34:
anti-colonial roles, ranging from grassroots organising to providing crucial support during the struggle for independence. Their activities included organising protests, distributing anti-colonial propaganda, and offering vital assistance such as food and medical care to injured guerrilla soldiers. Additionally, some women actively engaged in frontline combat alongside their male counterparts. Women involved in anti-colonial efforts frequently encountered violent opposition from colonial authorities, resulting in incidents of imprisonment and torture, as consequences for their participation in such endeavors. Despite the significant contributions and hardships endured by women during the decolonisation process, their roles in the struggle for independence across the continent have often been overlooked in historical accounts. In many mainstream
African history narratives,
451:, Bibi Titi rose to prominence unexpectedly. Having only four years of primary school education before her political career, she was a housewife and lead singer in a âBamba'' group. However, as the struggle for freedom amplified, Bibi Titi found a more active role in politics. She joined the Tanganyika African National Union (TANU) in 1954. Doing so, Bibi Titi became TANU's first female member. She advocated for political freedom as well as the autonomy of women. By the end of the 1950s, Bibi Titi had become a prominent and powerful voice in politics, campaigning on behalf of freedom and development. After gaining popularity, her voice became a powerful source of African feminist and anti-colonial sentiment.
497:
served as recruiters, actively identifying and enlisting capable fighters to join the cause. Notably, women themselves participated as combatants, particularly in the forest forces, where they undertook various camp duties including cooking, cleaning, gathering firewood, and transporting water. These multifaceted contributions underscored the integral role of women in supporting and actively participating in the Mau Mau movement. Their roles were deemed significant by the
British government, which acknowledged their vital function as the "eyes and ears" of the Mau Mau movement.
380:, colonial rulers had concentrated the power on male chiefs. After the Women's War, she and other women were appointed to replace warrant chiefs. Ekpo was later appointed to the Eastern House of Chiefs in 1954. As a chief, she rallied women of different ethnic identities to demand women's rights and independence. She was arrested multiple times for instigating these rallies against British colonization. As a warrant chief, Ekpo passed a law that required police to employ more women in Enugu and Lagos.
387:, Ekpo led the Aba Market Women Association in mobilizing women against colonial rule and patriarchal oppression. Following WWII, Ekpo and the Aba Market Women Association continued to mobilize using tactics such as buying up large quantities of scarce commodities and selling them only to registered members of the association who attended meetings regularly. She used this as an opportunity to educate women on the importance of independence and decolonisation.
145:
264:
Asantewaa status and warrior spirit lead the
Ashanti people during an uncertain time. Nana Yaa Asantewaa's call upon the women of the Asante Empire is based on the political obligations of Akan women and their respective roles in legislative and judicial processes. The hierarchy of male stools among the Akan people was complemented by female counterparts. Within the village, elders who were heads of the matrilineages (
56:
493:
various factors. Various colonial laws, including communal labor and the hut and poll taxes, were perceived as disproportionately affecting women, leading to resentment within the female population. This resentment, coupled with other grievances such as unfair labor practices and limited political representation, motivated many women to align themselves with Mau Mau fighters.
564:
backgrounds, and educational levels. These women played crucial roles within the party, offering vital support to those detained by French authorities, particularly at the overcrowded and deteriorating Grand Bassam prison. Despite difficult circumstances, they ensured that incarcerated activists received necessities such as food, clean clothing, and emotional comfort.
520:
administering medications, and tending to the medical requirements of fighters. Beyond medical duties, she extended support to pregnant women seeking sanctuary in the forest, many of whom had endured traumatic incidents like rape or imprisonment. Matron aided in childbirth, serving as a midwife for women delivering babies while in concealment.
