163:
1242:
1100:
2007:
745:
457:
382:
instead flow internally through the junction between the conductors). Since two conductors in equilibrium can have a built-in potential difference due to work function differences, this means that bringing dissimilar conductors into contact, or pulling them apart, will drive electric currents. These contact currents can damage sensitive microelectronic circuitry and occur even when the conductors would be grounded in the absence of motion.
349:, are based on the thought experiment of two materials coming together in vacuum, such that the surfaces charge up and adjust their work functions to become equal just before contact. In reality these work function heuristics are inaccurate due to their neglect of numerous microscopic effects. However, they provide a convenient estimate until the true value can be determined by experiment.
1367:, then finding the flat vacuum condition gives directly the work function difference between the two materials. The only question is, how to detect the flat vacuum condition? Typically, the electric field is detected by varying the distance between the sample and probe. When the distance is changed but Î
1381:
Although the Kelvin probe technique only measures a work function difference, it is possible to obtain an absolute work function by first calibrating the probe against a reference material (with known work function) and then using the same probe to measure a desired sample. The Kelvin probe technique
764:
the emitter instead, then most of the electrons coming from the emitter will simply be reflected back to the emitter. Only the highest energy electrons will have enough energy to reach the collector, and the height of the potential barrier in this case depends on the collector's work function, rather
1993:
A variety of factors are responsible for the surface electric dipole. Even with a completely clean surface, the electrons can spread slightly into the vacuum, leaving behind a slightly positively charged layer of material. This primarily occurs in metals, where the bound electrons do not encounter a
1973:
Due to the complications described in the modelling section below, it is difficult to theoretically predict the work function with accuracy. Various trends have, however, been identified. The work function tends to be smaller for metals with an open lattice, and larger for metals in which the atoms
285:
in the surface can be neglected. The electron must also be close to the surface compared to the nearest edge of a crystal facet, or to any other change in the surface structure, such as a change in the material composition, surface coating or reconstruction. The built-in electric field that results
43:
immediately outside the solid surface. Here "immediately" means that the final electron position is far from the surface on the atomic scale, but still too close to the solid to be influenced by ambient electric fields in the vacuum. The work function is not a characteristic of a bulk material, but
391:
Certain physical phenomena are highly sensitive to the value of the work function. The observed data from these effects can be fitted to simplified theoretical models, allowing one to extract a value of the work function. These phenomenologically extracted work functions may be slightly different
381:
on a conductor depends on the magnitude of the electric field, which in turn depends on the distance between the surfaces. The externally observed electrical effects are largest when the conductors are separated by the smallest distance without touching (once brought into contact, the charge will
2251:
The electron behavior in metals varies with temperature and is largely reflected by the electron work function. A theoretical model for predicting the temperature dependence of the electron work function, developed by Rahemi et al. explains the underlying mechanism and predicts this temperature
1211:
Photoelectric measurements require a great deal of care, as an incorrectly designed experimental geometry can result in an erroneous measurement of work function. This may be responsible for the large variation in work function values in scientific literature. Moreover, the minimum energy can be
1130:
occurs and the electron is liberated from the surface. Similar to the thermionic case described above, the liberated electrons can be extracted into a collector and produce a detectable current, if an electric field is applied into the surface of the emitter. Excess photon energy results in a
540:
determined simply by the thermionic work function of the emitter. If an electric field is applied towards the surface of the emitter, then all of the escaping electrons will be accelerated away from the emitter and absorbed into whichever material is applying the electric field. According to
392:
from the thermodynamic definition given above. For inhomogeneous surfaces, the work function varies from place to place, and different methods will yield different values of the typical "work function" as they average or select differently among the microscopic work functions.
312:, the common choice for vacuum tube filaments, can survive to high temperatures but its emission is somewhat limited due to its relatively high work function (approximately 4.5 eV). By coating the tungsten with a substance of lower work function (e.g.,
415:
between the sample and a reference electrode. Experimentally, either an anode current of a diode is used or the displacement current between the sample and reference, created by an artificial change in the capacitance between the two, is measured (the
1355:
395:
Many techniques have been developed based on different physical effects to measure the electronic work function of a sample. One may distinguish between two groups of experimental methods for work function measurements: absolute and relative.
691:
2340:
2194:
From this one might expect that by doping the bulk of the semiconductor, the work function can be tuned. In reality, however, the energies of the bands near the surface are often pinned to the Fermi level, due to the influence of
886:
1394:
The work function depends on the configurations of atoms at the surface of the material. For example, on polycrystalline silver the work function is 4.26 eV, but on silver crystals it varies for different crystal faces as
1047:
1212:
misleading in materials where there are no actual electron states at the Fermi level that are available for excitation. For example, in a semiconductor the minimum photon energy would actually correspond to the
437:, where thermal fluctuations provide enough energy to "evaporate" electrons out of a hot material (called the 'emitter') into the vacuum. If these electrons are absorbed by another, cooler material (called the
1219:
Of course, the photoelectric effect may be used in the retarding mode, as with the thermionic apparatus described above. In the retarding case, the dark collector's work function is measured instead.
2179:
2239:
The jellium model is only a partial explanation, as its predictions still show significant deviation from real work functions. More recent models have focused on including more accurate forms of
1998:
attraction. The amount of surface dipole depends on the detailed layout of the atoms at the surface of the material, leading to the variation in work function for different crystal faces.
535:
341:
in the junctions of differing materials, such as metals, semiconductors, and insulators. Some commonly used heuristic approaches to predict the band alignment between materials, such as
2243:
and correlation effects, as well as including the crystal face dependence (this requires the inclusion of the actual atomic lattice, something that is neglected in the jellium model).
1196:
377:
If two conducting surfaces are moved relative to each other, and there is potential difference in the space between them, then an electric current will be driven. This is because the
198:
produced in the vacuum will be somewhat lower than the applied voltage, the difference depending on the work function of the material surface. Rearranging the above equation, one has
1986:
The work function is not simply dependent on the "internal vacuum level" inside the material (i.e., its average electrostatic potential), because of the formation of an atomic-scale
361:
known as patch potentials are always present due to microscopic inhomogeneities. Patch potentials have disrupted sensitive apparatus that rely on a perfectly uniform vacuum, such as
238:
109:
188:
by the voltage applied to the material through electrodes, and the work function is generally a fixed characteristic of the surface material. Consequently, this means that when a
1091:
is one of the simplest and oldest methods of measuring work functions, and is advantageous since the measured material (collector) is not required to survive high temperatures.
166:
Plot of electron energy levels against position, in a gold-vacuum-aluminium system. The two metals depicted here are in complete thermodynamic equilibrium. However, the vacuum
1266:
400:
Absolute methods employ electron emission from the sample induced by photon absorption (photoemission), by high temperature (thermionic emission), due to an electric field (
1155:
445:
will be observed. Thermionic emission can be used to measure the work function of both the hot emitter and cold collector. Generally, these measurements involve fitting to
2414:
2387:
1056:
is a
Richardson-type constant that depends on the collector material but may also depend on the emitter material, and the diode geometry. In this case, the dependence of
2671:
Thomas Iii, S. W.; Vella, S. J.; Dickey, M. D.; Kaufman, G. K.; Whitesides, G. M. (2009). "Controlling the
Kinetics of Contact Electrification with Patterned Surfaces".
