37:
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esophageal lumen, whereas the TomRSV is found mainly in the triradiate lumen of the esophageal bulb. The different locations of viral binding sites for TRSV and TomRSV account for the capability of dual transmission of both viruses, because the different viruses are not competing for binding sites. TRSV particles can be liberated into the plant during feeding by the
543:
can last anywhere from several hours to several days, with the average being around 36 hours at each feeding site along the plant's roots. While feeding, it is common for the nematodes to remain still with their bodies either outstretched or curled, and following the feeding period they move slowly
745:
and subventral gland secretions. TomRSV is mainly liberated by the secretions of the subventral glands due to its location in the triradiate lumen. These facts may account for the differences in the experimentally determined transformation efficiency between TomRSV (100%), and TRSV (75% or less).
740:
In parallel tests, TomRSV has been shown to transmit more efficiently than TRSV. Primarily, the viruses reside in the regions of the stylet extension, the anterior esophageal lumen, and rarely in the esophageal bulb. TRSV has been shown to prefer the areas of the stylet extension and anterior
489:
is found include
Australia, Belize, Brazil, Chile, Guatemala, India, Japan, Korea Democratic People's Republic, Korea Republic, Mexico, New Zealand, Pakistan, Panama, South Africa, Sri Lanka, Uruguay, and areas of the Caribbean as well.
770:
and the viruses that they carry can still infect the roots of young plants. Therefore, to eliminate the nematodes, nematicides should be used along with having a bare soil field for at least a 2-year period. This ensures that the
235:
is dorylaimoid with an enlarged posterior portion that occupies roughly 1/3 of its total length. The esophagus contains a muscular bulb which is 80 μm long and 20 μm wide. The valve between the esophagus and the intestine is
688:
in annual crops in North
America that infects tobacco, soybean, blueberry, apple, ash, autumn crocus, blackberry, cherry, dogwood, elderberry, grapevine, spearmint, and in Wisconsin has an economically important impact on
314:
are laid directly into the soil in water films, and are not associated with an egg mass. No molt occurs within the egg, which means that the first stage juvenile is the stage that enters the soil. Before becoming
790:. It has been shown that certain non-host plants may deny the nematode population an adequate food source for reproduction, and thus greatly reduce its population in the soil. This is termed passive suppression.
516:
and all of the life stages of the
American Dagger Nematode feed at the root tips of plants. Since it is a migratory ectoparasite, they remain outside the root or other feeding areas and feed on
447:
996:
Jaffee, B. A.; Harrison, M. B.; Shaffer, R. L.; Strang, M. B. (1987). "Seasonal population fluctuations of
Xiphinema americanum and Xiphinema rivesi in New York and Pennsylvania orchards".
544:
along the length of the root with their stylet remaining protruded and in search of a new feeding site. Unlike some species of nematodes, the observation of food passing into the gut of
330:
Measurements of the functional and replacement odontostyles allows for the determination of the current stage in development. Compounding the issue of determining the life cycle of
1097:
Xiphinema americanum. C.I.H. Descriptions of plant parasitic nematodes, Set 2, No. 29. Commonwealth
Institute of Helminthology, Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux. Herts, England.
527:
Once the nematode arrives at a root tip, it feeds by puncturing several successive layers of the plant's cells with its odontostyle; while penetrating, the nematode secretes
520:
or on cells deeper in the root. This ectoparasitism allows the nematode to move freely to different hosts throughout its life cycle. This nematode is considered to be an
391:
occur in the soil, with no particular stage as an important survival stage. In places with low winter temperatures, however, the egg is the primary survival structure.
260:
that is roughly the same length as the body diameter at the anus. The tail contains 2-3 pairs of caudal pores, is conoid, and curves dorsally with a subacute terminus.
619:. The dagger nematode causes the devitalization of root tips and overall root death when they feed at the root tips and root sides of strawberry plants. Reddish-brown
222:. The odontostyle is connected to the lining of the cheilostome by a folded membrane called the "guiding ring". The guiding ring is attached to a flanged odontophore.
1415:
228:
The body is usually in an "open C" conformation. The shape of the body tapers towards the extremities. The two rings of the odontophore are located 3 μm apart. The
704:
plants including apple, grapevine, raspberry, strawberry, birdsfoot-trefoil, dogwood, elderberry, hydrangeas, orchids, and red currants. It is also a problem some
891:
Wang, S., Gergerich, R., Wickizer, S., Kim, K. (2002). "Localization of transmissible and nontransmissible viruses in the vector nematode
Xiphinema Americanum".
1441:
195:
has been referred to as "the most destructive plant parasitic nematode in
America", and one of the four major nematode pests in the Southeastern United States.
