172:
149:
246:
addition, respirators only protect workers against harmful substances entering the body through the respiratory system, whereas pollutants frequently also enter the body through the skin. Respirators thus cannot be used as substitutes for other measures that reduce the impact of air pollution on workers. However, if the respiratory system is the main way that harmful substances enter the body, and if other means of protection do not reduce the impact to an acceptable value, respirators may be a useful supplement. To maximize effectiveness, the type of respirator should be selected for the specific situation, masks should be chosen for employees personally, and workers should be trained to use the respirator effectively.
66:
laboratory. Under workplace conditions, employees must perform a variety of movements that testers in the lab do not. When the facepiece of the respirator is tightly fitted, these movements cause gaps to form between the mask and the face, decreasing the efficiency of the mask due to leakage of unfiltered air through the gaps. In addition, a small number of testers can not simulate all the variety of shapes and sizes of faces, and a 20-minute certification lab test cannot simulate all the variety of movements performed in workplaces. Testers may also be more careful about putting on and using their masks than an ordinary worker.
206:
most common model was 200). However, the individuals who used these respirators were exposed to excessive contamination. Just as in the case of the studies noted above, the declared protection factor was very different from the actual protection factor under real-world conditions. As seen in other workplace tests, the passage of unfiltered air through the gap between the mask and face undermined the efficiency of the respirator. However, these discoveries did not lead to a change in assessments of the effectiveness of respirators in the USSR.
259:
facepiece (hood or helmet), limits were reduced from 1000 PEL to 25 PEL (USA); for powered air-purifying respirators with half mask, limits were reduced from 500 PEL to 50 PEL (USA); for supplied air respirators with full face mask and continuous air supply mode, limits were reduced from 100 OEL to 40 OEL (UK); for self-contained breathing apparatus respirators with air supply on demand, limits were reduced from 100 PEL to 50 PEL (USA). Filtering facepieces and negative pressure half-mask respirators were limited to 10 PEL in the USA.
20:
190:
132:
found to be 26 times higher than that for the average worker. In a study in coal mines, miners frequently removed their respirators in conditions where they perceived the dust level to be low, greatly reducing efficacy. In another study, respirators with an expected protection factor of 1000 in fact had protection factors ranging from 15 to 216. Factors affecting the level of protection achieved include the snugness of the fit of the respirator to the worker's face, and air movement in the environment.
164:(NIOSH) to release two informational messages on respirators in 1982, warning consumers about the unexpectedly low effectiveness of respirators. After extensive discussion, six new definitions of respirator protection factors were agreed upon. For example, the assigned protection factor (APF) of a respirator is the minimum protection factor the respirator must provide under the following circumstances: the respirator will be used by trained and taught workers, after
62:
mistakenly believed that the protective properties of a respirator in the laboratory were not significantly different from its properties in the workplace. There were therefore no measurements of the effectiveness of respirators under production conditions, and the regions where different types of respirators could be safely used were established on the basis of laboratory tests only.
45:
31:, also known as respiratory protective equipment (RPE) or respiratory protective devices (RPD), are used in some workplaces to protect workers from air contaminants. Initially, respirator effectiveness was tested in laboratories, but in the late 1960s it was found that these tests gave misleading results regarding the
258:
for several types of respirators was reduced. For example, for negative pressure air-purifying respirators with full face mask and high-efficiency filters, the limits were reduced from 500 PEL to 50 PEL (USA), and from 900 OEL to 40 OEL (UK); for powered air-purifying respirators with a loose-fitting
65:
This picture began to change when it was realized in the 1960s that workers using approved respirators were still being exposed to high levels of harmful contaminants. Workplace studies have since shown that the effectiveness of respirators of all designs is much lower in real-world tests than in the
131:
Studies also found that worker-to-worker variation in the use of respirators can have very large effects on the protection achieved. A 1980 study on inhalation exposure of cadmium workers identified a single worker who always used his respirator correctly. The protection factor for this worker was
23:
Example of measurement of efficiency of the respirator (in the workplace). Description: (1) personal sampling pump, (2) the cassette and the filter for determining the concentration (in the breathing zone), (3) the sampling line (from the breathing zone), (4) the cassette and the filter to determine
205:
in 1986 led to an urgent need for protection of workers from radioactive aerosols. Approximately 300,000 negative pressure filtering facepieces of the model "Lepestok" were sent to
Chernobyl in June 1986. These respirators were considered to be very effective (the declared protection factor for the
1487:. Report of Investigations 9689. DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 2012–112. Jay F. Colinet, William R. Fox, Robert J. Franta, Jerry Joy, Wm. Randolph Reed, Patrick W. Reeser, John R. Rounds, Mark J. Schultz. Pittsburgh, PA; Spokane, WA: National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. p. 314
88:
to each miner (one in the facepiece, the other on the belt). Heat detection in the expired air was a sign of wearing a mask. The study defined a new measure, the "effective protection factor", that described the protection offered under real-world conditions, and reported the range of effective
245:
due to respirator use leads to an increase in the risk of accidents. Respirators also reinforce overheating at high air temperature. In real-world conditions, these deficiencies often lead to workers removing their respirators periodically, further reducing the efficacy of the respirator. In
61:
The invention of the first personal sampling pump in 1958 made it possible to simultaneously measure the concentrations of air pollution outside and inside a respirator mask. This was the first attempt to measure the effectiveness of respiratory protective equipment. Until the 1970s experts
1817:. DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 2005-100. NIOSH Respirator Policy Group; Heinz Ahlers, Roland BerryAnn, Frank Hearl, Richard Metzler, Teresa Seitz, Douglas Trout and Ralph Zumwalde. Cincinnati, OH: The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). pp. 3–16.