2085:
The reason for the dependence is that, typically, the vacuum level and the conduction band edge retain a fixed spacing independent of doping. This spacing is called the
355:
Variation in work function between different surfaces causes a non-uniform electrostatic potential in the vacuum. Even on an ostensibly uniform surface, variations in
2360:
2089:(note that this has a different meaning than the electron affinity of chemistry); in silicon for example the electron affinity is 4.05 eV. If the electron affinity
2894:
Nikolic, M. V.; Radic, S. M.; Minic, V.; Ristic, M. M. (February 1996). "The dependence of the work function of rare earth metals on their electron structure".
572:
2255:
781:
320:), the emission can be greatly increased. This prolongs the lifetime of the filament by allowing operation at lower temperatures (for more information, see
3247:
2530:
Behunin, R. O.; Intravaia, F.; Dalvit, D. A. R.; Neto, P. A. M.; Reynaud, S. (2012). "Modeling electrostatic patch effects in
Casimir force measurements".
2199:. If there is a large density of surface states, then the work function of the semiconductor will show a very weak dependence on doping or electric field.
1260:
that is applied to the probe relative to the sample. If the voltage is chosen such that the electric field is eliminated (the flat vacuum condition), then
760:
The same setup can be used to instead measure the work function in the collector, simply by adjusting the applied voltage. If an electric field is applied
281:
The work function refers to removal of an electron to a position that is far enough from the surface (many nm) that the force between the electron and its
2226:) as well as the tail of electron density extending outside the surface. This model showed why the density of conduction electrons (as represented by the
369:
experiment. Critical apparatus may have surfaces covered with molybdenum, which shows low variations in work function between different crystal faces.
2252:
dependence for various crystal structures via calculable and measurable parameters. In general, as the temperature increases, the EWF decreases via
940:
3078:
Rahemi, Reza; Li, Dongyang (April 2015). "Variation in electron work function with temperature and its effect on Young's modulus of metals".
2465:
3530:
2719:
Helander, M. G.; Greiner, M. T.; Wang, Z. B.; Lu, Z. H. (2010). "Pitfalls in measuring work function using photoelectron spectroscopy".
2441:
468:
configuration, used to extract all hot electrons coming out from the emitter's surface. The barrier is the vacuum near emitter surface.
1382:
can be used to obtain work function maps of a surface with extremely high spatial resolution, by using a sharp tip for the probe (see
3582:
3193:
3062:
2809:
278:, when those conductors are in total equilibrium with each other (electrically shorted to each other, and with equal temperatures).
1378:. This current is proportional to the vacuum electric field, and so when the electric field is neutralized no current will flow.
3240:
3201:
1245:
Kelvin probe energy diagram at flat vacuum configuration, used for measuring work function difference between sample and probe.
1990:
at the surface. This surface electric dipole gives a jump in the electrostatic potential between the material and the vacuum.
286:
from these structures, and any other ambient electric field present in the vacuum are excluded in defining the work function.
3525:
2207:
Theoretical modeling of the work function is difficult, as an accurate model requires a careful treatment of both electronic
2641:
2116:
472:
In order to move from the hot emitter to the vacuum, an electron's energy must exceed the emitter Fermi level by an amount
1383:
1232:
421:
417:
3587:
2079:
412:
2492:
775:. The barrier height now depends on the work function of the collector, as well as any additional applied voltages:
424:). However, absolute work function values can be obtained if the tip is first calibrated against a reference sample.
3233:
1987:
478:
3540:
2758:
149:
3389:
1163:
768:
The current is still governed by
Richardson's law. However, in this case the barrier height does not depend on
2227:
712:
2222:
model, which allowed for oscillations in electronic density nearby the abrupt surface (these are similar to
1974:
are closely packed. It is somewhat higher on dense crystal faces than open crystal faces, also depending on
401:
372:
282:
274:
depends on the material surface means that the space between two dissimilar conductors will have a built-in
204:
167:
132:
64:
2850:
Dweydari, A. W.; Mee, C. H. B. (1975). "Work function measurements on (100) and (110) surfaces of silver".
346:
3520:
2680:
2505:
2075:
1975:
162:
3597:
3419:
1350:{\displaystyle e\Delta V_{\rm {sp}}=W_{\rm {s}}-W_{\rm {p}},\quad {\text{when}}~\phi ~{\text{is flat}}.}
1236:
2362:
is a calculable material property which is dependent on the crystal structure (for example, BCC, FCC).
3220:
2954:
1241:
3556:
3535:
3515:
3454:
3394:
3320:
3159:
3023:
2988:
2859:
2773:
2728:
2602:
2549:
1127:
1123:
2685:
1099:
3479:
3368:
3270:
3215:
2223:
1137:
931:
542:
446:
434:
295:
20:
2392:
2365:
3175:
3105:
3087:
2618:
2592:
2565:
2539:
1253:) between a sample material and probe material. The electric field can be varied by the voltage Î
701:
32:
2006:
744:
456:
342:
44:
rather a property of the surface of the material (depending on crystal face and contamination).
2930:
923:
is often omitted, as it is a small contribution of order 10 mV). The resulting current density
3489:
3474:
3058:
2911:
2789:
2698:
2471:
2461:
2240:
2212:
2208:
2086:
2082:, the work function of a semiconductor is also sensitive to the electric field in the vacuum.
2014:
1603:
405:
265:
2345:
3439:
3379:
3167:
3097:
3031:
2996:
2903:
2867:
2781:
2736:
2690:
2610:
2557:
749:
461:
442:
334:
3592:
3300:
3295:
3205:
2979:
Bardeen, J. (1947). "Surface States and
Rectification at a Metal Semi-Conductor Contact".
2813:
2488:
2031:
1228:
686:{\displaystyle J_{\rm {e}}=-A_{\rm {e}}T_{\rm {e}}^{2}e^{-E_{\rm {barrier}}/kT_{\rm {e}}}}
546:
366:
2807:
3163:
3150:
Michaelson, Herbert B. (1977). "The work function of the elements and its periodicity".
3027:
2992:
2863:
2777:
2732:
2606:
2553:
2335:{\textstyle \varphi (T)=\varphi _{0}-\gamma {\frac {(k_{\text{B}}T)^{2}}{\varphi _{0}}}}
3459:
3434:
2436:
913:
881:{\displaystyle E_{\rm {barrier}}=W_{\rm {c}}-e(\Delta V_{\rm {ce}}-\Delta V_{\rm {S}})}
378:
338:
275:
3576:
3499:
3494:
3384:
3305:
3179:
3109:
3101:
2907:
2825:
2622:
2569:
2196:
2071:
1249:
The Kelvin probe technique relies on the detection of an electric field (gradient in
1132:
362:
3210:
3198:
449:, and so they must be carried out in a low temperature and low current regime where
3464:
3358:
3290:
3285:
2078:
at the surface of the semiconductor. Since the doping near the surface can also be
2052:
2010:
1995:
1412:
1404:
1400:
1396:
1213:
450:
327:
317:
301:
333:
The behavior of a solid-state device is strongly dependent on the size of various
308:
are critical parameters in determining the amount of current that can be emitted.
