Calutron - Knowledge

1192: 911:, where they were wound onto magnetic coils and sealed into welded casings. Finally, they moved by unguarded flatcars to the Clinton Engineer Works. There, special procedures were instituted for handling the silver. When they had to drill holes in it, they did so over paper so that the filings could be collected. After the war, all the machinery was dismantled and cleaned and the floorboards beneath the machinery were ripped up and burned to recover minute amounts of silver. In the end, 155,645.39 troy ounces (4,841.113 kg) or less than 0.036% was lost. In May 1970, the last 67 short tons (61 tonnes; 2,000,000 troy ounces) of silver was replaced with copper and returned to the Treasury. 1022: 249: 1060:). It was converted to uranium trioxide, which then went into the usual process for conversion to uranium tetrachloride. On 5 August 1945, K-25 started producing feed enriched to 23 percent, enough to be fed straight into the Beta racetracks. The remaining Alpha product was then fed into K-25. By September 1945, the calutrons had produced 88 kilograms of product with an average enrichment of 84.5 percent, and the Beta racetracks turned out another 953 kilograms enriched to 95 percent by the end of the year. Enriched uranium from the calutrons provided the fissile component of the 821: 795:, an electromagnetic plant would take longer and require more scarce materials to build, and need more manpower and more electricity to operate. The cost of a kilogram of fissile material would therefore be much greater. On the other hand, while the alternative processes still faced considerable technical obstacles, the electromagnetic process was proven to work, and could be built in stages that would immediately start producing fissile material. Groves cancelled the pilot plant on 14 November, in favor of proceeding immediately with the production plant. 832:, commenced 18 February 1943. The facility would eventually comprise nine major process buildings and 200 other structures covering almost 80 acres (32 ha) of floor space. The 825-acre (334 ha) site in Bear Creek Valley southwest of the Oak Ridge township was selected in the hope that the surrounding ridge lines might contain a major explosion or nuclear accident. Problems with the substratum required the excavation crews to perform more blasting and excavation to provide adequate foundations for the heavy machinery in the facilities. 927:

the power of the magnets and had to be fastened more securely. A more serious problem arose when the magnetic coils started shorting out. In December Groves ordered a magnet broken open, and handfuls of rust were found inside. Moisture was also a problem in its own right, as was the winding of the wire, which was too tight. Groves ordered the racetracks to be torn down and the magnets sent back to the factory to be cleaned and rewound. Rigid standards for preparation and cleanliness were instituted to prevent a recurrence of these problems.

989:. Training switched to Berkeley from April to September 1943, where it was conducted on the XA calutron and a 1:16 scale model of the Alpha racetrack, and then to Oak Ridge when the XAX calutron became available. Some 2,500 operators would be required once all the Alpha II calutrons were available. The Tennessee Eastman payroll at Y-12 ballooned from 10,000 in mid-1944 to 22,482 in August 1945. For security reasons, the trainees were not informed of the purpose of the equipment they were taught to operate. 945:

a laboratory. Work started on the new Alpha II process buildings on 2 November 1943; the first racetrack was completed in July 1944, and all four were operational by 1 October 1944. The Alpha II racetracks were configured in a linear layout rather than an oval, although they were still called racetracks. In all, there were 864 Alpha calutrons, arranged in nine racetracks of 96. There were only 36 calutrons in each Beta racetrack, for a total of 288 calutrons, although only 216 of them were ever operated.

745: 915: 505: 4978: 33: 548:. Other technical problems were more mundane but no less important. Although the beams had low intensity, they could, over many hours of operation, still melt the collectors. A water cooling system was therefore added to the collectors and the tank liner. Procedures were developed for cleaning the "gunk" that condensed inside the vacuum tank. A particular problem was blockage of the slits by "crud", which caused the ion beams to lose focus, or stop entirely. 412:(μA) was received by the collector. Lawrence's hunch about the effect of the air molecules in the vacuum chamber was confirmed. A nine-hour run on 14 January 1942 with a 50 μA beam produced 18 micrograms (μg) of uranium enriched to 25% uranium-235, about ten times as much as Nier had produced. By February, improvements in the technique allowed it to generate a 1,400 μA beam. That month, 75 μg samples enriched to 30% were shipped to the British and the 358: 993: 4954: 963: 1250:

with the gaseous diffusion process. Uranium enriched to about 40 percent uranium-235 was brought to Sverdlovsk-45 for final enrichment to between 92 and 98 percent. After the problems with the gaseous diffusion process were resolved in 1950, it was decided not to proceed with a full-scale electromagnetic plant. As of 2009, it remains operational. In 1969, a research calutron known as S-2 was built at