980:
Van Gundy, S. D.; Stolzy, L. H.; Szuszkiewicz, J. E.; Rackham, R. L. (1962). "Influence of oxygen supply on survival of plant-parasitic nematodes in soil".
1088:
Plant nematodes, their bionomics, and control. University of
Florida Press. (January 1, 1959). Agric. Exp. Stn., University of Florida, Gainesville. 256p
461:
is found widely throughout most of the world and is found on all of the continents, except for
Antarctica. The region with the highest population of
1389:
925:
Halbrendt, J. M.; Brown, D. J. F. (1992). "Morphometric evidence for three juvenile stages in some species of
Xiphinema americanum sensu lato".
1218:
Brown, D. J. F., Halbrendt, J. M., Robbins, R. T., Vrain, T. C. (1993). "Transmission of nepoviruses by Xiphinema americanum-group nematodes".
954:
Lownsberry, B. F.; Maggenti, A. R. (1963). "Some effects of soil temperature and soil moisture on population levels of Xiphinema americanum".
1517:
1502:
1196:
Nyland, G., Lownsberry, B. F., Lowe, S. K., Mitchell, J. F. (1969). "The transmission of cherry rasp leaf virus by Xiphinema americanum".
298:
as a separate species has been a difficult task because of overlapping morphological aspects; however, differences in the life cycles of
1106:
White, L. V. (1955). Xiphinema americanum Cobb: its relationship to certain perennial crops. M.S. thesis, Univ. Ark., Fayetteville, Ark.
853:
Cobb, N. A. (1913). "New nematode genera found inhabiting freshwater and non-brackish soils.". ;;J. Wash. Acad. Sci.;; 3: 432–435.4
278:, with one anterior branch and one posterior branch. It is common to find more coil in the posterior region. The males also have paired
1266:
1350:
1057:
Norton, D.C.; Hoffmann, J.K. (1974) "Distribution of Selected Plant Parasitic Nematodes Relative to Vegetation and Edaphic Factors".
967:
Griffin, G. D.; Barker, K. R. (1966). "Effects of soil temperature and moisture on survival and activity of Xiphinema americanum".
815:
will likely not be in high enough of a population density to cause any noticeable symptoms in its hosts. There is also evidence of
1144:
McKenry, M. V.; Anwar, S. A. (2006) "Nematode and grape rootstock interactions including an improved understanding of tolerance".
909:
Lamberti, F.; Golden, M. (1984). "Redescription of Xiphinema americanum Cobb, 1913 with comments on its morphometric variation".
361:; they most likely have a long life span and a low reproduction rate. Unpublished results have shown greenhouse observations of
283:
941:
Halbrendt, J. M.; Brown, D. J. F. (1993). "Aspects of biology and development of Xiphinema americanum and related species".
623:
that turn black and necrotic with time result at the sites of feeding, and result in reduced root systems and stunted tops.
1157:
Breece, J. R., Hart, W. H. (1959). "A possible association of nematodes with the spread of peach yellow bud mosaic virus".
1507:
662:
1128:
Perry, V. G. (1958). Parasitism of two species of dagger nematode (Xiphinema americanum and X. chambersi) to strawberry.
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is thought to be the Eastern United States. The states with the highest population of the American Dagger Nematode are
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1324:
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of California crops. C-rated pests are widespread, and are of known economic or environmental detriment, according to
1368:
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in 1913, who found it on both sides of the United States on the roots of grass, corn, and citrus trees. Not only is
1446:
674:
36:
1381:
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are similar to those of other migratory ectoparasitic nematodes of roots. It is common to see poor growth and or
1075:
Cohn, E. (1970). "Observations on the feeding and symptomology of Xiphinema longidorus on selected host roots".
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Griesbach, J. A.; Maggenti, A .R. (1990). "The morphometrics of Xiphinema americanum sensu lato in California".
509:
1315:
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Griesbach, J. A.; Maggenti, A. R. (1989) "Vector capability of Xiphinema americanum sensu lato in California".
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Previous work attempting to identify virus binding sites and release was difficult without the development of
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trees with moderate swelling of roots with clusters of short, stubby branches were the first demonstration of
335:
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The males have a similar overall configuration as the females, but are slightly smaller in length. Males of
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1022:
Ferris, H. "Nemabase". Host Range of a Genus and Species of Plant-feeding Nematodes. Retrieved 2011-10-21.
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is 46-54% of the total body length, and is located equatorially with a transverse slit shape, with the
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Apple, cherry, and peach trees in the Pacific coast states of the United States are infected by CRLV.