2740:
2649:
1994:
hard wall potential at the surface but rather a gradual ramping potential due to
1131:
liberated electron with non-zero kinetic energy. It is expected that the minimum
3561:
3469:
3328:
3280:
3256:
2042:
1375:
557:
321:
305:
145:
2561:
1042:{\displaystyle J_{\rm {c}}=AT_{\rm {e}}^{2}e^{-E_{\rm {barrier}}/kT_{\rm {e}}}}
3484:
3414:
3404:
3399:
3343:
1681:
1585:
2915:
2218:
One of the earliest successful models for metal work function trends was the
3449:
3444:
3424:
3035:
2871:
2475:
1957:
1941:
1871:
1845:
1785:
1741:
1707:
1671:
1663:
1637:
1629:
1472:
1428:
261:
3000:
2793:
2702:
2757:
FernĂĄndez
Garrillo, P. A.; GrĂ©vin, B.; Chevalier, N.; Borowik, Ć. (2018).
3429:
3409:
3348:
3054:
2614:
1923:
1915:
1897:
1889:
1853:
1827:
1811:
1801:
1793:
1759:
1749:
1655:
1558:
1532:
309:
122:
36:
1126:. If the photon's energy is greater than the substance's work function,
3363:
3353:
2219:
1931:
1905:
1879:
1863:
1819:
1775:
1767:
1697:
1645:
1619:
1593:
1577:
1540:
1506:
1498:
1480:
1436:
313:
189:
159:
is the energy of an electron at rest in the vacuum nearby the surface.
3014:
Lang, N.; Kohn, W. (1971). "Theory of Metal
Surfaces: Work Function".
2785:
2694:
3374:
3338:
3333:
3310:
3171:
2493:
Quasi-Electric Fields and Band
Offsets: Teaching Electrons New Tricks
1723:
1715:
1689:
1611:
1550:
1524:
1514:
1488:
1462:
1420:
1407:: 4.74 eV. Ranges for typical surfaces are shown in the table below.
1119:
930:
through the collector (per unit of collector area) is again given by
40:
3225:
3092:
2884:
CRC Handbook of
Chemistry and Physics version 2008, p. 12â124.
2759:"Calibrated work function mapping by Kelvin probe force microscopy"
3145:
For a quick reference to values of work function of the elements:
2597:
2544:
2005:
1454:
1122:
energy required to liberate an electron from a substance, in the
1949:
1733:
1566:
1446:
756:
configuration. The barrier is the vacuum near collector surface.
3229:
2215:; both of these topics are already complex in their own right.
2023:, defined as the difference between near-surface vacuum energy
1837:
1157:
required to liberate an electron (and generate a current) is
3216:
Work functions of various metals for the photoelectric effect
2583:
Will, C. M. (2011). "Finally, results from
Gravity Probe B".
1374:
is held constant, a current will flow due to the change in
2236:) is an important parameter in determining work function.
268:
that is defined as having zero Fermi level. The fact that
2931:"The General Properties of Si, Ge, SiGe, SiO2 and Si3N4"
2258:
2174:{\displaystyle W=E_{\rm {EA}}+E_{\rm {C}}-E_{\rm {F}}}
192:
is applied to a material, the electrostatic potential
2395:
2368:
2348:
2119:
1269:
1166:
1140:
943:
784:
575:
481:
207:
67:
3138:
Scanning Electron Microscopy and X-Ray Microanalysis
2247:
Temperature dependence of the electron work function
1107:
configuration, used for measuring the work function
3549:
3508:
3319:
3263:
2408:
2381:
2354:
2334:
2173:
1349:
1190:
1149:
1041:
880:
685:
529:
232:
103:
3194:Work function of polymeric insulators (Table 2.1)
2002:Doping and electric field effect (semiconductors)
1969:Physical factors that determine the work function
264:, through an attached electrode), relative to an
260:is the voltage of the material (as measured by a
175:is not flat due to a difference in work function.
58:for a given surface is defined by the difference
715:of the emitter. In this case, the dependence of
433:The work function is important in the theory of
2806:G.L. Kulcinski, "Thermionic Energy Conversion"
1118:The photoelectric work function is the minimum
905:is the applied collectorâemitter voltage, and Î
2110:are known, then the work function is given by
2096:and the surface's band-referenced Fermi level
898:is the collector's thermionic work function, Î
352:Equilibrium electric fields in vacuum chambers
3241:
2506:"Barrier Height Correlations and Systematics"
530:{\displaystyle E_{\rm {barrier}}=W_{\rm {e}}}
8:
152:of electrons) inside the material. The term
1360:Since the experimenter controls and knows Î
304:, the work function and temperature of the
3248:
3234:
3226:
3221:Physics of free surfaces of semiconductors
2714:
2712:
2636:
2634:
2632:
2203:Theoretical models of metal work functions
2013:of semiconductor-vacuum interface showing
3199:Work function of diamond and doped carbon
3091:
2684:
2596:
2543:
2400:
2394:
2389:is the electron work function at T=0 and
2373:
2367:
2347:
2324:
2313:
2300:
2290:
2278:
2257:
2164:
2163:
2149:
2148:
2131:
2130:
2118:
1339:
1325:
1314:
1313:
1299:
1298:
1281:
1280:
1268:
1191:{\displaystyle \hbar \omega =W_{\rm {e}}}
1181:
1180:
1165:
1139:
1030:
1029:
1017:
992:
991:
983:
973:
967:
966:
949:
948:
942:
868:
867:
847:
846:
823:
822:
790:
789:
783:
674:
673:
661:
636:
635:
627:
617:
611:
610:
599:
598:
581:
580:
574:
520:
519:
487:
486:
480:
220:
206:
91:
90:
66:
3136:Goldstein, Newbury; et al. (2003).
3049:Kiejna, A.; Wojciechowski, K.F. (1996).
2752:
2750:
2673:Journal of the American Chemical Society
2431:
2429:
2074:, the work function is sensitive to the
1409:
1240:
1098:
743:
740:Work function of cold electron collector
455:
161:
2425:
1167:
1141:
2458:The physics and chemistry of materials
916:in the hot emitter (the influence of Î
233:{\displaystyle \phi =V-{\frac {W}{e}}}
135:in the vacuum nearby the surface, and
104:{\displaystyle W=-e\phi -E_{\rm {F}},}
1208:is the work function of the emitter.
7:
2929:Virginia Semiconductor (June 2002).
429:Methods based on thermionic emission
2442:Introduction to Solid State Physics
2416:is constant throughout the change.