123:
showed that intermittent usage of these respirators made them ineffective. Even continuous usage of SCBAs did not provide complete protection. This SCBA design had an air supply into the mask that supplied air "on-demand" (i.e. allowing negative pressure under the mask during
53:
100:, although air-supplied hoods offered better protection than non-air-supplied hoods. Even when sandblasting was not occurring, the level of silica dust in the atmosphere far exceeded safe levels, meaning that time workers spent outside the hood on breaks led to exposure.
35:
provided. In the 1970s, workplace-based respirator testing became routine in industrialized countries, leading to a dramatic reduction in the claimed efficacy of many respirator types and new guidelines on how to select the appropriate respirator for a given environment.
51:
50:
47:
46:
52:
83:
simultaneously measured dust concentrations with personal samplers worn by individual miners, and using two dust collectors, without the mask. The researchers also measured the percentage of time that the miners used their respirators by attaching two
49:
171:
107:
in 1976. The different respirator designs showed large variations in protectiveness, partially attributable to the comfort of the respirator design: the more comfortable masks were adjusted more tightly and were therefore more effective.
179:
filtering half-mask, viewed from the inner side of the semi-finished product. The effectiveness of this filtering facepiece was overestimated by orders of magnitude. For the period 1956 to 2015, over 6 billion respirators were produced.
1765:
Clayton, Mike; Bancroft, B.; Rajan-Sithamparanadarajah, Bob (2002). "A Review of
Assigned Protection Factors of Various Types and Classes of Respiratory Protective Equipment with Reference to their Measured Breathing Resistances".
176:
140:
As researchers repeatedly found that the level of protection actually experienced in the workplace was much lower than the protection factors assigned to the devices after laboratory testing, it was proposed that a new
148:
375:
The
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health of the USA now requires the manufacturers of high-performance RPE to perform testing at representative workplaces as a requirement for certification.
1082:
Myers, Warren; Peach III, Michael; Cutright, Ken; Iskander, Wafik (1984). "Workplace
Protection Factor Measurements on Powered Air-Purifying Respirators at a Secondary Lead Smelter: Results and Discussion".
1462:. Information Circular 9517. DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 2010–110. John A. Organiscak, and Anita L. Wolfe. Pittsburgh, PA - Spokane, WA: National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. p. 84
168:, and will be used without interruption in the polluted atmosphere. The actual protection experienced by a worker may be significantly lower than this and protection may vary from worker to worker.
128:). US and EU legislation now requires the use of breathing apparatus with the "pressure-demand" mode of air supply (i.e. with positive pressure under the mask during inhalation) for firefighters.
103:
In copper smelters, three commonly used types of negative pressure filtering respirators with elastomeric half-masks were examined for their ability to protect workers against concentrations of
48:
625:
231:
161:
254:
Legislation in industrialized countries establishes limitations on the use of all types of respirators, taking into account the results of field trials of efficacy. The
1331:. PNNL-13581; LRRI-20001202. Albuquerque, NM: Lovelace Respiratory Research Institute, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (U.S. Department of Energy). pp. 13–20
214:
Workplace-based testing has led to extensively revised standards for the use of different designs of respirators, and has forced manufacturers to pay more attention to
728:
Moore, David; Smith, Thomas (1976). "Measurement of protection factors of chemical cartridge, half-mask respirators under working conditions in a copper smelter".
1439:
685:
Behzad, Samimi; Neilson, Arthur; Weill, Hans; Ziskind, Morton (1975). "The
Efficiency of Protective Hoods Used by Sandblasters to Reduce Silica Dust Exposure".
1695:
Lof, Agneta; Brohede, Christina; Gullstrand, Elisabeth; Lindstrom, Karin; Sollenberg, Jan; Wrangskog, Kent; Hagberg, Mats; Hedman, Birgitta
Kolmodin (1993).
