267:, which is native to the near east and has since spread across the globe to produce wine. Symptoms typically manifest 3–4 weeks in shoots and stems and in 10–14 days on leaves. This disease displays multiple symptoms depending on the location on the plant. On plant shoots, symptoms begin to appear in spring through June and first appear on the lower nodes of growth, before spreading upward along the shoot. The symptoms appear as red/brown streaks initially, before progressing into cracks in the woody structure and cankers, After this, shoots wilt and dry up, before eventually dying back; cross sections of stems show signs of a brownish mucus in the inner tissues. If infected post leaf growth, leaves typically show symptoms of
601:
271:, angular red/brown lesions, and in some cases signs of bacterial ooze may be seen around these lesions. If infection occurs post bud break and flowers are present, these will typically develop a black color before dying and falling to the ground. Root symptoms are rare and typically manifest as general stunting of the plant shoots.
402:
prefers humid and wet conditions which favor its spread from vine to vine within the vineyard. For this reason, it is recommended pruning be done on calm dry days to reduce possibility of transmission via tools. The bacteria can survive temps down to freezing for short periods of time and does not
330:
has yet to be fully described, however, continued research into infection steps is being undertaken. It is believed the bacteria overwinters in fallen grapes from the previous harvest, as well as remaining dormant and protected within the woody tissues of the vines. In a 2003 study by Grall et al.,
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practices in the field are the only proven effective control measures. Any infected plant tissues should be burned, pruning should be done in dry environments with clean tools that are regularly disinfected, and avoidance of mass irrigation use is also recommended. It was also noted that most
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and was deposited into the NCPPB in 1968 from where it has been distributed to other culture collections for research and diagnostic reference material. Published references to the organism currently include "Panagopoulos, C.G. 1969. Annls. Inst. Phytopath. Benaki. N.S. 9: 59".
335:
tissues and was unable to spread upward throughout the plant and instead only infected nodes below the wound. It was found that if applied via foliar sprays, the bacterium would infiltrate the leaves and young shoots and spread to all areas of the vine, resulting in complete
378:
are distributed inadvertently. The bacteria can stay latent within stem tissues for up to 2 years and grafting infected stocks into healthy plants can result in new infection. Vine tissue taken from regions with known history of infection should be tested via
352:
tissues within the stem; very limited leaf lesions were observed. However, if sprayed on the plants, symptoms were systemic; visible stem cankers and cracks, leaf lesions, chlorosis, wilting, and eventually necrotic tissue.
279:
This pathogen has the potential to severely affect grape crops; the highest valued fruit crop across the globe due to the booming wine industry, which currently contributes $ 220 billion to the US economy alone. All
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they discovered that depending on the mode of primary infection, different symptoms and disease spread was observed. If infected via a wound, similar to a pruning cut, infection occurred in the
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to ensure pathogen free tissue and reduce the spread of the bacteria. Direct inoculation of the bacteria via environmental factors, irrigation, or plant grafting are the only known vectors of
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and develops round, yellow colonies when grown on nutrient agar and after extended growth, becomes filamentous. The bacterium is catalase positive, Kovacs negative, urease positive, produced
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Although current research is limited on the effects of chemical controls, historical studies have found no chemicals to be effective in eliminating or controlling the spread or infection of
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as a quarantine A2 organism as its potential international spread and limited efficient control routes can lead to significant economic losses in previously unaffected regions.
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exhibit any natural heat restrictions to growth; thus, the pathogen's geographic distribution tends to be focused around temperate regions such as
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340:. Method of inoculation also caused different symptom displays. Wound only infection resulted in stem cankers and cracks, mostly resulting from
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infection spread is local within a vineyard via natural water and wind action, however spread across great distances is possible if infected
302:. In infected vineyards, fruit harvest losses have been reported as high as 70% of typical yield. This illustrates the massive damage that
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219:
until it was renamed in 1969 by C.G. Panagopoulos. The type strain was isolated on 5 March 1966 by C.G. Panagopoulos from grape vine (
559:, the Causal Agent of Bacterial Necrosis of Grapevine". Applied and Environmental Microbiology, vol. 69, no. 4, 2003, pp. 1904–1912.
746:
145:
473:
Serfontein, Suzel, et al. "Isolation and
Characterization of Xylophilus ampelinus". Vitis, vol. 36, no. 4, 1997, pp. 209–210.