567:
Women actively promoted the party's message and garnered support across the colony, despite literacy challenges. Their dedication was evident through activities like selling RDA membership cards and organising fundraisers, which significantly boosted the party's membership to over 800,000 by
December
519:
Within the Mau Mau administrative structure, Wambui wa
Kanyari held a pivotal role in the Department of Medicine. As a trained nurse, she provided essential medical care to Mau Mau rebels in the forest. Matron's role encompassed various tasks within healthcare provision, such as sterilising syringes,
391:
I would tell the women, do you know that your daughter can be the matron of that hospital? Do you know that your husband can be a
District Officer (D.O.) or Resident? Do you know that if you join hands with us in the current political activities, your children could one day live in European quarters?
156:
Urban and rural women's experiences in the revolution differed greatly. Urban women, who constituted about twenty percent of the overall force, had received some kind of education and usually chose to enter on the side of the FLN of their own accord. Largely illiterate rural women, on the other hand,
523:
Furthermore, Matron played a crucial role in nursing injured women, offering care and support to those who had sustained gunshot wounds or other injuries during confrontations with colonial forces. While specific details about Matron's life may vary in historical records, her contributions exemplify
152:
Women participated in a variety of roles during the
Algerian War. The majority of Muslim women who became active participants did so on the side of the National Liberation Front (FLN). The French included some women, both Muslim and French, in their war effort, but they were not as fully integrated,
540:
The stories of Wambui wa
Kanyari and Bandi wa Kamau serve as poignant reminders of the significant, yet often overlooked, contributions of women to the Mau Mau rebellion and the broader struggle against colonialism in Kenya. Their bravery and dedication highlight the diverse roles that women played
496:
The roles undertaken by women in the Mau Mau rebellion were diverse and complex. Kikuyu women played crucial roles in organising and sustaining supply lines that facilitated the delivery of essential resources such as food, medicine, weapons, and information to the rebel forces. Additionally, women
160:
Women operated in a number of different areas during the course of the rebellion. "Women participated actively as combatants, spies, fundraisers, as well as nurses, launderers, and cooks", "women assisted the male fighting forces in areas like transportation, communication and administration" the
559:
Many women were motivated to join the PDCI due to grievances related to forced labor, a central aspect of discontentment under colonial rule. In northern CĂ´te dâIvoire, where much of French recruitment took place, women experienced disruption to their lives through labor conscription. Witnessing
492:
have frequently been portrayed as victims of the Mau Mau rebellion, a portrayal often utilised by the
British government to validate stringent measures and portray themselves as protectors. Women's roles in the rebellion extended beyond mere victimhood; they were active participants motivated by
33:
have been predominantly led by men; however, women also held important roles. Women's roles in
African independence movements were diverse and varied by each country. Many women believed that their liberation was directly linked to the liberation of their countries. Women participated in various
404:
in Nigeria from 1960 to 1966. Ekpo's work also transcended national politics. She travelled out of Nigeria to represent Nigerian women at several international conferences such as the Inter-Parliamentary Union Conference (1964) and the World Women's International Domestic Federation Conference
153:
nor were they charged with the same breadth of tasks as the women on the Algerian side. The total number of women involved in the conflict, as determined by post-war veteran registration, is numbered at 11,000, but it is possible that this number was significantly higher due to underreporting.
536:
One aspect of Bandi wa Kamau's role was her involvement in persuading other women to attend the oathing sessions, where new recruits pledged allegiance to the Mau Mau movement. This was a delicate task, as it required navigating traditional customs that discouraged women from participating in
263:
status. The Ashanti people are organized in a matrilineage, women descended from a common female ancestor. The ashanti believe a person's blood comes from the mother and spirit comes from the father. The queen mother was often the sister of the chief and was the head of kinship relations. Yaa
420:
was established through the Tanganyika Independence Act of 1961. This act ended British rule and established self-government. A new republican constitution was adopted one year later, in December 1962. This abolished the remaining role of the British monarchy in Tanganyika. A union with the
563:
The increasing repression by the colonial state, marked by the imprisonment of male relatives, spurred militant mothers to engage in more visible activism. Consequently, the womenâs wing of the PDCI was formed in May 1949, drawing around 15,000 women from various ethnicities, socioeconomic
532:
Bandi wa Kamau was a notable figure in the Mau Mau rebellion, contributing significantly to the movement as a rebel. Her involvement included providing support to Mau Mau soldiers by bringing them food while they operated in the forests. Additionally, in 1953, she played a pivotal role in
515:
Wambui wa Kanyari, also known as Matron, is a significant female leader within the Mau Mau movement, whose contributions are often overlooked. Originating from Ngariama, she gained recognition for her notable role in the resistance against colonial authorities.