319:. The two men had met before the war, and were friends. Lawrence was sufficiently impressed to commence his own research into uranium. Uranium-235 makes up only about 0.72% of natural uranium, so the separation factor of any uranium enrichment process needs to be higher than 125 to produce 90% uranium-235 from natural uranium. The Maud Committee had recommended that this be done by a process of 1281:, electromagnetic separation was not pursued by the United Kingdom, and the calutron was used to separate isotopes for research. The 180° design was not ideal for this purpose, so Harwell built a 90° calutron, HERMES, the "Heavy Elements and Radioactive Material Electromagnetic Separator". It was inspired by France's SIDONIE and PARIS separators at the Laboratoire René Bernas of the 981:, 9201-3. The Beta racetracks were smaller, linear in shape, and optimized for recovery rather than production, with only 36 instead of 96 process bins. The four Alpha II racetracks were also linear in configuration. They incorporated many improvements, the most important being that they had four sources instead of just two. They also had improved magnets and vacuum systems. 4990: 525:, a device used to adjust the homogeneity of a magnetic field. These were sheets of iron about 3 feet (1 m) in width that were bolted to the top and bottom of the vacuum tank. The effect of the shims was to slightly increase the magnetic field in such a way as to help focus the ion beam. Work would continue on the shims through 1943. The main calutron patents were 4234: 513:

end, whence the temperature could be regulated, the position of the electrodes adjusted, and even components replaced through an airlock while it was running. The new, more powerful calutron was not used to produce enriched uranium, but for experiments with multiple ion sources. This meant having more collectors, but it multiplied the throughput.

2000: 941:. This became operational on 3 June 1944. Work on the Alpha and Beta chemistry buildings, 9202 and 9203, commenced in February 1943, and was completed in September. Work on the Beta process building, 9204-1, began in May 1943, and was ready for operation on 13 March 1944, but was not completed until September 1944. 970:

The Alpha racetracks were a 24-fold magnification of the XA calutron that could hold 96 calutron Alpha tanks. The calutrons were upright and arrayed facing each other in pairs of inner and outer machines. To minimize magnetic losses, and to economize on steel consumption, the assembly was curved into

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were discovered, but were not aggressively followed up. The first Alpha process building, 9201-1, was completed on 1 November 1943. When the first racetrack was started up for testing on schedule in November, the 14-ton vacuum tanks crept out of alignment by as much as 3 inches (8 cm) because of

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is that?" he asked. In fact I did not know how to convert tons to troy ounces, and neither did he. A little impatient, I responded, "I don't know how many troy ounces we need but I know I need six thousand tons—that is a definite quantity. What difference does it make how we express the quantity?" He

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determined that Iraq had been pursuing a calutron program to enrich uranium. Iraq chose to develop the electromagnetic process over more modern, economic, and efficient methods of enrichment because calutrons were easier to build, with fewer technical challenges, and the components required to build

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For a while, the calutrons suffered from a series of debilitating breakdowns and equipment failures, exacerbated by a shortage of spare parts. Hopes that the Alpha II racetracks would be more reliable soon faded, as they were plagued by insulator failures. These problems were gradually overcome. The

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The calutrons were initially operated by scientists from Berkeley to remove bugs and achieve a reasonable operating rate. Then the Tennessee Eastman operators took over. Nichols compared unit production data, and pointed out to Lawrence that the young "hillbilly" girl operators were outproducing his

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Groves authorized Alpha II in September 1943. This consisted of two new Alpha process buildings, 9201-4 and 9201-5, another Beta, 9204-2, an extension to the Alpha chemistry building, and a new Beta chemistry building, 9206. When 9206 opened, the old Beta chemistry building, 9203, was converted into