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767:
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is a plant parasite that lives entirely in the soil and is attracted to young, growing roots due to
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307:
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Robbins, R.T. (1993) "Distribution of Xiphinema americanum and Related Species in North America".
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347:
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Tarjan, A.C. (1969) "Variation within the Xiphinema americanum group (Nematoda: Longidoridae)".
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generally remove up to 95% of the nematodes in soil, however the 5% that remain can reproduce
521:
435:
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and in damp soil, therefore if soils are kept dry enough the nematodes can be localized and
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219:
552:, they generally feed on plants that are in poorer condition for a shorter amount of time.
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is a virtually non-specific plant nematode, causing it to have over one hundred different
384:
316:
167:
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Christie, J. R. (1952). "Some new nematodes of critical importance to Florida growers.".
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has no food source. At the end of this 2-year period the nematodes should be eradicated.
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in wind-blown seeds as well as remaining harbored in natural reservoirs including weeds.
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may differentiate it from other species. Findings may also suggest that two subgroups of
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Fulton, J. P. (1962). "Transmission of tobacco ringspot virus by Xiphinema americanum".
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and perennial crops rather than annual crops (except for damage to emerging seedlings).
1376:
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797:
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403:
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Imle, F. P., Samson, R. W. (1937). "Studies on a ring-spot type of virus and tomato".
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Halbrendt, J.M. (1996) "Allelopathy in the Management of Plant-Parasitic Nematodes".
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524:. It can survive within plant debris, however it needs living plant tissue to feed.
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ranges from 1.3 to 3.0 millimeters. The dagger nematode is characterized by a 100
782:. These chemicals then kill the nematodes by active suppression because they are
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sensitivity to moisture tension, temperature fluctuation, physical handling, or
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and "tolerance" seen in certain species of grapes that appeared to be better
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to develop from egg to adult in 7 months. Other results have suggested that
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normally occur in pairs, and are amphidelphic and relexed. The prerectum of
232:
175:
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48:
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difficulty in maintaining high populations in frequently tilled soils (see
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transmitted by this nematode do as well. They also have the capability of
497:, and they are found most frequently in soils with a pH of 6.0 or higher.
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and thickening. The nematode is then able to begin extracting the cell's
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Field evidence taken over a 2-year observation period indicates that
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58:
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Lordello, L.G.E. (1972). Nematode pests of coffee, pp 409–434. In
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Control of the American Dagger Nematode presents problems because
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This species of nematode is also found to be sensitive to soil
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from a male is rare if not nonexistent due to the lack of male
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to the nematode. Crop rotation is another form of control for
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is not seen. Although the nematodes are non-specific in their
270:, however, are rarely found in nature. The male has diorchic
611:
can also cause severe effects on foliage, sometimes causing
494:
778:
The spraying of nematicides also causes plants to release
629:
is listed as a C-rated pest in California due to its wide
1267:
Nemaplex, University of California - Xiphinema americanum
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Proceedings of the Helminthological Society of Washington
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spp., grapevine, and blueberry in the Great Lakes area.
645:), the dagger nematode is mainly an economic problem on
323:
nematodes undergo three to four juvenile stages with a
237:
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conditions. It has been suggested that this is due to
271:
173:. It is one of many species that belongs to the genus
1119:. J. M. Webster (ed.), Academic Press, New York. 563p
257:
245:
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306:should be made due to the finding of either 3 or 4
248:having a diameter of 1/3 of the body diameter. The
241:
588:, and reduced root systems which can include root
442:species. For a complete list of the host range of
635:The California Department of Food and Agriculture
615:and complete defoliation as seen on Guatemalan
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383:individuals, and therefore females reproduce
8:
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696:TomRSV is another nepovirus transmitted by
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434:. This broad host range is due to the
214:which is used for deep penetration of
7:
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1382:abad0225-0b78-4bc7-aed4-a9cebb909f4c
665:of various plant viruses including
714:PRMV causes substantial damage to
700:, and is generally a problem with
14:
430:, etc.), perennial orchards, and
256:measures 120–140 μm long, with a
556:Symptoms and economic importance
512:. These nematodes are migratory
35:
722:
708:including tomato and cucumber.
630:
549:
369:can live as long as 3–5 years.
762:is hard to completely remove.
675:peach rosette mosaic nepovirus
414:are common weeds and grasses,
406:. The most common plant hosts
1:
879:. McGraw-Hill. New York. 553p
642:
179:. It was first described by
1518:Nematodes described in 1913
1503:Agricultural pest nematodes
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748:immunofluorescent labeling
679:cherry rasp leaf nepovirus
671:tobacco ringspot nepovirus
274:that are connected to the
864:Proc. Soil Sci. Soc. Fla.