868:
Howie, Robin M.; Walton, W.H. (1981). "Practical
Aspects of the Use of Respirators in the British Coal Mines". In Brian Ballantyne & Paul Schwabe (ed.).
949:"Inhalation Exposure of Lead in Brass Foundry Workers: The Evaluation of the Effectiveness of a Powered Air-Purifying Respirator and Engineering Controls"
1360:. Preprint 06-6 (in Russian). Chernobyl: National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine. Institute for safety problems of nuclear power plants. pp. 10–28
234:(USA) has provided recommendations for reducing dust concentrations in coal mines and other mines. Field measurements showed that respirators are the
156:
with loose-fitting facepiece (hood or helmet). These data led to the assigned PF being lowered from 1000 to 25 PEL (USA), and from 1000 to 40 OEL (UK)
96:
wore various types of hoods, usually supplied with air. Studies in 1975 found that the concentration of dust under these hoods exceeded the maximum
642:
Harris, H.E.; DeSieghardt, W.C.; Burgess, W. A.; Reist, Parker (1974). "Respirator Usage and
Effectiveness in Bituminous Coal Mining Operations".
385:
145:
scale should be developed, such that the real effectiveness was higher than the "expected effectiveness" with a probability of at least 90%.
142:
32:
1304:
877:
1244:"Correlation Between Quantitative Fit Factors and Workplace Protection Factors Measured in Actual Workplace Environments at a Steel Foundry"
112:
1415:
422:
285:
153:
1166:. DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No 87-116. Cincinnati, Ohio: National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. p. 305.
895:"Performance measurements on a powered air-purifying respirator made during actual field use in a silica bagging operation"
1443:
235:
215:
1351:
255:
219:
97:
1321:
263:
Table. Requirements for protection factors for different types of respirators before and after workplace testing
19:
189:
1508:"Performance of a Full Facepiece, Air-Purifying Respirator Against Lead Aerosols in a Workplace Environment"
1627:"Evaluation of dermal absorption and protective effectiveness of respirators for xylene in spray painters"
1408:
British
Standard BS 4275:1997 "Guide to implementing an effective respiratory protective device programme"
1191:. DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 87-108. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. p. 61.
194:
241:
Respirators are not convenient; they create discomfort and inhibit communication. The reduction of the
1896:
1708:
1638:
390:
165:
1396:(in Russian). Moscow: The Ministry of Health of the USSR, Institute of Biophysics. pp. 11–12.
1382:(in Russian). Moscow: The Ministry of Health of the USSR, Institute of Biophysics. pp. 12–13.
1740:
1670:
1543:
202:
1025:"Assigned protection factors for two respirators types based upon workplace performance testing"
894:
1242:
Zhuang, Ziqing; Coffey, Christopher; Campbell, Donald; Lawrence, Robert; Myers, Warren (2003).
197:
medal, with traces of alpha (α) and beta (β) particles and gamma (γ) rays over a drop of blood.
1865:
1857:
1791:
1783:
1732:
1724:
1662:
1654:
1600:
1592:
1535:
1527:
1411:
1300:
1271:
1263:
1142:
1108:
1100:
1052:
1044:
976:
968:
922:
914:
873:
843:
835:
796:
788:
753:
745:
710:
702:
667:
659:
592:
584:
538:
530:
491:
418:
93:
1697:"The effectiveness of respirators measured during styrene exposure in a plastic boat factory"
1482:
1218:
1849:
1818:
1775:
1716:
1646:
1584:
1519:
1457:
1255:
1192:
1167:
1092:
1036:
960:
906:
827:
780:
737:
694:
651:
576:
522:
483:
472:"Overview of Industrial Testing Outcome of Respiratory Organs Personal Protection Equipment"
445:
160:
The significant differences between real and laboratory-measured effectiveness prompted the
120:
771:
Levin, Marshal (1979). "Respirator use and protection from exposure to carbon monoxide".
1712:
1642:
1625:
Chang, Fu-Kuei; Chen, Mei-Lien; Cheng, Shu-Fang; Shih, Tung-Sheng; Mao, I-Fang (2007).
104:
1890:
1131:"Field Test of Powered Air-Purifying Respirators at a Battery Manufacturing Facility"
487:
242:
1744:
1696:
1674:
1626:
1547:
1836:
Johnson, Alan; Myers, Warren; Colton, Craig; Birkner, J.S.; Campbell, C.E. (1992).
1024:
1001:
Cecala, Andrew B.; Volkwein, Jon C.; Thomas, Edward D.; Charles W. Urban (1981).
1838:"Review of respirator performance testing in the workplace: issues and concerns"
564:
471:
116:
1853:
1837:
1650:
1588:
1523:
1259:
1217:
Occupational Safety and Health
Administration, US Department of Labor (2009).