375:
Margaret Ekpo was a chief, a politician, and a nationalist independence leader. In 1945, Ekpo became involved in politics after her husband, Dr. John Udo Ekpo, became dissatisfied with the colonial administration's treatment of indigenous Nigerian doctors. In
480:
declared independence from Britain after years of anti-colonial efforts involving both men and women. Women, in particular, played significant yet often underappreciated roles in various struggles against colonial rule, including active participation in the
352:
on 1 October 1960. Before this, various forms and demonstrations against colonial rule took place. Women in Nigeria played a significant role during the movement for national independence. Before independence, women organized through movements like the
165:
was a notable contributor to the Revolution as a distributor of pamphlets for the FLN's underground newspaper. While most women's tasks were non-combatant, their less frequent, violent acts were more noticed. The reality was that "rural women in maquis
461:
Bibi Titi left a legacy that calls on women to have greater self-respect and encourages women to strive for more education and equal treatment. In a speech, Bibi Titi implored women to take advantage of their latent political influence
258:
rule. She is seen by Ghanaians today as a queen mother who exercised her political and social respect to help defend her kingdom. The role she played in influencing the Ashanti men to battle the British appears to be a function of her
524:
the vital role that women played within the Mau Mau movement. Her dedication to providing medical care and support to fellow rebels underscores the resilience and solidarity that characterised the struggle for independence in Kenya.
1460:
193:
was initially accused of being an accomplice to the bombing and was forced to flee from the colonial authorities. In September 1957, though, Drif and Saâdi were arrested and sentenced to twenty years hard labor in the
466:
I told you that we want independence. And we canât get independence if you donât want to join the party. We have given birth to all these men. Women are the power in this world. We are the ones who give birth to the
184:
office in the Mauritania building in Algiers, which did not explode, one in a cafeteria on the Rue Michelet, and another at the Milk Bar CafĂŠ, which killed 3 young women and injured multiple adults and children.
572:, where two thousand women protested the detention of PDCI militants, marking a significant event in West African women's resistance against French colonial rule and advocating for detainee liberation.
553:
552:, located on the southeastern coast of West Africa, gained independence from France in August, 1960. Leading up to independence, women played active roles in various political movements, including the
326:, General Assembly of Asante rulers. Female stool occupants participated not only in the judicial and legislative processes, but also in the making and unmaking of war, and the distribution of land.
1370:"Who is Worthy of Redress?: Recognizing Sexual Violence Injustice Against Women of Color as Uniquely Redress-WorthyâIlluminated by a Case Study on Kenya's Mau Mau Women and Their Unique Harms"
408:
Along with her work in advocating civil and political rights, Ekpo left a legacy that notably lacked ethnic bias in a country where many forms of ethnicism and nepotism existed in politics.
873:
157:
the remaining eighty percent, due to their geographic location in respect to the operations of FLN often became involved in the conflict as a result of proximity paired with force.
537:
ritualistic ceremonies. Bandi's efforts to involve women in the oathing process were aimed at maintaining cultural sensitivities while also bolstering support for the rebellion.
458:
in Parliament. She also served as a member of TANU's Central Committee and executive committee. There, she continued to advocate for greater freedom and women's rights.
322:, the united Asante, since her male counterpart was ex-officio of the Asanthene, was a member of the KĂ´tĂ´kĂ´ Council, the executive committee or Cabinet of the Asanteman
981:
778:
97:. She led several battles against the French forces, until her capture in July 1857. She was imprisoned until her death six years later. She is an Algerian
1414:
507:, have gained recognition for their roles as top-ranking female fighters, there are thousands of women whose names have not been documented or acknowledged:
586:
1415:"Mau-Mau war rituals and women rebels in Kirinyaga county of Kenya (1952-1960): retrieving women participation in Kenya's struggle for independence"
556:(PDCI-RDA), contributing to the country's progress towards self-governance. Their involvement in these movements stemmed from diverse motivations.