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Much of the great progress on the electromagnetic process can be attributed to Lawrence's leadership style. His audacity, optimism and enthusiasm were contagious. His staff put in long hours, and University of California administrators sliced through red tape despite not knowing what the project was

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gaseous diffusion plant. It was completed on 15 May 1945. A fourth Beta process building, 9204-4, was authorized on 2 April 1945 and was completed by 1 December 1945. A new group of Alpha chemistry buildings known as the 9207 group was commenced in June 1944, but work was halted in June 1945 before

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Training for the Beta tracks shifted from the XAX to the XBX training and development racetrack in November 1943. A second Alpha I racetrack became operational in January 1944. The first Beta racetrack and the third and first Alpha racetracks, now repaired, became operational in March 1944, and the

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thought that this could not be achieved without a second stage of enrichment. The two stages became known as Alpha and Beta. In March 1943, Groves approved the construction of five Alpha and two Beta racetracks. In September, he authorized four more Alpha racetracks, which became known as Alpha II,

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Lawrence had a large cyclotron under construction at Berkeley, one with a 184-inch (470 cm) magnet. This was converted into a calutron that was switched on for the first time on 26 May 1942. Like the 37-inch version, it looked like a giant C when viewed from above. The operator sat in the open

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in 1946. The pilot plant, known as Plant 418, was completed in 1948. A more efficient design was developed in which the particle beams were bent by 225° instead of 180° as in the American calutron. It was used to complete the uranium enrichment process after technical difficulties were encountered

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Tennessee Eastman was hired to manage Y-12 on the usual cost plus fixed fee basis, with a fee of $ 22,500 per month plus $ 7,500 per racetrack for the first seven racetracks and $ 4,000 per additional racetrack. Workers were recruited in the Knoxville area. The typical recruit was a young woman, a

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The experiments with the 184-inch magnet led to the construction of a prototype calutron called the XA. It contained a rectangular, three-coil magnet with a horizontal field in which the calutron tanks could stand side by side, with four vacuum tanks, each with a double source. At the 25 June 1942

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With the war over, the Alpha tracks began to suspend operations on 4 September 1945, and ceased operation completely on 22 September. The last two Beta tracks went into full operation in November and December 1945, processing feed from K-25 and the new K-27 gaseous diffusion plant. By May 1946,

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A major problem was that of loss of feed material and product. Only 1 part in 5,825 of the feed material became finished product. About 90 percent was splattered over the feed bottles or vacuum tanks. The problem was particularly acute with the enriched feed of the Beta calutrons. Extraordinary

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a group under Lloyd P. Smith that included William E. Parkins, and A. Theodore Forrester devised a radial magnetic separator. They were surprised that their beams were more precise than expected, and, like Lawrence, deduced that it was a result of stabilization of the beam by air in the vacuum

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were made in March 1944, consisting of Alpha product enriched to 13 to 15 percent uranium-235. While of no use in a bomb, it was urgently required for experiments with enriched uranium. The last shipment of Alpha product was made on 11 May 1944. On 7 June 1944, Y-12 made its first delivery of

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Eventually, 14,700 short tons (13,300 tonnes; 430,000,000 troy ounces) of silver were used, then worth over $ 600 million. Nichols had to provide a monthly accounting to the Treasury. The 1,000-troy-ounce (31 kg) silver bars were taken under guard to the Defense Plant Corporation in

2026: 1974: 784:, who soon replaced him, as his assistant. Crenshaw established his office in the Donner Laboratory at the University of California. In September 1942, the S-1 Executive Committee recommended that a five-tank pilot plant be built along with a 200-tank section of a production plant. 971:

an oval shape that formed a closed magnetic loop 122 feet (37 m) long, 77 feet (23 m) wide and 15 feet (4.6 m) high, in the shape of a racetrack; hence the name. The two Alpha I buildings, 9201-1 and 9201-2, each contained two racetracks, with only one in the Alpha I

125:. Since the ions of the different isotopes have the same electric charge but different masses, the heavier isotopes are deflected less by the magnetic field, causing the beam of particles to separate into several beams by mass, striking the plate at different locations. The 840:. Where possible, off-the-shelf components were used, but all too many components of the calutrons were unique. Two purchasing departments were established, one in Boston near Stone & Webster for facility equipment, and the other at Oak Ridge for construction supplies. 1199:

The workforce at Y-12 dropped from a wartime peak of 22,482 on 21 August 1945 to less than 1,700 in 1949. All the calutrons were removed and dismantled, except for the XAX and XBX training tracks in Building 9731, and the Beta 3 racetracks in Building 9204–3. In 1947,

1220:. Many other isotopes were used for peaceful scientific and medical purposes. The Beta 3 racetracks were transferred to the ORNL in March 1950. By the mid-1950s, the Beta calutrons had produced quantities of all the naturally occurring stable isotopes except those of 1180:

studies suggested that the gaseous diffusion plants could fully enrich the uranium by themselves without accidentally creating a critical mass. After a trial demonstrated that this was the case, Groves ordered all but one Beta track shut down in December 1946.

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The problem was that the beams interfered with each other, producing a series of oscillations called hash. An arrangement was devised that minimized the interference, resulting in reasonably good beams being produced, in September 1942. Robert Oppenheimer and

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Work on the new Beta process building commenced on 20 October 1943. Equipment installation began on 1 April 1944, and it was ready for use on 10 September 1944. A third Beta process building, 9204-3, was authorized in May 1944 to process the output of the

435:, they were able to separate isotopes using high-voltage electricity rather than magnetism. Work continued until February 1943, when, in view of the greater success of the calutron, work was discontinued and the team was transferred to other duties. At 835:

Supplies and materials of all kinds poured in: 2,157 carloads of electrical equipment, 1,219 of heavy equipment, 5,389 of lumber, 1,407 of pipe and fittings, 1,188 of steel, 257 of valves, and 11 of welding electrodes. The racetracks required 85,000

1005:" (called Cubicle Operators at the time) and their supervisors. The women were trained like soldiers not to reason why, while "the scientists could not refrain from time-consuming investigation of the cause of even minor fluctuations of the dials". 1354:

them were not subject to export controls. At the time the program was discovered, Iraq was estimated to be two or three years away from producing enough material for nuclear weapons. The program was destroyed in the Gulf War. Consequently, the

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method. Although most of the calutrons of the Manhattan Project were dismantled at the end of the war, some remained in use to produce isotopically enriched samples of naturally occurring elements for military, scientific and medical purposes.

1048:. Shipments of product from S-50 were discontinued in April. S-50 product was fed into K-25 instead. In March 1945, Y-12 began receiving feed enriched to 5 percent from K-25. The output of these plants was in the form of uranium hexafluoride ( 780:, as director, although the Army did not formally take over the contracts with the University of California from the OSRD until 1 May 1943. Major Thomas T. Crenshaw, Jr., became California Area Engineer in August 1942, with Captain 396:

was ionized by the filament, and then passed through a 0.04-by-2-inch (1.0 by 50.8 mm) slot into a vacuum chamber. The magnet was then used to deflect the ion beam by 180°. The enriched and depleted beams went into collectors.

350:, Lawrence suspected that the air molecules in the vacuum chamber would neutralize the ions, and create a focused beam. Oliphant inspired Lawrence to convert his old 37-inch (94 cm) cyclotron into a giant mass spectrometer for 1290: 3268:

Meunier, Robert; Camplan, Jean; Bonneval, Jean-Luc; Daban-Haurou, Jean-Louis; Deboffle, Dominique; Leclercq, Didier; Ligonniere, Marguerite; Moroy, Guy (15 December 1976). "Progress report on separators Sidonie and Paris".

741:, that it might be possible to produce enough material for a bomb by mid-1943, based on new estimates from Robert Oppenheimer that the critical mass of a sphere of pure uranium-235 was between 2.0 and 2.5 kilograms. 761:

uranium separation facilities would be located, for reasons of economy and security. Lawrence lodged an objection due to his desire to have the electromagnetic separation plant located much nearer to Berkeley. The

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efforts were made to recover product, including burning the carbon receiver liners to recover the uranium in them. Despite everything, some 17.4 percent of Alpha product and 5.4 percent of Beta product was lost.

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While the process had been demonstrated to work, considerable effort was still required before a prototype could be tested in the field. Lawrence assembled a team of physicists to tackle the problems, including

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Beta racetrack. These second stage racetracks were smaller than the Alpha racetracks and contained fewer process bins. Note that the oval shape of the Alpha I racetrack has been abandoned for ease of servicing.