1096:
1040:
964:
948:
910:
831:
784:
526:
417:. Vol. 3A (2 ed.). New York: Willey-Interscience. pp. 677–678.
227:
223:
125:
85:
28:
1861:
1822:
1787:
1728:
1658:
1596:
1572:
1531:
1267:
1243:
1219:"Assigned Protection Factors for the Revised Respiratory Protection Standard"
1146:
1104:
1048:
972:
918:
839:
815:
792:
749:
741:
706:
698:
663:
655:
588:
580:
534:
510:
495:
1779:
1507:
24:
the concentration (under a mask), and (5) the sampling line (from the mask).
1810:
1795:
1666:
1604:
1539:
1275:
1196:
1171:
596:
449:
79:
A groundbreaking study in 1974 on the effectiveness of respirators used by
1869:
1736:
1573:"Assessment of the Effectiveness of Respirator Usage in Coke Oven Workers"
1129:
Myers, Warren; Peach III, Michael; Cutright, Ken; Iskander, Wafik (1986).
1112:
1056:
980:
926:
847:
671:
542:
1186:
1161:
800:
757:
714:
439:
343:
Negative pressure air-purifying respirator with half mask facepiece, USA
814:
Smith, Thomas; Ferrel, Willard; Varner, Michael; Putnam, Robert (1980).
629:
1720:
1393:
Galushkin, B.A.; Gorbunov, S.V. (1990). "". In Victor Kashcheev (ed.).
1379:
Galushkin, B.A.; Gorbunov, S.V. (1990). "". In Victor Kashcheev (ed.).
1329:
Independent Evaluation of The Lepestok Filtering Facepiece Respirator
816:"Inhalation exposure of cadmium workers: effects of respirator usage"
444:. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. p. 61.
75:
Initial workplace-based tests of effectiveness in the 1970s and 1980s
305:
Negative pressure air-purifying respirator with full face mask, USA
1484:
Dust Control Handbook for Industrial Minerals Mining and Processing
322:
Negative pressure air-purifying respirator with full face mask, UK
170:
80:
43:
511:"On the Interpretation of Air Sampling for Radioactive Particles"
357:
Self-contained breathing apparatus with air supply on demand, USA
1809:
Bollinger, Nancy; Campbell, Donald; Coffey, Christopher (2004).
1701:
International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health
1631:
International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health
1135:
Journal of the International Society for Respiratory Protection
1481:
Cecala, Andrew B.; O'Brien, Andrew D.; Schall, Joseph (2012).
369:
Monitoring showed low efficiency for carbon monoxide exposure
1456:
Colinet, Jay F.; Rider, James P.; Listak, Jeffrey M. (2010).
1410:(3rd ed.). London: British Standards Institution. 1997.
274:
Permissible exposure limits prior to workplace testing (year)
166:
individual selection of masks to fit the face of an employee
1320:
Hoover, Mark D.; Lackey, Jack R.; Vargo, George J. (2001).
271:
Requirements for protection factor for certification (2013)
872:. London, New York: Chapman & Hall. pp. 287–298.
277:
Permissible exposure limits after workplace testing (2013)
92:
In the steel fabrication industry, individuals performing
1296:
Petryanov, Igor; Kashcheev, Victor; et al. (2015).
280:
Minimum values of measured workplace protection factors
1299:(in Russian) (2 ed.). Moscow: Nauka. p. 320.
1130:
232:
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
162:
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
1435:
1433:
1431:
1429:
1427:
621:
619:
617:
615:
613:
870:
Respiratory Protection. Principles and Applications
1160:Nancy J. Bollinger, Robert H. Schutz, ed. (1987).
1512:Journal of Occupational and Environmental Hygiene
1163:NIOSH Guide to Industrial Respiratory Protection
1842:American Industrial Hygiene Association Journal
1577:American Industrial Hygiene Association Journal
1248:American Industrial Hygiene Association Journal
1085:American Industrial Hygiene Association Journal
953:American Industrial Hygiene Association Journal
820:American Industrial Hygiene Association Journal
773:American Industrial Hygiene Association Journal
730:American Industrial Hygiene Association Journal
687:American Industrial Hygiene Association Journal
644:American Industrial Hygiene Association Journal
515:American Industrial Hygiene Association Journal
1459:Best Practices for Dust Control in Coal Mining
1005:. Bureau of Mines Report No. 8591. p. 10.
238:, with unstable and unpredictable efficacy.
70:Evolution of workplace-based testing standards
16:Testing of respirators in real life conditions
1350:Ogorodnikov, Boris; Pasukhin, Edward (2006).
563:Sherwood, Robert; Greenhalgh, D.M.S. (1960).
408:
406:
89:protection factors in four different mines.