663:
869:
372:
was one of the most important female independence leaders in Nigeria. She worked toward more equitable civil rights and Nigerian independence.
1189:
1129:
1053:
737:
708:
647:
60:
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their children sent southward to European plantations and experiencing labor recruitment firsthand further fueled their dissatisfaction.
500:
Kikuyu women, experienced torture and sexual abuse at the hands of British soldiers, underscoring the complexities of their involvement.
1515:
956:
921:
904:
1505:
1028:
931:
810:
441:
854:
Vince, Natalya "Transgressing Boundaries: Gender, Race, Religion and 'Fracaises Musulmannes during Algerian War of Independence."
606:
569:
422:
841:
Turshen, Meredith. "Algerian Women in the Liberation Struggle and the Civil War: From Active Participants to Passive Victims".
223:
729:
973:
440:
was a prominent figure in African women's politics and the independence movement in Tanganyika, mobilizing women to join the
751:
1520:
1510:
503:
The identities of many women involved in the Mau Mau rebellion have remained unrecorded. While some notable figures, like
292:
acted as the responsible party for the affairs of the women of the village and served as a member of the village council.
170:
support networks" contained the overwhelming majority of those who participated; female combatants were in the minority.
172:
Perhaps the most famous incident involving Algerian women revolutionaries was the Milk Bar CafĂŠ bombing of 1956, when
417:
1086:
354:
336:
90:
38:
remain largely invisible or misrepresented, leading to a lack of recognition compared to their male counterparts.
130:
754:[Green, white, star and crescent: Who designed the Algerian flag?] (in French). El Watan. Archived from
1153:
Omonijo, B. Nigeria: TributeâMargaret Ekpo - And the Woman Died, Vanguard Newspapers, (Lagos), October 2, 2006.
601:
186:
17:
397:
235:
162:
94:
66:
48:
1006:
591:
219:
26:
203:
1002:
110:
974:"Reality and Representation of Algerian Women: The Complex Dynamic of Heroines and Repressed Women"
401:
22:
1381:
1350:
1286:
1242:
454:
After the establishment of the Republic of Tanzania in 1964, she represented the constituency of
437:
106:
1482:
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1342:
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1125:
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199:
190:
1181:
1121:
639:
1472:
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1334:
1278:
1234:
1177:
1117:
1069:
696:
635:
581:
377:
255:
55:
596:
455:
195:
82:
74:
35:
1338:
1204:
The Union of Tanganyika and Zanzibar Act, 1964 (Act No. 22 of 1964) â via WIPO IP Portal.
318:, blood or localized matrilineage. The occupant of the female stool in Kumasi state, the
504:
358:
349:
340:
239:
227:
144:
161:
range of involvement by a woman could include both combatant and non-combatant roles.
1499:
1431:
752:"Le vert, le blanc, l'Êtoile et le croissant: Qui a conçu le drapeau algÊrien ?"
489:
448:
369:
247:
215:
118:
98:
1385:
1305:
1461:"Militant Mothers: Gender and the Politics of Anticolonial Action in CĂ´te d'Ivoire"
1029:"The Impact of Matriarchal Traditions on the Advancement of Ashanti Women in Ghana"
384:
137:
114:
700:
1043:
755:
688:
549:
260:
177:
167:
870:"Inside the Battle of Algiers: Memoir of a Woman Freedom Fighter â Book Review"
664:"African Women's Role in Resistance Against Colonization | The Classic Journal"
1477:
181:
173:
1486:
1440:
1346:
1271:
Canadian Journal of African Studies / Revue Canadienne des Ătudes Africaines
554:
Parti DĂŠmocratique de la CĂ´te d'Ivoire â Rassemblement DĂŠmocratique Africain
392:
I used to tell them these things every time and so they became interested...