737:, the director of the OSRD, which was overseeing the project, visited Berkeley in February 1942, and found the atmosphere there "stimulating" and "refreshing". On 9 March 1942, he reported to the president, 1251: 699:

Of the $ 19.6 million spent on research and development of the electromagnetic process, $ 18 million (92 percent) was spent at the Radiation Laboratory in Berkeley, and further work conducted at

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The Radiation Laboratory forwarded the preliminary designs for a production plant to Stone & Webster before the end of the year, but one important issue remained unsettled. Oppenheimer contended that

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they were completed. Along with these main buildings, there were offices, workshops, warehouses and other structures. There were two steam plants for heating, and a power plant for electricity.

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Between October 1942 and November 1943, Groves paid monthly visits to the Radiation Laboratory in Berkeley. Reports indicated that compared to the alternatives of a gaseous diffusion plant or a

4891: 338:(OSRD), had passed over the electromagnetic method was that while the mass spectrometer was capable of separating isotopes, it produced very low yields. The reason for this was the so-called 903:, where they were extruded into strips 0.625 inches (15.9 mm) thick, 3 inches (7.6 cm) wide and 40 feet (12 m) long. Some 258 carloads were shipped under guard by rail to 766:

area in California remained under consideration for the electromagnetic plant until September 1942, by which time Lawrence had dropped his objection. The 25 June meeting also designated

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from the British Mission were sent to advise on improvements to recovery methods. The death of a worker from exposure to phosgene also prompted a search for a safer production process.

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meeting of the S-1 Executive Committee, which had superseded the S-1 Uranium Committee on 19 June, there was a proposal to build the electromagnetic plant at Oak Ridge, where the other

133:, calutrons were developed to use this principle to obtain substantial quantities of high-purity uranium-235, by taking advantage of the small mass difference between uranium isotopes. 2575: 3139:

Ming-da, Hua; Gong-pan, Li; Shi-jun, Su; Nai-feng, Mao; Hung-yung, Lu (1981). "Electromagnetic separation of stable isotopes at the Institute of Atomic Energy, Academia Sinica".

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The total cost of the electromagnetic project up to the end of the Manhattan Project on 31 December 1946 was $ 673 million (equivalent to $ 10.5 billion in 2023).

3920: 388:. In December Lawrence received a $ 400,000 grant from the S-1 Uranium Committee. The calutron consisted of an ion source, in the form of a box with a slit in it and hot 342:

limitation. Positive ions have positive charge, so they tend to repel each other, which causes the beam to scatter. Drawing on his experience with the precise control of

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Abramychev, S.M.; Balashov, N.V.; Vesnovskii, S.P.; Vjachin, V.N.; Lapin, V.G.; Nikitin, E.A.; Polynov, V.N. (1992). "Electromagnetic separation of actinide isotopes".

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proposed a better method for large-scale production that involved reacting the uranium oxide with carbon tetrachloride at high temperature and pressure. This produced

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Four research and production calutrons were built at the China Institute of Atomic Energy in Beijing of identical design to those of the USSR in the early 1960s.

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corporation. During 1943, the emphasis shifted from research to development, engineering, and the training of workers to operate the production facilities at the

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then unanimously recommended pursuing the development of an atomic bomb. Britain had offered to give the United States access to its scientific research, so the

4844: 482: 335: 1245:. A trial electromagnetic process was carried out in 1946 with a calutron using a magnet taken from Germany. A site was chosen for an electromagnetic plant at 330:

are deflected by a magnetic field, and lighter ones are deflected more than heavy ones. The reason the Maud Committee, and later its American counterpart, the

268:—the task of investigating the feasibility of an atomic bomb, ironically because their status as enemy aliens precluded their working on secret projects like 2217: 2095: 4102:

Atomic Energy for Military Purposes: The Official Report on the Development of the Atomic Bomb under the Auspices of the United States Government, 1940–1945

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fourth Alpha racetrack in April 1944. A third building, 9201-3, contained a fifth racetrack that incorporated some modifications, and was known as Alpha I

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for permission to use the Beta calutrons to produce isotopes for physics experiments. Permission was granted, and a wide range of isotopes was produced.