8:
57:A video describing respirator certification
1811:"III. Respirator Selection Logic Sequence"
1566:
1564:
1352:"[Respiratory protective devices]"
1124:
1122:
1077:
1075:
1073:
1018:
1016:
1014:
1012:
1003:Protection Factors of the Airstream Helmet
1023:Lenhart, Steven; Campbel, Donald (1984).
947:Que Hee, Shane; Lawrence, Philip (1983).
415:Patty's Industrial Hygiene and Toxicology
154:powered air-purifying respirators (PAPRs)
1506:Janssen, Larry; Bidwell, Jeanne (2007).
470:Kirillov, Vladimir; et al. (2014).
413:Cralley, Lesly; Cralley, Lester (1985).
261:
250:Reduction in permissible exposure limits
188:
147:
18:
893:Myers, Warren; Peach, M.J. III (1983).
402:
386:Respirator Assigned Protection Factors
111:A 1979 study of the effectiveness of
7:
1185:Miller, Donald; et al. (1987).
630:42 Code of Federal Register Part 84
438:Miller, Donald; et al. (1987).
1768:The Annals of Occupational Hygiene
1029:The Annals of Occupational Hygiene
899:The Annals of Occupational Hygiene
569:The Annals of Occupational Hygiene
236:least reliable means of protection
113:self-contained breathing apparatus
14:
1815:NIOSH Respirator Selection Logic
632:"Respiratory Protective Devices"
488:10.17686/sced_rusnauka_2014-1034
185:Respirator efficacy at Chernobyl
1188:NIOSH Respirator Decision Logic
441:NIOSH Respirator Decision Logic
349:up to 10 PEL (since the 1960s)
210:Alternatives to respirator use
1:
152:Protection factors (PFs) of
216:methods of hazard reduction
1913:
478:(in English and Russian).
476:Toksikologicheskiy Vestnik
256:permissible exposure limit
203:Chernobyl nuclear accident
193:The central detail of the
143:expected protection factor
1854:10.1080/15298669291360409
1651:10.1007/s00420-007-0197-9
1589:10.1080/15428110208984694
1524:10.1080/15459620601128845
1260:10.1080/15428110308984867
1097:10.1080/15298668491400449
965:10.1080/15298668391405670
832:10.1080/15298668091425400
785:10.1080/15298667991430361
527:10.1080/00028896609342800
509:Sherwood, Robert (1966).
348:
316:
226:, and to improvements in
1823:10.26616/NIOSHPUB2005100
1446:"Respiratory Protection"
1322:"Results and Discussion"
742:10.1080/0002889768507495
699:10.1080/0002889758507222
656:10.1080/0002889748507018
565:"A Personal Air Sampler"
268:Respirator type, country
136:New measures of efficacy
1571:Ming-Tsang, Wu (2002).
1041:10.1093/annhyg/28.2.173
911:10.1093/annhyg/27.3.251
1197:10.26616/NIOSHPUB87108
1172:10.26616/NIOSHPUB87116
581:10.1093/annhyg/2.2.127
450:10.26616/NIOSHPUB87108
198:
181:
157:
119:against inhalation of
58:
25:
1780:10.1093/annhyg/mef071
363:up to 1000 PEL (1992)
335:up to 900 OEL (1980)
311:up to 100 PEL (1980)
192:
174:
151:
115:(SCBA) in protecting
56:
22:
1713:1993IAOEH..65...29L
1643:2007IAOEH..81..145C
391:Respirator fit test
264:
230:. For example, the
33:level of protection
1721:10.1007/BF00586055
262:
199:
182:
158:
59:
26:
1306:978-5-02-039145-1
879:978-0-412-22750-9
373:
372:
218:such as sealing,
98:permissible value
54:
1904:
1881:
1880:
1878:
1876:
1833:
1827:
1826:
1806:
1800:
1799:
1762:
1756:
1755:
1753:
1751:
1692:
1686:
1685:
1683:
1681:
1622:
1616:
1615:
1613:
1611:
1568:
1559:
1558:
1556:
1554:
1503:
1497:
1496:
1494:
1492:
1478:
1472:
1471:
1469:
1467:
1453:
1447:
1437:
1422:
1421:
1404:
1398:
1397:
1390:
1384:
1383:
1376:
1370:
1369:
1367:
1365:
1356:
1347:
1341:
1340:
1338:
1336:
1326:
1317:
1311:
1310:
1293:
1287:
1286:
1284:
1282:
1239:
1233:
1232:
1230:
1228:
1223:
1214:
1208:
1207:
1205:
1203:
1182:
1176:
1175:
1157:
1151:
1150:
1126:
1117:
1116:
1079:
1068:
1067:
1065:
1063:
1020:
1007:
1006:
998:
992:
991:
989:
987:
944:
938:
937:
935:
933:
890:
884:
883:
865:
859:
858:
856:
854:
811:
805:
804:
768:
762:
761:
725:
719:
718:
682:
676:
675:
639:
633:
623:
608:
607:
605:
603:
560:
554:
553:
551:
549:
506:
500:
499:
467:
461:
460:
458:
456:
435:
429:
428:
410:
352:2.2, 2.8, 4 ...