179:In practice, one directly controls
35:(i.e., energy) needed to remove an
2165:
2150:
2135:
2132:
1315:
1300:
1285:
1282:
1273:
1182:
1031:
1011:
1008:
1005:
1002:
999:
996:
993:
968:
950:
869:
860:
851:
848:
839:
824:
809:
806:
803:
800:
797:
794:
791:
675:
655:
652:
649:
646:
643:
640:
637:
612:
600:
582:
556:(A/m), is related to the absolute
521:
506:
503:
500:
497:
494:
491:
488:
92:
14:
704:and the proportionality constant
411:Relative methods make use of the
330:models in solid-state electronics
3102:10.1016/j.scriptamat.2014.11.022
2766:Review of Scientific Instruments
1216:edge rather than work function.
566:of the emitter by the equation:
3211:Work functions of common metals
1324:
39:from a solid to a point in the
3051:Metal Surface Electron Physics
2310:
2293:
2268:
2262:
1095:Methods based on photoemission
875:
836:
1:
2955:"Semiconductor Free Surfaces"
2080:controlled by electric fields
1384:Kelvin probe force microscope
1233:Kelvin probe force microscope
1150:{\displaystyle \hbar \omega }
422:Kelvin probe force microscope
2908:10.1016/0026-2692(95)00097-6
2741:10.1016/j.apsusc.2009.11.002
2409:{\displaystyle k_{\text{B}}}
2382:{\displaystyle \varphi _{0}}
1978:for the given crystal face.
549:(per unit area of emitter),
413:contact potential difference
1956:
1948:
1940:
1930:
1922:
1914:
1904:
1896:
1888:
1878:
1870:
1862:
1852:
1844:
1836:
1826:
1818:
1810:
1800:
1792:
1784:
1774:
1766:
1758:
1748:
1740:
1732:
1722:
1714:
1706:
1696:
1688:
1680:
1670:
1662:
1654:
1644:
1636:
1628:
1618:
1610:
1602:
1592:
1584:
1576:
1565:
1557:
1549:
1539:
1531:
1523:
1513:
1505:
1497:
1487:
1479:
1471:
1461:
1453:
1445:
1435:
1427:
1419:
1411:Work function of elements (
1114:of the illuminated emitter.
3616:
2959:academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu
2562:10.1103/PhysRevA.85.012504
2510:academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu
1390:Work functions of elements
1226:
1089:retarding potential method
748:Energy level diagrams for
460:Energy level diagrams for
3371:(Hexode, Heptode, Octode)
3127:Ashcroft; Mermin (1976).
2191:is taken at the surface.
1077:, can be fitted to yield
150:electrochemical potential
3583:Condensed matter physics
3390:Backward-wave oscillator
3131:. Thomson Learning, Inc.
2896:Microelectronics Journal
2826:"Photoelectron Emission"
3036:10.1103/PhysRevB.3.1215
2872:10.1002/pssa.2210270126
2852:Physica Status Solidi A
2721:Applied Surface Science
2355:{\displaystyle \gamma }
1976:surface reconstructions
1103:Photoelectric diode in
729:can be fitted to yield
402:field electron emission
373:Contact electrification
168:electrostatic potential
133:electrostatic potential
3264:Theoretical principles
3001:10.1103/PhysRev.71.717
2456:Gersten, Joel (2001).
2445:(7th ed.). Wiley.
2410:
2383:
2356:
2336:
2175:
2067:
1351:
1246:
1192:
1151:
1128:photoelectric emission
1115:
1043:
882:
757:
687:
531:
469:
234:
176:
105:
3420:Inductive output tube
3140:. New York: Springer.
2411:
2384:
2357:
2337:
2176:
2009:
1988:electric double layer
1352:
1244:
1237:Scanning Kelvin probe
1193:
1152:
1102:
1044:
883:
747:
713:Richardson's constant
688:
532:
459:
235:
165:
106:
3562:List of tube sockets
3557:List of vacuum tubes
3395:Beam deflection tube
2615:10.1103/Physics.4.43
2393:
2366:
2346:
2256:
2224:Friedel oscillations
2117:
1267:
1164:
1138:
1124:photoelectric effect
941:
782:
765:than the emitter's.
573:
479:
453:effects are absent.
441:) then a measurable
365:experiments and the
205:
121:is the charge of an
65:
3588:Physical quantities
3480:Traveling-wave tube
3271:Thermionic emission
3164:1977JAP....48.4729M
3129:Solid State Physics
3028:1971PhRvB...3.1215L
2993:1947PhRv...71..717B
2864:1975PSSAR..27..223D
2778:2018RScI...89d3702F
2733:2010ApSS..256.2602H
2652:on 29 December 2016
2642:"Metal surfaces 1a"
2607:2011PhyOJ...4...43W
2554:2012PhRvA..85a2504B
2460:. New York: Wiley.
2228:WignerâSeitz radius
2030:, and near-surface
1416:
1223:Kelvin probe method
978:
754:retarding potential
622:
435:thermionic emission
406:electron tunnelling
296:Thermionic emission
27:(sometimes spelled
21:solid-state physics
3204:2012-06-29 at the
3080:Scripta Materialia
2812:2017-11-17 at the
2406:
2379:
2352:
2332:
2171:
2068:
1410:
1347:
1247:
1188:
1147:
1116:
1039:
962:
878:
758:
702:Boltzmann constant
683:
606:
527:
470:
347:SchottkyâMott rule
230:
177:
101:
52:The work function
33:thermodynamic work
3570:
3569:
3509:Numbering systems
3490:Video camera tube
3475:Talaria projector
3257:Thermionic valves
3016:Physical Review B
2786:10.1063/1.5007619
2695:10.1021/ja902862b
2679:(25): 8746â8747.