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Gongpan, Li; Zhizhou, Lin; Xuyang, Xiang; Jingting, Deng (1 August 1992). "Electromagnetic isotope separation at the China Institute of Atomic Energy".

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Vesnovskii, Stanislav P.; Polynov, Vladimir N. (1992). "Highly enriched isotopes of uranium and transuranium elements for scientific investigation".

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briefed American scientists on British developments. He discovered that the American project was smaller than the British, and not as far advanced.

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Césario, J.; Juéry, A.; Camplan, J.; Meunier, R.; Rosenbaum, B. (1 July 1981). "Parsifal, an isotope separator for radiochemical applications".

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added the electromagnetic separation equipment to its guidelines for transfers of nuclear-related dual-use equipment, material and technology.

1330: 1266: 1209: 4212:. National Nuclear Energy Series, Manhattan Project Technical Section; Division I: Electromagnetic Separation Project. New York: McGraw-Hill. 4195:. National Nuclear Energy Series, Manhattan Project Technical Section; Division I: Electromagnetic Separation Project. New York: McGraw-Hill. 4135: 4054: 4027: 3794: 3727: 3646: 733:

about. Government officials began to view the development of atomic bombs in time to affect the outcome of the war as a genuine possibility.

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Electromagnetic separation for uranium enrichment was abandoned in the post-war period in favor of the more complicated, but more efficient,

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The 37-inch cyclotron at Berkeley was dismantled on 24 November 1941, and its magnet used to create the first calutron. Its name came from

544:. Their papers on the properties of plasmas under magnetic containment would find usage in the post-war world in research into controlled 3956: 1785:

Smith, Lloyd P.; Parkins, W. E.; Forrester, A. T. (December 1947). "On the Separation of Isotopes in Quantity by Electromagnetic Means".

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replied rather indignantly, "Young man, you may think of silver in tons, but the Treasury will always think of silver in troy ounces."

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de Laeter, John R.; Böhlke, John Karl; Bièvre, P. De; Hidaka, H.; Peiser, H. S.; Rosman, K. J. R.; Taylor, P. D. P. (1 January 2003).

851: 308: 69: 2979: 1224:, which had to wait until April 1960. The calutrons continued to produce isotopes until 1998. As of 2015, they are still on standby. 4289: 4086: 3945: 3693: 3593: 3555: 1326: 881:

He explained the procedure for transferring the silver and asked, "How much do you need?" I replied, "Six thousand tons." 'How many

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Communications Received from Certain Member States Regarding Guidelines for the Export of Nuclear Material, Equipment Or Technology

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Yergey, Alfred L.; Yergey, A. Karl (September 1997). "Preparative Scale Mass Spectrometry: A Brief History of the Calutron".

1314: 829: 749: 323:, but Oliphant had pioneered another technique in 1934: electromagnetic separation. This was the process that Nier had used. 73: 273: 3786: 4076: 1306: 1205: 874: 4896: 150: 4864: 5010: 3429: 1065: 5020: 4968: 4957: 4257: 3174:

Gongpan, Li; Zengpu, Li; Tianli, Pei; Chaoju, Wang (1981). "Some experimental studies of the calutron ion source".

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Latest from Harwell: Introducing Hermes, the new heavy element and radioactive material electro-magnetic separator

857:, discovered that the electromagnetic isotope separation process would require 5,000 short tons (4,500 tonnes) of 384:. The work was initially funded by the Radiation Laboratory from its own resources, with a $ 5,000 grant from the 4994: 4982: 4839: 4834: 2221: 2103: 2929: 2888: 4921: 4454: 4313: 1045: 705: 413: 257: 106: 1294: 1305:

Israel, Japan and France also built some research calutrons, including the SOLIS and MEIRA separators at the

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Burhop and Bohm later studied the characteristics of electric discharges in magnetic fields, today known as

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Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section B: Beam Interactions with Materials and Atoms

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Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section B: Beam Interactions with Materials and Atoms

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Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section B: Beam Interactions with Materials and Atoms

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Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section B: Beam Interactions with Materials and Atoms

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soon confirmed that more than one neutron was released per fission, which made it almost certain that a