288:with helmet, USA
265:
55:
1912:
1911:
1907:
1906:
1905:
1903:
1902:
1901:
1887:
1886:
1885:
1884:
1874:
1872:
1848:(11): 705–712.
1835:
1834:
1830:
1808:
1807:
1803:
1764:
1763:
1759:
1749:
1747:
1694:
1693:
1689:
1679:
1677:
1624:
1623:
1619:
1609:
1607:
1570:
1569:
1562:
1552:
1550:
1505:
1504:
1500:
1490:
1488:
1480:
1479:
1475:
1465:
1463:
1455:
1454:
1450:
1444:29 CFR 1910.134
1438:
1425:
1418:
1406:
1405:
1401:
1392:
1391:
1387:
1378:
1377:
1373:
1363:
1361:
1354:
1349:
1348:
1344:
1334:
1332:
1324:
1319:
1318:
1314:
1307:
1295:
1294:
1290:
1280:
1278:
1241:
1240:
1236:
1226:
1224:
1221:
1216:
1215:
1211:
1201:
1199:
1184:
1183:
1179:
1159:
1158:
1154:
1128:
1127:
1120:
1091:(10): 681–688.
1081:
1080:
1071:
1061:
1059:
1022:
1021:
1010:
1000:
999:
995:
985:
983:
959:(10): 746–751.
946:
945:
941:
931:
929:
892:
891:
887:
880:
867:
866:
862:
852:
850:
813:
812:
808:
770:
769:
765:
727:
726:
722:
684:
683:
679:
641:
640:
636:
624:
611:
601:
599:
562:
561:
557:
547:
545:
508:
507:
503:
469:
468:
464:
454:
452:
437:
436:
432:
425:
412:
411:
404:
399:
382:
317:11, 16, 17 ...
252:
212:
187:
138:
121:carbon monoxide
77:
72:
44:
42:
17:
12:
11:
5:
1910:
1908:
1900:
1899:
1889:
1888:
1883:
1882:
1828:
1801:
1774:(6): 537–547.
1757:
1687:
1637:(2): 145–150.
1617:
1560:
1518:(2): 123–128.
1498:
1473:
1448:
1423:
1416:
1399:
1385:
1371:
1342:
1312:
1305:
1288:
1254:(6): 730–738.
1234:
1209:
1177:
1152:
1118:
1069:
1035:(2): 173–182.
1008:
993:
939:
905:(3): 251–259.
885:
878:
860:
826:(9): 624–629.
806:
779:(9): 832–834.
763:
736:(8): 453–458.
720:
693:(2): 140–148.
677:
650:(3): 159–164.
634:
609:
575:(2): 127–132.
555:
501:
482:(129): 44–49.
462:
430:
423:
401:
400:
398:
395:
394:
393:
388:
381:
378:
371:
370:
367:
364:
361:
358:
354:
353:
350:
347:
344:
340:
339:
336:
333:
331:(for aerosols)
323:
319:
318:
315:
312:
309:
306:
302:
301:
298:
295:
294:up to 1000 PEL
292:
289:
282:
281:
278:
275:
272:
269:
251:
248:
211:
208:
186:
183:
137:
134:
105:sulfur dioxide
76:
73:
71:
68:
41:
38:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1909:
1898:
1895:
1894:
1892:
1871:
1867:
1863:
1859:
1855:
1851:
1847:
1843:
1839:
1832:
1829:
1824:
1820:
1816:
1812:
1805:
1802:
1797:
1793:
1789:
1785:
1781:
1777:
1773:
1769:
1761:
1758:
1746:
1742:
1738:
1734:
1730:
1726:
1722:
1718:
1714:
1710:
1706:
1702:
1698:
1691:
1688:
1676:
1672:
1668:
1664:
1660:
1656:
1652:
1648:
1644:
1640:
1636:
1632:
1628:
1621:
1618:
1606:
1602:
1598:
1594:
1590:
1586:
1582:
1578:
1574:
1567:
1565:
1561:
1549:
1545:
1541:
1537:
1533:
1529:
1525:
1521:
1517:
1513:
1509:
1502:
1499:
1486:
1485:
1477:
1474:
1461:
1460:
1452:
1449:
1445:
1441:
1436:
1434:
1432:
1430:
1428:
1424:
1419:
1417:0-580-28915 X
1413:
1409:
1403:
1400:
1395:
1389:
1386:
1381:
1375:
1372:
1359:
1353:
1346:
1343:
1330:
1323:
1316:
1313:
1308:
1302:
1298:
1292:
1289:
1277:
1273:
1269:
1265:
1261:
1257:
1253:
1249:
1245:
1238:
1235:
1220:
1213:
1210:
1198:
1194:
1190:
1189:
1181:
1178:
1173:
1169:
1165:
1164:
1156:
1153:
1148:
1144:
1140:
1136:
1132:
1125:
1123:
1119:
1114:
1110:
1106:
1102:
1098:
1094:
1090:
1086:
1078:
1076:
1074:
1070:
1058:
1054:
1050:
1046:
1042:
1038:
1034:
1030:
1026:
1019:
1017:
1015:
1013:
1009:
1004:
997:
994:
982:
978:
974:
970:
966:
962:
958:
954:
950:
943:
940:
928:
924:
920:
916:
912:
908:
904:
900:
896:
889:
886:
881:
875:
871:
864:
861:
849:
845:
841:
837:
833:
829:
825:
821:
817:
810:
807:
802:
798:
794:
790:
786:
782:
778:
774:
767:
764:
759:
755:
751:
747:
743:
739:
735:
731:
724:
721:
716:
712:
708:
704:
700:
696:
692:
688:
681:
678:
673:
669:
665:
661:
657:
653:
649:
645:
638:
635:
631:
627:
622:
620:
618:
616:
614:
610:
598:
594:
590:
586:
582:
578:
574:
570:
566:
559:
556:
544:
540:
536:
532:
528:
524:
521:(2): 98–109.
520:
516:
512:
505:
502:
497:
493:
489:
485:
481:
477:
473:
466:
463:
451:
447:
443:
442:
434:
431:
426:
424:0-471-86137-5
420:
416:
409:
407:
403:
396:
392:
389:
387:
384:
383:
379:
377:
368:
365:
362:
359:
356:
355:
351:
345:
342:
341:
338:up to 40 OEL
337:
334:
332:
328:
324:
321:
320:
314:up to 50 PEL
313:
310:
308:> 250 000
307:
304:
303:
299:
296:
293:
290:
287:
284:
283:
279:
276:
273:
270:
267:
266:
260:
257:
249:
247:
244:
243:field of view
239:
237:
233:
229:
225:
221:
217:
209:
207:
204:
196:
191:
184:
178:
173:
169:
167:
163:
155:
150:
146:
144:
135:
133:
129:
127:
122:
118:
114:
109:
106:
101:
99:
95:
90:
87:
82:
74:
69:
67:
63:
39:
37:
34:
30:
21:
1873:. Retrieved
1845:
1841:
1831:
1814:
1804:
1771:
1767:
1760:
1748:. Retrieved
1707:(1): 29–34.
1704:
1700:
1690:
1678:. Retrieved
1634:
1630:
1620:
1608:. Retrieved
1583:(1): 72–75.
1580:
1576:
1551:. Retrieved
1515:
1511:
1501:
1489:. Retrieved
1483:
1476:
1464:. Retrieved
1458:
1451:
1407:
1402:
1394:
1388:
1380:
1374:
1362:. Retrieved
1358:
1345:
1333:. Retrieved
1328:
1315:
1297:
1291:
1279:. Retrieved
1251:
1247:
1237:
1225:. Retrieved
1212:
1200:. Retrieved
1187:
1180:
1162:
1155:
1141:(1): 62–89.
1138:
1134:
1088:
1084:
1060:. Retrieved
1032:
1028:
1002:
996:
984:. Retrieved
956:
952:
942:
930:. Retrieved
902:
898:
888:
869:
863:
851:. Retrieved
823:
819:
809:
776:
772:
766:
733:
729:
723:
690:
686:
680:
647:
643:
637:
600:. Retrieved
572:
568:
558:
546:. Retrieved
518:
514:
504:
479:
475:
465:
453:. Retrieved
440:
433:
414:
374:
366:up to 50 PEL
360:> 250 000
346:> 25 000
330:
329:or >1000
326:
297:up to 25 PEL
291:> 250 000
253:
240:
213:
200:
195:Liquidators'
159:
139:
130:
117:firefighters
110:
102:
94:sandblasting
91:
78:
64:
60:
27:
1897:Respirators
327:(for gases)
300:28, 42 ...