2532:Physical Review A
2467:978-0-471-05794-9
2403:
2330:
2303:
2241:electron exchange
2213:surface chemistry
2209:many body effects
2087:electron affinity
2015:electron affinity
1966:
1965:
1342:
1338:
1332:
1328:
335:Schottky barriers
266:electrical ground
228:
31:) is the minimum
3605:
3380:Cathode-ray tube
3250:
3243:
3236:
3227:
3183:
3172:10.1063/1.323539
3141:
3132:
3114:
3113:
3095:
3075:
3069:
3068:
3046:
3040:
3039:
3011:
3005:
3004:
2976:
2970:
2969:
2967:
2965:
2951:
2945:
2944:
2942:
2940:
2935:
2926:
2920:
2919:
2891:
2885:
2882:
2876:
2875:
2847:
2841:
2840:
2838:
2836:
2830:www.virginia.edu
2822:
2816:
2804:
2798:
2797:
2763:
2754:
2745:
2744:
2716:
2707:
2706:
2688:
2668:
2662:
2661:
2659:
2657:
2648:. Archived from
2646:venables.asu.edu
2638:
2627:
2626:
2600:
2580:
2574:
2573:
2547:
2527:
2521:
2520:
2518:
2516:
2502:
2496:
2486:
2480:
2479:
2453:
2447:
2446:
2433:
2415:
2413:
2412:
2407:
2405:
2404:
2401:
2388:
2386:
2385:
2380:
2378:
2377:
2361:
2359:
2358:
2353:
2341:
2339:
2338:
2333:
2331:
2329:
2328:
2319:
2318:
2317:
2305:
2304:
2301:
2291:
2283:
2282:
2180:
2178:
2177:
2172:
2170:
2169:
2168:
2155:
2154:
2153:
2140:
2139:
2138:
2062:, work function
1417:
1356:
1354:
1353:
1348:
1343:
1340:
1336:
1330:
1329:
1326:
1320:
1319:
1318:
1305:
1304:
1303:
1290:
1289:
1288:
1197:
1195:
1194:
1189:
1187:
1186:
1185:
1156:
1154:
1153:
1148:
1048:
1046:
1045:
1040:
1038:
1037:
1036:
1035:
1034:
1021:
1016:
1015:
1014:
977:
972:
971:
955:
954:
953:
932:Richardson's Law
887:
885:
884:
879:
874:
873:
872:
856:
855:
854:
829:
828:
827:
814:
813:
812:
750:thermionic diode
692:
690:
689:
684:
682:
681:
680:
679:
678:
665:
660:
659:
658:
621:
616:
615:
605:
604:
603:
587:
586:
585:
543:Richardson's law
536:
534:
533:
528:
526:
525:
524:
511:
510:
509:
462:thermionic diode
447:Richardson's law
443:electric current
360:
273:
259:
239:
237:
236:
231:
229:
221:
197:
187:
174:
158:
143:
130:
120:
110:
108:
107:
102:
97:
96:
95:
57:
3615:
3614:
3608:
3607:
3606:
3604:
3603:
3602:
3573:
3572:
3571:
3566:
3545:
3531:MullardâPhilips
3504:
3455:Photomultiplier
3315:
3296:Suppressor grid
3259:
3254:
3206:Wayback Machine
3190:
3149:
3135:
3126:
3123:
3121:Further reading
3118:
3117:
3086:(2015): 41â44.
3077:
3076:
3072:
3065:
3048:
3047:
3043:
3013:
3012:
3008:
2987:(10): 717â727.
2981:Physical Review
2978:
2977:
2973:
2963:
2961:
2953:
2952:
2948:
2938:
2936:
2933:
2928:
2927:
2923:
2893:
2892:
2888:
2883:
2879:
2849:
2848:
2844:
2834:
2832:
2824:
2823:
2819:
2814:Wayback Machine
2805:
2801:
2761:
2756:
2755:
2748:
2718:
2717:
2710:
2686:10.1.1.670.4392
2670:
2669:
2665:
2655:
2653:
2640:
2639:
2630:
2582:
2581:
2577:
2529:
2528:
2524:
2514:
2512:
2504:
2503:
2499:
2495:" Nobel lecture
2489:Herbert Kroemer
2487:
2483:
2468:
2455:
2454:
2450:
2437:Kittel, Charles
2435:
2434:
2427:
2422:
2396:
2391:
2390:
2369:
2364:
2363:
2344:
2343:
2320:
2309:
2296:
2292:
2274:
2254:
2253:
2249:
2234:
2205:
2190:
2159:
2144:
2126:
2115:
2114:
2109:
2102:
2095:
2061:
2050:
2040:
2032:conduction band
2029:
2022:
2004:
1984:
1971:
1392:
1373:
1366:
1309:
1294:
1276:
1265:
1264:
1259:
1239:
1229:Volta potential
1225:
1207:
1176:
1162:
1161:
1136:
1135:
1113:
1097:
1083:
1076:
1069:
1062:
1025:
987:
979:
944:
939:
938:
929:
922:
914:Seebeck voltage
911:
904:
897:
863:
842:
818:
785:
780:
779:
774:
742:
735:
728:
721:
710:
669:
631:
623:
594:
576:
571:
570:
565:
555:
547:current density
515:
482:
477:
476:
431:
389:
367:Gravity Probe B
356:
343:Anderson's rule
292:
269:
254:
244:
203:
202:
193:
186:
180:
170:
153:
142:
136:
126:
115:
86:
63:
62:
53:
50:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3613:
3612:
3609:
3601:
3600:
3595:
3590:
3585:
3575:
3574:
3568:
3567:
3565:
3564:
3559:
3553:
3551:
3547:
3546:
3544:
3543:
3538:
3533:
3528:
3523:
3518:
3512:
3510:
3506:
3505:
3503:
3502:
3497:
3492:
3487:
3482:
3477:
3472:
3467:
3462:
3460:Selectron tube
3457:
3452:
3447:
3442:
3437:
3432:
3427:
3422:
3417:
3412:
3407:
3402:
3397:
3392:
3387:
3382:
3377:
3372:
3366:
3361:
3356:
3351:
3346:
3341:
3336:
3331:
3325:
3323:
3317:
3316:
3314:
3313:
3308:
3303:
3298:
3293:
3288:
3283:
3278:
3273:
3267:
3265:
3261:
3260:
3255:
3253:
3252:
3245:
3238:
3230:
3224:
3223:
3218:
3213:
3208:
3196:
3189:
3188:External links
3186:
3185:
3184:
3143:
3142:
3133:
3122:
3119:
3116:
3115:
3070:
3063:
3041:
3006:
2971:
2946:
2921:
2886:
2877:
2842:
2817:
2799:
2746:
2708:
2663:
2628:
2575:
2522:
2497:
2481:
2466:
2448:
2424:
2423:
2421:
2418:
2399:
2376:
2372:
2351:
2327:
2323:
2316:
2312:
2308:
2299:
2295:
2289:
2286:
2281:
2277:
2273:
2270:
2267:
2264:
2261:
2248:
2245:
2232:
2204:
2201:
2197:surface states
2188:
2182:
2181:
2167:
2162:
2158:
2152:
2147:
2143:
2137:
2134:
2129:
2125:
2122:
2107:
2100:
2093:
2059:
2048:
2041:. Also shown:
2038:
2027:
2020:
2003:
2000:
1983:
1982:Surface dipole
1980:
1970:
1967:
1964:
1963:
1960:
1955:
1952:
1947:
1944:
1938:
1937:
1934:
1929:
1926:
1921:
1918:
1912:
1911:
1908:
1903:
1900:
1895:
1892:
1886:
1885:
1882:
1877:
1874:
1869:
1866:
1860:
1859:
1856:
1851:
1848:
1843:
1840:
1834:
1833:
1830:
1825:
1822:
1817:
1814:
1808:
1807:
1804:
1799:
1796:
1791:
1788:
1782:
1781:
1778:
1773:
1770:
1765:
1762:
1756:
1755:
1752:
1747:
1744:
1739:
1736:
1730:
1729:
1726:
1721:
1718:
1713:
1710:
1704:
1703:
1700:
1695:
1692:
1687:
1684:
1678:
1677:
1674:
1669:
1666:
1661:
1658:
1652:
1651:
1648:
1643:
1640:
1635:
1632:
1626:
1625:
1622:
1617:
1614:
1609:
1606:
1600:
1599:
1596:
1591:
1588:
1583:
1580:
1574:
1573:
1570:
1564:
1561:
1556:
1553:
1547:
1546:
1543:
1538:
1535:
1530:
1527:
1521:
1520:
1517:
1512:
1509:
1504:
1501:
1495:
1494:
1491:
1486:
1483:
1478:
1475:
1469:
1468:
1465:
1460:
1457:
1452:
1449:
1443:
1442:
1439:
1434:
1431:
1426:
1423:
1391:
1388:
1371:
1364:
1358:
1357:
1346:
1335:
1323:
1317:
1312:
1308:
1302:
1297:
1293:
1287:
1284:
1279:
1275:
1272:
1257:
1224:
1221:
1205:
1199:
1198:
1184:
1179:
1175:
1172:
1169:
1146:
1143:
1111:
1096:
1093:
1081:
1074:
1067:
1060:
1050:
1049:
1033:
1028:
1024:
1020:
1013:
1010:
1007:
1004:
1001:
998:
995:
990:
986:
982:
976:
970:
965:
961:
958:
952:
947:
927:
920:
909:
902:
895:
889:
888:
877:
871:
866:
862:
859:
853:
850:
845:
841:
838:
835:
832:
826:
821:
817:
811:
808:
805:
802:
799:
796:
793:
788:
772:
741:
738:
733:
726:
719:
708:
694:
693:
677:
672:
668:
664:
657:
654:
651:
648:
645:
642:
639:
634:
630:
626:
620:
614:
609:
602:
597:
593:
590:
584:
579:
563:
553:
538:
537:
523:
518:
514:
508:
505:
502:
499:
496:
493:
490:
485:
430:
427:
426:
425:
409:
388:
385:
384:
383:
379:surface charge
375:
370:
353:
350:
331:
325:
300:In thermionic
298:
291:
288:
276:electric field
252:
241:
240:
227:
224:
219:
216:
213:
210:
184:
140:
112:
111:
100:
94:
89:
85:
82:
79:
76:
73:
70:
49:
46:
16:Type of energy
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3611:
3610:
3599:
3596:
3594:
3591:
3589:
3586:
3584:
3581:
3580:
3578:
3563:
3560:
3558:
3555:
3554:
3552:
3548:
3542:
3539:
3537:
3534:
3532:
3529:
3527:
3526:Marconi-Osram
3524:
3522:
3519:
3517:
3514:
3513:
3511:
3507:
3501:
3500:Fleming valve
3498:
3496:
3495:Williams tube
3493:
3491:
3488:
3486:
3483:
3481:
3478:
3476:
3473:
3471:
3468:
3466:
3463:
3461:
3458:
3456:
3453:
3451:
3448:
3446:
3443:
3441:
3438:
3436:
3433:
3431:
3428:
3426:
3423:
3421:
3418:
3416:
3413:
3411:
3408:
3406:
3403:
3401:
3398:
3396:
3393:
3391:
3388:
3386:
3383:
3381:
3378:
3376:
3373:
3370:
3367:
3365:
3362:
3360:
3357:
3355:
3352:
3350:
3347:
3345:
3342:
3340:
3337:
3335:
3332:
3330:
3327:
3326:
3324:
3322:
3318:
3312:
3309:
3307:
3306:Glowing anode
3304:
3302:
3299:
3297:
3294:
3292:
3289:
3287:
3284:
3282:
3279:
3277:
3276:Work function
3274:
3272:
3269:
3268:
3266:
3262:
3258:
3251:
3246:
3244:
3239:
3237:
3232:
3231:
3228:
3222:
3219:
3217:
3214:
3212:
3209:
3207:
3203:
3200:
3197:
3195:
3192:
3191:
3187:
3181:
3177:
3173:
3169:
3165:
3161:
3157:
3153:
3152:J. Appl. Phys
3148:
3147:
3146:
3139:
3134:
3130:
3125:
3124:
3120:
3111:
3107:
3103:
3099:
3094:
3089:
3085:
3081:
3074:
3071:
3066:
3064:9780080536347
3060:
3056:
3052:
3045:
3042:
3037:
3033:
3029:
3025:
3021:
3017:
3010:
3007:
3002:
2998:
2994:
2990:
2986:
2982:
2975:
2972:
2960:
2956:
2950:
2947:
2932:
2925:
2922:
2917:
2913:
2909:
2905:
2901:
2897:
2890:
2887:
2881:
2878:
2873:
2869:
2865:
2861:
2857:
2853:
2846:
2843:
2831:
2827:
2821:
2818:
2815:
2811:
2808:
2803:
2800:
2795:
2791:
2787:
2783:
2779:
2775:
2772:(4): 043702.
2771:
2767:
2760:
2753:
2751:
2747:
2742:
2738:
2734:
2730:
2726:
2722:
2715:
2713:
2709:
2704:
2700:
2696:
2692:
2687:
2682:
2678:
2674:
2667:
2664:
2651:
2647:
2643:
2637:
2635:
2633:
2629:
2624:
2620:
2616:
2612:
2608:
2604:
2599:
2594:
2590:
2586:
2579:
2576:
2571:
2567:
2563:
2559:
2555:
2551:
2546:
2541:
2538:(1): 012504.