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of the ions can be calculated according to the strength of the field and the charge of the ions. During

3047: 68:. Its name was derived from California University Cyclotron, in tribute to Lawrence's institution, the 2318: 2014: 1995:, "Methods of and apparatus for separating materials", published 1955-05-24, assigned to 1988: 1958: 303:

A disappointed Oliphant flew to the United States to speak to the American scientists. These included

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Iraq's calutrons Electromagnetic isotope separation, beam technology and nuclear weapon proliferation

1796: 1655: 1437: 1274: 908: 892: 721: 664: 652: 600: 420: 385: 316: 99: 84: 3984: 2466: 1969: & Carlyle, Nelson Eldred, "Magnetic shims", published 1955-10-04, assigned to 4605: 4560: 4520: 4343: 1282: 1044:

In February 1945, slightly enriched 1.4 percent uranium-235 feed material began arriving from the

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could be substituted, in an 11:10 ratio of copper:silver. On 3 August 1942, Nichols met with the

854: 436: 351: 281: 210: 76: 49: 2500: 2043:; Davis, D. H. (November 1981). "Eric Henry Stoneley Burhop 31 January 1911 – 22 January 1980". 914: 767: 4885: 4874: 4781: 4685: 4640: 4635: 4585: 4434: 4429: 4419: 4280: 4213: 4196: 4162: 4131: 4106: 4082: 4060: 4050: 4033: 4023: 3997: 3941: 3857: 3849: 3824: 3803: 3755: 3733: 3723: 3699: 3689: 3664: 3642: 3618: 3439: 3364: 1854: 1411: 923: 847: 758: 713: 709: 470: 361: 320: 198: 190: 174: 137: 61: 45: 4245:

Link to a site about a Calutron operator (Gladys Owens), and a famous picture of her at work.

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Big Science: Ernest Lawrence and the Invention that Launched the Military-Industrial Complex

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The XAX racetrack with two tanks and three coils was ready to train workers in August 1943.

781: 701: 616: 568: 522: 428: 202: 158: 122: 88: 1644:"Separation of the Isotopes of Lithium and Some Nuclear Transformations Observed with them" 567:. (Nier had used uranium bromide.) Initially, they produced it by using hydrogen to reduce 4911: 4751: 4715: 4645: 4580: 4570: 4545: 4444: 4424: 4399: 4244: 3880:

Manhattan District History, Book V – Electromagnetic Project – Volume 1 – General Features

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Calutron silver coils prior to their being melted down and returned to the US Treasury.

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Manhattan District History, Book V – Electromagnetic Project – Volume 5 – Construction

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The XAX development unit at Oak Ridge was used for research, development and training.

5004: 4869: 4731: 4700: 4680: 4625: 4615: 4525: 4414: 4389: 4333: 4119: 3822:

Love, L.O. (26 October 1973). "Electromagnetic Separation of Isotopes at Oak Ridge".

3411: 3376: 3339:

Jonson, Bjorn; Richter, Andreas (2000). "More than three decades of ISOLDE physics".

3325: 3290: 3230: 3195: 3160: 3125: 3090: 3007:"Planning for national park, federal officials tour Jackson Square, K-25, ORNL, Y-12" 2072: 2040: 1246: 1201: 1038: 800: 773:

The Army assumed responsibility for the Manhattan Project on 17 September 1942, with

734: 564: 486: 454: 277: 261: 4174: 4047:

The Tizard Mission: The Top-Secret Operation that Changed the Course of World War II

3869: 1616: 504: 440:

chamber. In February 1942, their team was consolidated with Lawrence's in Berkeley.

4926: 4808: 4665: 4610: 4590: 4575: 4479: 4303: 4100: 3938:

The Road to Trinity: A Personal Account of How America's Nuclear Policies Were Made

3922:

Manhattan District History, Book V – Electromagnetic Project – Volume 6 – Operation

3614: 3540: 3434: 3425: 2981:

Stable isotope separation in calutrons – Forty years of production and distribution

1966: 1457: 1238: 1001:

Ph.Ds. They agreed to a production race and Lawrence lost, a morale boost for the "

896: 808: 518: 405: 339: 238: 162: 130: 32: 3894:

Manhattan District History, Book V – Electromagnetic Project – Volume 2 – Research

3029:

Gsponer, André; Hurni, Jean-Pierre (19 October 1995). "EMIS in the Soviet Union".