807:Additionally, if soil is
667:tomato ringspot nepovirus
594:feeder or secondary roots
218:tips with its spear-like
137:
130:
32:Scientific classification
30:
23:
877:Principles of Nematology
539:. The feeding period of
485:. Other countries where
327:occurring between each.
203:The length of the adult
164:American dagger nematode
1240:1996 March 28(1): 8–14.
684:TobRSV is a widespread
607:pathogenicity in 1955.
387:. All of the stages of
1159:Plant Disease Reporter
780:allelopathic chemicals
448:Nemaplex Host Database
199:Morphology and anatomy
1251:Journal of Nematology
1238:Journal of Nematology
1220:Journal of Nematology
1148:2006 Sep 38(3):312-8.
1146:Journal of Nematology
1077:Journal of Nematology
1059:Journal of Nematology
1033:Journal of Nematology
998:Journal of Nematology
943:Journal of Nematology
927:Journal of Nematology
911:Journal of Nematology
1508:Grape pest nematodes
1377:Fauna Europaea (new)
1330:Xiphinema_americanum
1316:Xiphinema americanum
1286:Xiphinema americanum
1011:Revue de Nématologie
796:can only travel via
794:Xiphinema americanum
721:Much like the broad
659:Xiphinema americanum
627:Xiphinema americanum
570:Xiphinema americanum
531:that result in cell
510:source–sink dynamics
506:Xiphinema americanum
459:Xiphinema americanum
310:stages. The eggs of
296:Xiphinema americanum
230:Xiphinema americanum
205:Xiphinema americanum
185:Xiphinema americanum
159:Xiphinema americanum
141:Xiphinema americanum
25:Xiphinema americanum
16:Species of roundworm
1117:Economic nematology
875:Thorne, G. (1961).
599:Young, shortleaved
385:parthenogenetically
1174:. 52: 375 (abstr.)
1061:April 6(2): 81–86.
653:Viral transmission
348:oxygen deprivation
166:, is a species of
123:X. americanum
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1278:Taxon identifiers
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522:obligate parasite
436:genetic diversity
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1038:
1034:
1028:
1025:
1019:
1016:
1012:
1006:
1003:
999:
993:
991:
987:
983:
982:Phytopatholog
977:
974:
970:
964:
961:
958:53: 667– 668.
957:
951:
948:
944:
938:
936:
932:
928:
922:
920:
916:
912:
906:
904:
902:
898:
894:
888:
886:
882:
878:
872:
869:
865:
859:
856:
850:
848:
846:
844:
842:
840:
836:
829:
827:
825:
821:
818:
817:X. americanum
814:
813:X. americanum
810:
805:
803:
799:
795:
791:
789:
788:X. americanum
785:
781:
776:
774:
773:X. americanum
769:
765:
761:
760:X. americanum
753:
751:
749:
744:
738:
736:
735:dissemination
732:
728:
727:X. americanum
724:
719:
717:
712:
709:
707:
706:annual plants
703:
699:
698:X. americanum
694:
692:
687:
682:
680:
676:
672:
668:
664:
660:
657:The nematode
652:
650:
648:
644:
640:
636:
632:
628:
624:
622:
618:
614:
610:
609:X. americanum
606:
605:X. americanum
602:
597:
595:
591:
587:
583:
579:
575:
571:
567:
566:pathogenicity
563:
555:
553:
551:
547:
546:X. americanum
542:
541:X. americanum
538:
534:
530:
525:
523:
519:
515:
514:ectoparasites
511:
507:
500:
498:
496:
491:
488:
487:X. americanum
484:
480:
476:
472:
468:
464:
463:X. americanum
460:
453:
451:
449:
445:
444:X. americanum
441:
440:X. americanum
437:
433:
429:
425:
421:
417:
413:
412:X. americanum
409:
405:
401:
400:X. americanum
394:
392:
390:
389:X. americanum
386:
382:
381:X. americanum
378:
377:fertilization
374:
370:
368:
367:X. americanum
364:
363:X. americanum
360:
356:
355:X. americanum
351:
349:
345:
341:
337:
333:
332:X. americanum
328:
326:
322:
321:X. americanum
318:
313:
312:X. americanum
309:
305:
304:X. americanum
301:
300:X. americanum
297:
289:
287:
285:
281:
277:
273:
269:
268:X. americanum
265:
261:
259:
255:
254:X. americanum
251:
247:
243:
239:
234:
231:
227:
223:
221:
217:
213:
210:
206:
198:
196:
194:
193:X. americanum
190:
189:plant viruses
186:
182:
178:
177:
172:
169:
165:
161:
160:
149:
144:
142:
136:
133:
132:Binomial name
129:
125:
124:
119:
116:
115:
112:
111:
107:
104:
103:
100:
97:
94:
93:
90:
87:
84:
83:
80:
77:
74:
73:
70:
67:
64:
63:
60:
57:
54:
53:
50:
47:
44:
43:
38:
33:
29:
26:
22:
19:
1513:Longidoridae
1285:
1253:21, 517–523.