2537:
2533:
2526:
2523:
2511:
2507:
2501:
2498:
2494:
2490:
2485:
2482:
2477:
2473:
2469:
2463:
2459:
2452:
2449:
2444:
2443:
2438:
2432:
2430:
2426:
2419:
2417:
2397:
2374:
2370:
2349:
2325:
2321:
2314:
2306:
2297:
2287:
2284:
2279:
2275:
2271:
2265:
2259:
2246:
2244:
2242:
2237:
2235:
2229:
2225:
2221:
2216:
2214:
2210:
2202:
2200:
2198:
2192:
2187:
2160:
2156:
2145:
2141:
2127:
2123:
2120:
2113:
2112:
2111:
2106:
2099:
2092:
2088:
2083:
2081:
2077:
2073:
2072:semiconductor
2065:
2058:
2054:
2047:
2044:
2037:
2033:
2026:
2019:
2016:
2012:
2008:
2001:
1999:
1997:
1991:
1989:
1981:
1979:
1977:
1968:
1961:
1959:
1953:
1951:
1945:
1943:
1939:
1935:
1933:
1927:
1925:
1919:
1917:
1913:
1909:
1907:
1901:
1899:
1893:
1891:
1887:
1883:
1881:
1875:
1873:
1867:
1865:
1861:
1857:
1855:
1849:
1847:
1841:
1839:
1835:
1831:
1829:
1823:
1821:
1815:
1813:
1809:
1805:
1803:
1797:
1795:
1789:
1787:
1783:
1779:
1777:
1771:
1769:
1763:
1761:
1757:
1753:
1751:
1745:
1743:
1737:
1735:
1731:
1727:
1725:
1719:
1717:
1711:
1709:
1705:
1701:
1699:
1693:
1691:
1685:
1683:
1679:
1675:
1673:
1667:
1665:
1659:
1657:
1653:
1649:
1647:
1641:
1639:
1633:
1631:
1627:
1623:
1621:
1615:
1613:
1607:
1605:
1601:
1597:
1595:
1589:
1587:
1581:
1579:
1575:
1571:
1568:
1562:
1560:
1554:
1552:
1548:
1544:
1542:
1536:
1534:
1528:
1526:
1522:
1518:
1516:
1510:
1508:
1502:
1500:
1496:
1492:
1490:
1484:
1482:
1476:
1474:
1470:
1466:
1464:
1458:
1456:
1450:
1448:
1444:
1440:
1438:
1432:
1430:
1424:
1422:
1418:
1414:
1408:
1406:
1402:
1398:
1389:
1387:
1385:
1379:
1377:
1370:
1363:
1344:
1333:
1321:
1310:
1306:
1295:
1291:
1277:
1270:
1263:
1262:
1261:
1256:
1252:
1243:
1238:
1234:
1230:
1222:
1220:
1217:
1215:
1209:
1204:
1177:
1173:
1170:
1160:
1159:
1158:
1144:
1134:
1133:photon energy
1129:
1125:
1121:
1110:
1106:
1101:
1094:
1092:
1090:
1085:
1080:
1073:
1066:
1059:
1055:
1026:
1022:
1018:
988:
984:
980:
974:
963:
959:
956:
945:
937:
936:
935:
934:, except now
933:
926:
919:
915:
908:
901:
894:
864:
857:
843:
833:
830:
819:
815:
786:
778:
777:
776:
771:
766:
763:
755:
751:
746:
739:
737:
732:
725:
718:
714:
707:
703:
699:
670:
666:
662:
632:
628:
624:
618:
607:
595:
591:
588:
577:
569:
568:
567:
562:
559:
552:
548:
544:
516:
512:
483:
475:
474:
473:
467:
463:
458:
454:
452:
448:
444:
440:
436:
428:
423:
419:
414:
410:
407:
403:
399:
398:
397:
393:
386:
380:
376:
374:
371:
368:
364:
363:Casimir force
359:
354:
351:
348:
344:
340:
336:
332:
329:
326:
323:
319:
315:
311:
307:
303:
302:electron guns
299:
297:
294:
293:
289:
287:
284:
279:
277:
272:
267:
263:
258:
251:
247:
225:
222:
217:
214:
211:
208:
201:
200:
199:
196:
191:
183:
173:
169:
164:
160:
157:
151:
147:
139:
134:
129:
124:
119:
98:
87:
83:
80:
77:
74:
71:
68:
61:
60:
59:
56:
47:
45:
42:
38:
34:
30:
26:
25:work function
22:
3598:Vacuum tubes
3465:Storage tube
3359:Beam tetrode
3291:Control grid
3286:Space charge
3275:
3158:(11): 4729.
3155:
3151:
3144:
3137:
3128:
3083:
3079:
3073:
3050:
3044:
3019:
3015:
3009:
2984:
2980:
2974:
2962:. Retrieved
2958:
2949:
2937:. Retrieved
2924:
2902:(1): 93â96.
2899:
2895:
2889:
2880:
2855:
2851:
2845:
2833:. Retrieved
2829:
2820:
2802:
2769:
2765:
2724:
2720:
2676:
2672:
2666:
2654:. Retrieved
2650:the original
2645:
2588:
2584:
2578:
2535:
2531:
2525:
2513:. Retrieved
2509:
2500:
2484:
2457:
2451:
2440:
2250:
2238:
2230:
2217:
2206:
2193:
2185:
2183:
2104:
2097:
2090:
2084:
2076:doping level
2069:
2063:
2056:
2053:valence band
2045:
2035:
2024:
2017:
2011:Band diagram
1996:image charge
1992:
1985:
1972:
1928:4.32 â 4.55
1910:3.63 â 3.90
1858:4.00 â 4.80
1824:4.60 â 4.85
1798:4.55 â 4.70
1754:5.12 â 5.93
1746:5.22 â 5.60
1720:5.04 â 5.35
1702:3.95 â 4.87
1686:4.36 â 4.95
1624:5.00 â 5.67
1572:4.67 â 4.81
1555:4.53 â 5.10
1467:2.52 â 2.70
1451:5.10 â 5.47
1433:4.06 â 4.26
1425:4.26 â 4.74
1393:
1380:
1368:
1361:
1359:
1254:
1250:
1248:
1218:
1214:valence band
1210:
1202:
1200:
1117:
1108:
1105:forward bias
1104:
1088:
1086:
1078:
1071:
1064:
1057:
1053:
1051:
924:
917:
906:
899:
892:
890:
769:
767:
761:
759:
753:
730:
723:
716:
705:
697:
695:
560:
550:
545:the emitted
539:
471:
466:forward bias
465:
451:space charge
438:
432:
418:Kelvin Probe
404:), or using
394:
390:
357:
339:band offsets
328:Band bending
318:barium oxide
290:Applications
283:image charge
280:
270:
256:
249:
245:
242:
194:
181:
178:
171:
155:
137:
127:
117:
113:
54:
51:
29:workfunction
28:
24:
18:
3470:Sutton tube
3281:Hot cathode
3022:(4): 1215.
2727:(8): 2602.
2043:Fermi level
1954:3.63 â 4.9
1403:: 4.52 eV,
1399:: 4.64 eV,
1376:capacitance
558:temperature
387:Measurement
322:hot cathode
306:hot cathode
146:Fermi level
3577:Categories
3485:Trochotron
3415:Iconoscope
3405:Compactron
3400:Charactron
3344:Acorn tube
3093:1503.08250
2858:(1): 223.
2591:(43): 43.
2420:References
1405:(111) face
1401:(110) face
1397:(100) face
1227:See also:
48:Definition
3450:Phototube
3445:Monoscope
3440:Magnetron
3435:Magic eye
3425:Kinescope
3369:Pentagrid
3180:122357835
3110:118420968
2916:0026-2692
2681:CiteSeerX
2623:119237335
2598:1106.1198
2570:119248753
2545:1108.1761
2371:φ
2350:γ
2322:φ
2288:γ
2285:−
2276:φ
2260:φ
2157:−
1334:ϕ
1307:−
1274:Δ
1171:ω
1168:ℏ
1145:ω
1142:ℏ
1070:, or on Î
985:−
861:Δ
858:−
840:Δ
831:−
762:away from
629:−
592:−
439:collector
262:voltmeter
218:−
209:ϕ
84:−
81:ϕ
75:−
3550:Examples
3430:Klystron
3410:Eidophor
3385:Additron
3349:Nuvistor
3202:Archived
3055:Elsevier
2964:11 April
2835:11 April
2810:Archived
2794:29716375
2703:19499916
2656:11 April
2515:11 April
2476:46538642
2439:(1996).
