184: 3180: 3176: 3172: 3168: 3161: 3159: 3157: 3153: 3148: 3144: 3140: 3136: 3132: 3128: 3124: 3120: 3113: 3110: 3105: 3101: 3096: 3091: 3087: 3083: 3079: 3075: 3071: 3064: 3061: 3056: 3052: 3048: 3044: 3039: 3034: 3030: 3026: 3025:Endocrinology 3022: 3015: 3012: 3008: 3002: 2999: 2994: 2990: 2985: 2980: 2976: 2972: 2968: 2961: 2959: 2955: 2950: 2946: 2941: 2936: 2932: 2928: 2924: 2920: 2916: 2909: 2907: 2903: 2898: 2894: 2890: 2886: 2882: 2878: 2871: 2868: 2863: 2859: 2855: 2851: 2847: 2843: 2836: 2834: 2832: 2828: 2822: 2819: 2814: 2810: 2806: 2802: 2798: 2794: 2787: 2785: 2781: 2776: 2772: 2768: 2764: 2760: 2756: 2752: 2748: 2741: 2739: 2737: 2735: 2733: 2731: 2727: 2722: 2718: 2714: 2710: 2706: 2702: 2698: 2694: 2687: 2685: 2683: 2681: 2677: 2670: 2668: 2666: 2664: 2662: 2660: 2658: 2656: 2652: 2647: 2643: 2639: 2635: 2631: 2627: 2623: 2619: 2612: 2609: 2604: 2600: 2596: 2592: 2588: 2584: 2580: 2576: 2569: 2562: 2560: 2558: 2556: 2554: 2552: 2548: 2543: 2539: 2535: 2531: 2527: 2523: 2519: 2515: 2508: 2505: 2500: 2496: 2491: 2486: 2482: 2478: 2474: 2470: 2466: 2459: 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