220:ventilation
86:thermistors
29:Respirators
397:References
325:> 2000
228:technology
224:automation
126:inhalation
40:Background
1862:1542-8117
1788:0003-4878
1729:0340-0131
1659:0340-0131
1597:1542-8117
1532:1545-9632
1442:standard
1268:1542-8117
1227:7 January
1147:0892-6298
1105:1542-8117
1049:0003-4878
973:1542-8117
919:0003-4878
840:1542-8117
793:1542-8117
750:1542-8117
707:1542-8117
664:1542-8117
628:standard
589:0003-4878
535:1542-8117
496:0869-7922
1891:Category
1796:12176769
1745:36237447
1675:24442412
1667:17492305
1605:11843430
1548:15928287
1540:17175515
1276:14674806
597:14445915
380:See also
177:Lepestok
1875:10 July
1870:1442561
1750:16 July
1737:8354572
1709:Bibcode
1680:16 July
1639:Bibcode
1610:10 July
1553:15 July
1491:16 July
1466:16 July
1364:16 July
1335:16 July
1281:10 July
1202:16 July
1113:6496315
1062:10 July
1057:6476685
986:10 July
981:6650396
932:10 July
927:6314865
853:10 July
848:7457382
672:4522752
602:10 July
548:10 July
543:5954012
455:16 July
1868:
1860:
1794:
1786:
1743:
1735:
1727:
1673:
1665:
1657:
1603:
1595:
1546:
1538:
1530:
1414:
1303:
1274:
1266:
1145:
1111:
1103:
1055:
1047:
979:
971:
925:
917:
876:
846:
838:
801:517443
799:
791:
758:970320
756:
748:
715:167570
713:
705:
670:
662:
595:
587:
541:
533:
494:
421:
222:, and
81:miners
1741:S2CID
1671:S2CID
1544:S2CID
1355:(PDF)
1325:(PDF)
1222:(PDF)
626:NIOSH
1877:2016
1866:PMID
1858:ISSN
1792:PMID
1784:ISSN
1752:2016
1733:PMID
1725:ISSN
1682:2016
1663:PMID
1655:ISSN
1612:2016
1601:PMID
1593:ISSN
1555:2016
1536:PMID
1528:ISSN
1493:2016
1468:2016
1440:OSHA
1412:ISBN
1366:2016
1337:2016
1301:ISBN
1283:2016
1272:PMID
1264:ISSN
1229:2020
1204:2016
1143:ISSN
1109:PMID
1101:ISSN
1064:2016
1053:PMID
1045:ISSN
988:2016
977:PMID
969:ISSN
934:2016
923:PMID
915:ISSN
874:ISBN
855:2016
844:PMID
836:ISSN
797:PMID
789:ISSN
754:PMID
746:ISSN
711:PMID
703:ISSN
668:PMID
660:ISSN
604:2016
593:PMID
585:ISSN
550:2016
539:PMID
531:ISSN
492:ISSN
457:2016
419:ISBN
286:PAPR
201:The
175:The
1850:doi
1819:doi
1776:doi
1717:doi
1647:doi
1585:doi
1520:doi
1256:doi
1193:doi
1168:doi
1093:doi
1037:doi
961:doi
907:doi
828:doi
781:doi
738:doi
695:doi
652:doi
577:doi
523:doi
484:doi
446:doi
1893::
1864:.
1856:.
1846:53
1844:.
1840:.
1813:.
1790:.
1782:.
1772:46
1770:.
1739:.
1731:.
1723:.
1715:.
1705:65
1703:.
1699:.
1669:.
1661:.
1653:.
1645:.
1635:81
1633:.
1629:.
1599:.
1591:.
1581:63
1579:.
1575:.
1563:^
1542:.
1534:.
1526:.
1514:.
1510:.
1426:^
1357:.
1327:.
1270:.
1262:.
1252:64
1250:.
1246:.
1137:.
1133:.
1121:^
1107:.
1099:.
1089:45
1087:.
1072:^
1051:.
1043:.
1033:28
1031:.
1027:.
1011:^
975:.
967:.
957:44
955:.
951:.
921:.
913:.
903:27
901:.
897:.
842:.
834:.
824:41
822:.
818:.
795:.
787:.
777:40
775:.
752:.
744:.
734:37
732:.
709:.
701:.
691:36
689:.
666:.
658:.
648:35
646:.
612:^
591:.
583:.
571:.
567:.
537:.
529:.
519:27
517:.
513:.
490:.
474:.
405:^
1879:.
1852::
1825:.
1821::
1798:.
1778::
1754:.
1719::
1711::
1684:.
1649::
1641::
1614:.
1587::
1557:.
1522::
1516:4
1495:.
1470:.
1420:.
1368:.
1339:.
1309:.
1285:.
1258::
1231:.
1206:.
1195::
1174:.
1170::
1149:.
1139:4
1115:.
1095::
1066:.
1039::
990:.
963::
936:.
909::
882:.
857:.
830::
803:.
783::
760:.
740::
717:.
697::
674:.
654::
606:.
579::
573:2
552:.
525::
498:.
486::
480:6
459:.
448::
427:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