420:method,
345:and the
310:Tungsten
123:electron
37:electron
3541:Russian
3364:Pentode
3354:Tetrode
3160:Bibcode
3024:Bibcode
2989:Bibcode
2860:Bibcode
2774:Bibcode
2729:Bibcode
2603:Bibcode
2585:Physics
2550:Bibcode
2220:jellium
1341:is flat
912:is the
711:is the
700:is the
314:thorium
190:voltage
144:is the
131:is the
3593:Vacuum
3375:Nonode
3339:Triode
3334:Audion
3311:Getter
3178:
3108:
3061:
2914:
2792:
2701:
2683:
2621:
2568:
2474:
2464:
2184:where
1902:~3.84
1850:~2.59
1764:2.261
1608:4.475
1459:~4.45
1337:
1331:
1235:, and
1201:where
1120:photon
1052:where
891:where
696:where
243:where
114:where
41:vacuum
23:, the
3521:RETMA
3329:Diode
3321:Types
3301:Anode
3176:S2CID
3106:S2CID
3088:arXiv
2939:6 Jan
2934:(PDF)
2762:(PDF)
2619:S2CID
2593:arXiv
2566:S2CID
2540:arXiv
2070:In a
2055:edge
2034:edge
1962:4.05
1946:2.60
1894:4.33
1876:4.95
1868:3.00
1842:4.42
1790:4.71
1780:4.98
1772:4.72
1738:4.25
1728:5.93
1694:2.36
1668:3.66
1660:~3.3
1634:2.29
1616:4.09
1598:3.90
1590:2.90
1582:4.32
1545:1.95
1511:4.08
1503:2.87
1485:4.31
1477:4.98
1441:3.75
1087:This
3059:ISBN
2966:2018
2941:2019
2912:ISSN
2837:2018
2790:PMID
2699:PMID
2658:2018
2517:2018
2472:OCLC
2462:ISBN
2342:and
2211:and
1936:3.1
1920:4.3
1884:3.4
1832:2.7
1816:5.9
1806:3.5
1712:3.2
1676:4.1
1650:2.9
1642:3.5
1563:2.5
1537:4.5
1519:2.9
1327:when
337:and
3536:JIS
3516:RMA
3168:doi
3098:doi
3032:doi
2997:doi
2904:doi
2868:doi
2782:doi
2737:doi
2725:256
2691:doi
2677:131
2611:doi
2558:doi
2491:, "
2028:vac
1493:~5
1386:).
1063:on
752:in
722:on
464:in
316:or
248:= â
19:In
3579::
3174:.
3166:.
3156:48
3154:.
3104:.
3096:.
3084:99
3082:.
3057:.
3053:.
3030:.
3018:.
2995:.
2985:71
2983:.
2957:.
2910:.
2900:27
2898:.
2866:.
2856:27
2854:.
2828:.
2788:.
2780:.
2770:89
2768:.
2764:.
2749:^
2735:.
2723:.
2711:^
2697:.
2689:.
2675:.
2644:.
2631:^
2617:.
2609:.
2601:.
2587:.
2564:.
2556:.
2548:.
2536:85
2534:.
2508:.
2470:.
2428:^
2094:EA
2051:,
2021:EA
1958:Zr
1950:Zn
1942:Yb
1898:Tl
1890:Ti
1880:Th
1872:Te
1864:Tb
1854:Ta
1846:Sr
1838:Sn
1828:Sm
1820:Si
1812:Se
1802:Sc
1794:Sb
1786:Ru
1776:Rh
1768:Re
1760:Rb
1750:Pt
1742:Pd
1734:Pb
1724:Os
1716:Ni
1708:Nd
1698:Nb
1690:Na
1682:Mo
1672:Mn
1664:Mg
1656:Lu
1646:Li
1638:La
1620:Ir
1612:In
1604:Hg
1594:Hf
1586:Gd
1578:Ga
1569::
1567:Fe
1559:Eu
1551:Cu
1541:Cs
1533:Cr
1529:5
1525:Co
1515:Ce
1507:Cd
1499:Ca
1481:Bi
1473:Be
1463:Ba
1447:Au
1437:As
1429:Al
1421:Ag
1415:)
1413:eV
1372:sp
1365:sp
1258:sp
1231:,
1084:.
1075:ce
903:ce
736:.
324:).
255:/
156:eÏ
125:,
3249:e
3242:t
3235:v
3182:.
3170::
3162::
3112:.
3100::
3090::
3067:.
3038:.
3034::
3026::
3020:3
3003:.
2999::
2991::
2968:.
2943:.
2918:.
2906::
2874:.
2870::
2862::
2839:.
2796:.
2784::
2776::
2743:.
2739::
2731::
2705:.
2693::
2660:.
2625:.
2613::
2605::
2595::
2589:4
2572:.
2560::
2552::
2542::
2519:.
2478:.
2402:B
2398:k
2375:0
2326:0
2315:2
2311:)
2307:T
2302:B
2298:k
2294:(
2280:0
2272:=
2269:)
2266:T
2263:(
2233:s
2231:r
2189:C
2186:E
2166:F
2161:E
2151:C
2146:E
2142:+
2136:A
2133:E
2128:E
2124:=
2121:W
2108:C
2105:E
2103:-
2101:F
2098:E
2091:E
2066:.
2064:W
2060:V
2057:E
2049:F
2046:E
2039:C
2036:E
2025:E
2018:E
1932:Y
1924:W
1916:V
1906:U
1630:K
1489:C
1455:B
1369:V
1362:V
1345:.
1322:,
1316:p
1311:W
1301:s
1296:W
1292:=
1286:p
1283:s
1278:V
1271:e
1255:V
1251:Ï
1206:e
1203:W
1183:e
1178:W
1174:=
1112:e
1109:W
1082:c
1079:W
1072:V
1068:e
1065:T
1061:c
1058:J
1054:A
1032:e
1027:T
1023:k
1019:/
1012:r
1009:e
1006:i
1003:r
1000:r
997:a
994:b
989:E
981:e
975:2
969:e
964:T
960:A
957:=
951:c
946:J
928:c
925:J
921:S
918:V
910:S
907:V
900:V
896:c
893:W
876:)
870:S
865:V
852:e
849:c
844:V
837:(
834:e
825:c
820:W
816:=
810:r
807:e
804:i
801:r
798:r
795:a
792:b
787:E
773:e
770:W
734:e
731:W
727:e
724:T
720:e
717:J
709:e
706:A
698:k
676:e
671:T
667:k
663:/
656:r
653:e
650:i
647:r
644:r
641:a
638:b
633:E
625:e
619:2
613:e
608:T
601:e
596:A
589:=
583:e
578:J
564:e
561:T
554:e
551:J
522:e
517:W
513:=
507:r
504:e
501:i
498:r
495:r
492:a
489:b
484:E
408:.
358:W
271:Ï
257:e
253:F
250:E
246:V
226:e
223:W
215:V
212:=
195:Ï
185:F
182:E
172:Ï
154:â
148:(
141:F
138:E
128:Ï
118:e
116:â
99:,
93:F
88:E
78:e
72:=
69:W
55:W
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