680:
526:
Grall, S., et al. "Bleeding Sap and Old Wood Are the Two Main
Sources of Contamination of Merging Organs of Vine Plants by
555:
Grall, S., and C. Manceau. "Colonization of Vitis
Vinifera by a Green Fluorescence Protein-Labeled, Gfp-Marked Strain of
530:, the Causal Agent of Bacterial Necrosis". Applied and Environmental Microbiology, vol. 71, no. 12, 2005, pp. 8292–8300.
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is a rod-shaped bacterium that is considered slow growing at ambient temperatures of 25 degrees
Celsius. It is
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617:
103:
112:
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https://web.archive.org/web/20170715214709/https://gd.eppo.int/download/doc/272_datasheet_XANTAM.pdf
365:. There have been anecdotal reports of a copper-based spray limiting spread within vineyards in
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31:
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McMillan, Rob. "State of the Wine
Industry 2018". Silicon Valley Bank, SVB Financial, 2018,
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369:, but these claims have not been substantiated with study. Cultural control via proper
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subspecies are at risk of infection, with most of the geographic spread contained to
235:
141:
693:
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Dreo, Tanja. "Xylophilus ampelinus". Invasive
Species Compendium, 31 Jan. 2008,
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341:
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is only known to infect a singular species and related subspecies of grapevine,
134:
580:"Xylophilus ampelinus". OEPP/EPPO Bulletin, vol. 39, Sept. 2009, pp. 403–412.
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in the United
Kingdom and other international culture collections such as
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42:
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https://www.svb.com/globalassets/library/images/svb-2018-wine-report.pdf
502:"Xylophilus Ampelinus". Data Sheets on Quarantine Pests, 1997, pp. 1–4.
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https://gd.eppo.int/download/standard/220/pm7-096-1-en.pdf
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391:, making control a relatively straightforward matter.
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has the potential to cause grape growers not only in
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310:, but to all areas practicing viticulture. The
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565:10.1128/aem.69.4.1904-1912.2003
479:10.5073//vitis.1997.36.209-210
275:Importance and economic impact
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326:The complete life cycle of
221:Vitis vinifera var. Sultana
197:. It is available from the
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742:Bacteria described in 1969
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32:Scientific classification
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23:
747:Bacterial grape diseases
205:in New Zealand, and LMG/
694:xanthomonas-ampelina
626:Xanthomonas ampelina
557:Xylophilus ampelinus
528:Xylophilus ampelinus
419:, and some areas of
232:Xylophilus ampelinus
217:Xanthomonas ampelina
213:Xylophilus ampelinus
183:Xanthomonas ampelina
175:Xylophilus ampelinus
161:Xanthomonas ampelina
25:Xanthomonas ampelina
16:Species of bacterium
122:Xylophilus ampelina
254:Hosts and symptoms
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67:Betaproteobacteria
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187:Erwinia vitivora
165:Erwinia vitivora
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264:Vitis vinifera
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421:South Africa
400:X. ampelinus
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389:X. ampelinus
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367:South Africa
363:X. ampelinus
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328:X. ampelinus
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316:X. ampelinus
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314:categorizes
304:X. ampelinus
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288:South Africa
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259:X. ampelinus
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209:in Belgium.
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24:
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395:Environment
371:viticulture
342:hyperplasia
338:inoculation
283:V. vinifera
135:Type strain
731:Categories
427:References
357:Management
142:NCPPB 2217
104:Xylophilus
269:chlorosis
146:ICMP 8920
668:10838634
635:Wikidata
376:cuttings
248:cysteine
191:bacteria
153:Synonyms
86:Family:
50:Phylum:
43:Bacteria
38:Domain:
655:5427454
641:Q592505
413:Germany
350:cambium
98:Genus:
74:Order:
62:Class:
714:551098
711:uBio:
701:NZOR:
681:969352
592:Portal
417:Turkey
409:France
405:Greece
308:Europe
300:France
298:, and
296:Turkey
292:Greece
225:Greece
663:IRMNG
606:Drink
381:ELISA
346:xylem
333:xylem
246:from
223:) in
199:NCPPB
689:LPSN
676:ITIS
650:GBIF
348:and
312:EPPO
207:BCCM
203:ICMP
185:and
180:syn.
561:doi
532:doi
475:doi
385:PCR
383:or
344:of
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415:,
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244:S
242:2
240:H
178:(
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