1250:
1245:
1237:
1219:
1197:
1192:
1184:
1179:
1171:
1166:
1158:
1153:
1145:
1129:
1124:
1116:
1111:
1102:
1093:
1084:
1076:
1058:
1053:
1048:15, 241–252.
1046:Nematologica
1045:
1040:
1032:
1027:
1018:
1010:
1005:
1000:19: 369–378.
997:
981:
976:
971:33: 126-130.
968:
963:
955:
950:
942:
929:24: 305–309.
926:
910:
892:
876:
871:
863:
858:
816:
812:
811:frequently,
806:
793:
792:
787:
777:
772:
759:
757:
739:
726:
720:
715:
713:
710:
697:
695:
683:
677:(PRMV), and
658:
656:
638:
626:
625:
617:coffee trees
608:
604:
598:
569:
559:
545:
540:
526:
505:
504:
492:
486:
479:Rhode Island
475:Pennsylvania
462:
458:
457:
454:Distribution
443:
439:
416:strawberries
411:
399:
398:
388:
380:
373:Reproduction
371:
366:
362:
354:
352:
343:
331:
329:
320:
319:adults, the
311:
303:
299:
295:
294:Identifying
293:
284:gubernaculum
267:
263:
262:
253:
229:
225:
224:
204:
202:
192:
184:
174:
163:
158:
157:
156:
140:
138:
122:
121:
109:
99:Longidoridae
24:
18:
1429:NatureServe
1403:iNaturalist
1310:Wikispecies
1013:13: 93–103.
895:92: 646-653
802:quarantined
764:Nematicides
731:nepoviruses
663:transmitter
601:yellow pine
533:hypertrophy
438:within the
404:plant hosts
286:and bursa.
282:but lack a
212:odontostyle
191:, but also
89:Dorylaimida
1497:Categories
1079:2:167–173.
830:References
820:resistance
723:host range
669:(TomRSV),
631:host range
592:, lack of
550:Host Range
471:California
446:visit the
395:Host range
359:k-selected
340:greenhouse
290:Life cycle
181:N. A. Cobb
1434:2.1094774
768:asexually
702:perennial
691:cucurbits
686:nepovirus
637:. Due to
613:chlorosis
578:yellowing
537:cytoplasm
238:amorphous
233:esophagus
176:Xiphinema
171:nematodes
117:Species:
110:Xiphinema
55:Kingdom:
49:Eukaryota
1421:10748332
1301:Q3719816
1295:Wikidata
729:, the 4
681:(CRLV).
673:(TRSV),
647:biennial
590:necrosis
574:stunting
562:symptoms
483:Virginia
467:Arkansas
420:soybeans
408:infected
308:juvenile
280:spicules
226:Females:
150:, (1913)
95:Family:
69:Nematoda
65:Phylum:
59:Animalia
45:Domain:
1480:6400993
1395:2282736
824:adapted
798:run-off
754:Control
643:Control
621:lesions
586:foliage
584:of the
582:wilting
529:enzymes
336:culture
250:ovaries
105:Genus:
85:Order:
79:Enoplea
75:Class:
1477:uBio:
1470:224029
1454:NZOR:
1447:208518
1408:510600
1369:226973
1356:250171
866:30: 39
809:tilled
743:dorsal
716:Prunus
432:grapes
424:spruce
276:cloaca
272:testes
264:Males:
258:rectum
246:vagina
240:. The
220:stylet
162:, the
1416:IRMNG
1351:EUNIS
1343:15562
784:toxic
242:vulva
1442:NCBI
1390:GBIF
1338:BOLD
560:The
481:and
428:pine
325:molt
216:root
148:Cobb
1325:AFD
725:of
580:or
568:of
410:by
375:by
338:or
1499::
1467::
1444::
1431::
1418::
1405::
1392::
1379::
1366::
1353::
1340::
1327::
1312::
1297::
1227:^
1205:^
1137:^
1066:^
989:^
934:^
918:^
900:^
884:^
838:^
804:.
750:.
693:.
495:pH
477:,
473:,
469:,
450:.
426:,
418:,
350:.
209:μm
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