728:
Akyeampong, Emmanuel Kwaku; Jr, Professor Henry Louis Gates (2012-02-02).
533:
safeguarding the Mau Mau oath, demonstrating her commitment to the cause.
1011:
Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience
783:
426:
1377:
568:
1949. A key moment in their activism was the December 24, 1949 march on
345:
1354:
1323:"The Colonial Idea of Women and Direct Intervention: The Mau Mau Case"
1322:
1290:
1266:
1246:
1144:
Effah-Attoe and Jaja, Margaret Ekpo: Lioness in Nigerian Politics, 21.
687:
Bouka, Yolande (2020), Yacob-Haliso, Olajumoke; Falola, Toyin (eds.),
89:) was an Algerian anti-colonial leader during 1849–1857 of the
30:
824:
822:
541:
in shaping the course of Kenyan history during this pivotal period.
1282:
1238:
1068:
Arhin, Kwame, "The Political and Military Roles of Akan Women", in
396:
After being granted independence in 1960, Ekpo participated in the
1172:
Chachage, Chambi; Mgumia, Jacqueline (2020). "Bibi Titi Mohamed".
477:
231:
143:
54:
1222:
949:
From Freedom Fighters to Terrorists: Women and Political Violence
117:, is generally credited as having sewed the first version of the
1223:"Women in Nationalist Struggle: Tanu Activists in Dar es Salaam"
284:, were responsible for looking after women's affairs. For every
897:
Inside the Battle of Algiers: Memoir of a Woman Freedom Fighter
781:[Emilie Busquant, the most Algerian of French women].
105:
While there is some dispute over who exactly designed flag,
923:
We Are No Longer in France: Communists in Colonial Algeria
695:, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 1â19,
298:, and the head of the autonomous political community, the
803:
A Soldier and a Woman: Sexual Integration in the Military
630:
Makana, Selina (2019). "Women in Nationalist Movements".
1267:"The Mau Mau Rebellion, Kikuyu Women, and Social Change"
1227:
The International Journal of African Historical Studies
1045:
Transformations in Traditional Rule in Ghana: 1951â1996
796:
794:
238:
or the Yaa Asantewaa War of Independence, against the
234:. In 1900, she led the Ashanti war, also known as the
779:"Emilie Busquant, la plus algÊrienne des Françaises"
254:Nana Yaa Asantewaa understood the ramifications of
801:De Groot, Gerard; Peniston-Bird, Corinna (2000).
858:. Vol. 33 No. 3 (Summer 2010) pp. 445â474, p.445
693:The Palgrave Handbook of African Women's Studies
689:"Women, Colonial Resistance, and Decolonization"
306:: a female ruler who sat on their councils. The
268:), constituted the village council known as the
1174:Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History
1114:Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History
632:Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History
1087:"Margaret Ekpo â Illustrated Women in History"
398:Constitutional Conferences in Lagos and London
1112:Ukpokolo, Chinyere (2020). "Ekpo, Margaret".
302:, had their female counterparts known as the
8:
248:Yaa Asantewaa § Social roles of Asante women
845:Vol. 69 No. 3 (Fall 2002) p. 889-911, p.890
587:List of women who led a revolt or rebellion
1476:
1430:
442:Tanganyika African National Union (TANU)
1310:(Thesis thesis). University of Nairobi.
1307:The Role of Kikuyu Women in the Mau Mau
617:
416:Late in 1961, the predecessor state of
400:. Ekpo would also serve as a member of
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1214:
1212:
1210:
1182:10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.473
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1122:10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.476
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1103:
640:10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.655
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1452:
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1408:
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1404:
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1258:
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777:Kessous, Mustapha (23 January 2015).
732:Oxford University Press. p. 23.
625:
623:
621:
7:
1339:10.1093/oxfordjournals.afraf.a007719
425:in 1964 led to the formation of the
86:
63:, often used to illustrate N'Soumer
348:was granted independence from the
61:Henri FĂŠlix Emmanuel Philippoteaux
14:
876:from the original on 28 July 2020
868:Vlazna, Vacy (November 9, 2017).
1076:, London: Allen and Unwin, 1983.
832:. London: Routledge, 1994 p. 120
730:Dictionary of African Biography.
246:This section is an excerpt from
180:planted three bombs: one in the
136:This section is an excerpt from
47:This section is an excerpt from
1419:Studia Historiae Ecclesiasticae
984:from the original on 6 May 2021
505:Field-Marshal Muthoni wa Kirima
1465:The Journal of African History
1074:Female and Male in West Africa
1:
701:10.1007/978-3-319-77030-7_5-1
607:Women's March on Grand-Bassam
488:In various colonial records,
70:
1432:10.17159/2412-4265/2017/1822
978:Illinois Wesleyan University
947:Whaley Eager, Paige (2016).
920:Drew, Allison (2014-11-01).
750:Houda, B. (20 August 1997).
294:The head of a division, the
138:Algerian War § Role of women
926:. Oxford University Press.
1537:
1321:Santoru, Marina E (1996).
1304:Gachihi, Margaret (1986).
1265:Presley, Cora Ann (1988).
951:. Routledge. p. 109.
334:
272:. The women, known as the
245:
135:
128:
91:French conquest of Algeria
78:
46:
15:
1516:African women in politics
1478:10.1017/S0021853722000524
1459:Jacob, Elizabeth (2022).
972:Rohlof, Caroline (2012).
856:French Historical Studies
668:theclassicjournal.uga.edu
230:, now part of modern-day
131:Women in the Algerian War
1506:Decolonisation of Africa
1413:Gathogo, Julius (2017).
830:The Eloquence of Silence
805:. Longman. p. 247.
602:Women in the Arab Spring
218:I (1840 â 1921) was the
187:Algerian Communist Party
18:Decolonisation of Africa
1368:Toledo, Miyoko (2015).
872:. Palestine Chronicle.
355:Abeokuta Women's Revolt
337:Abeokuta Women's Revolt
236:War of the Golden Stool
198:. Drif was pardoned by
163:Eveline Safir Lavalette
95:Pacification of Algeria
1221:Geiger, Susan (1987).
1007:Henry Louis Gates, Jr.
592:Uprisings led by women
476:On December 12, 1963,
469:
421:neighbouring state of
394:
202:on the anniversary of
149:
64:
27:independence movements
1042:Arhin, Kwame (2001).
1027:Karen, McGee (2015).
1003:Appiah, Kwame Anthony
464:
389:
378:British-ruled Nigeria
335:Further information:
314:were all of the same
276:, and referred to as
204:Algerian independence
147:
58:
36:women's contributions
1521:African women in war
1511:Women in revolutions
899:. Just World Books.
895:Drif, Zohra (2017).
544:
427:Republic of Tanzania
111:Algerian nationalist
67:Lalla Fatma N'Soumer
49:Lalla Fatma N'Soumer
1378:10.15779/Z38CC0TS7G
570:Grand Bassam prison
79:Lalla Faá¸ma n Sumer
59:"Femme kebaĂŻle" by
1089:. 25 February 2016
150:
148:FLN female bombers
65:
1191:978-0-19-027773-4
1131:978-0-19-027773-4
1055:978-9964-72-173-2
738:978-0-19-538207-5
710:978-3-319-77030-7
649:978-0-19-027773-4
511:Wambui wa Kanyari
483:Mau Mau Rebellion
444:political party.
438:Bibi Titi Mohamed
433:Bibi Titi Mohamed
200:Charles de Gaulle
196:Barbarossa prison
191:Raymonde Peschard
1528:
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1333:(379): 253â267.
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1070:Christine Oppong
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828:Lazreg, Marnia.
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817:
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758:on 13 March 2012
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582:African feminism
256:British colonial
88:
87:ŮاŮŘŠ ŮاءŮ
ŘŠ ŮŘłŮŮ
Řą
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1327:African Affairs
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