744: 4017: 3845: 3588: 3390:

Karmoharpatro, S. B. (1987). "A simple mass separator for radioactive isotopes".

551:

The chemists had to find a way of producing quantities of uranium tetrachloride (

4756: 4710: 4675: 4650: 4595: 4499: 4489: 4373: 992: 985:

recent graduate of a local high school. Training was initially conducted at the

837: 693: 656: 494: 490: 409: 331: 230: 222: 218: 182: 178: 166: 95: 357: 4859: 4803: 4540: 4530: 4459: 3360: 3244: 1278: 1269:

built a 180° calutron, similar in design to an American Beta calutron, at the

1061: 882: 763: 450: 400:

When the calutron was first operated on 2 December 1941, just days before the

170: 92: 4166: 4064: 3853: 3807: 3737: 3703: 3622: 3443: 3368: 1254:

for high-efficiency separation of isotopes of heavy elements like plutonium.

752:

Plant. The operators, mostly women, worked in shifts covering 24 hours a day.

688:). The presence of phosgene, a lethal gas responsible for 85,000 deaths as a 4901: 4767: 4535: 4338: 4037: 3759: 1607: 1590: 1213: 1072:

Manhattan Project – Electromagnetic project costs through 31 December 1946

788: 347: 237:

would develop one first, especially among scientists who were refugees from

154: 65: 17: 3861: 3668: 2056: 1808: 1668: 1643: 1449: 962: 419:

Other researchers also investigated electromagnetic isotope separation. At

4233: 4217: 4200: 4110: 36:

An Alpha calutron tank removed from the magnet for recovery of uranium-235

4774: 4210:

Volume 5: The Characteristics of Electrical Discharges in Magnetic Fields

1346: 660: 636: 432: 4130:. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. pp. 197–220. 2987:. Vol. ORNL TM 10356. Oak Ridge National Laboratory. Archived from 1241:(USSR) carried out research on multiple enrichment technologies for the 4931: 4798: 2649: 2647: 2645: 2643: 242: 110: 53: 3993: 2570: 2568: 2064: 1591:"Atomic weights of the elements. Review 2000 (IUPAC Technical Report)" 4317: 2824: 2822: 2429: 2427: 1642:

Oliphant, M. L. E.; Shire, E. S.; Crowther, B. M. (15 October 1934).

1350: 1221: 862: 861:, which was in desperately short supply. However, they realized that 858: 368:(right) examine the 4-source emitter for the improved Alpha calutron. 285: 72:, where it was invented. Calutrons were used in the industrial-scale 4249: 2664: 2662: 2021:, "Calutron system", published 1958-08-12, assigned to 121:. The ions ultimately collide with a plate and produce a measurable 3754:. Washington, D.C.: United States Army Center of Military History. 1938: 1936: 1744: 1742: 1560: 1558: 1556: 1554: 2493:"Miller, key to obtaining 14,700 tons of silver Manhattan Project" 1286: 1190: 1020: 991: 961: 913: 828:

Construction of the electromagnetic plant at Oak Ridge, codenamed

819: 743: 503: 356: 269: 247: 31: 4879: 4348: 3787:"The Role of Chemistry in the Oak Ridge Electromagnetic Project" 2277: 2275: 1310: 950: 655:

used by the gaseous diffusion process, uranium tetrachloride is

126: 4253: 1505: 1503: 1426:(March 1940). "Nuclear Fission of Separated Uranium Isotopes". 1009:

first shipments of enriched uranium to the Manhattan Project's

3957:"The Uranium Bomb, the Calutron, and the Space-Charge Problem" 2576:"Dedication, Innovation, and Courage: A Short History of Y-12" 2366: 2364: 2090: 2088: 2086: 2084: 2082: 1291:

Commissariat à l'énergie atomique et aux énergies alternatives

812:

along with two more Beta racetracks to process their product.

696:, required that the chemists wear gas masks when handling it. 485:

headed by Oliphant that included fellow Australian physicists

327: 918:

Alpha I Racetrack. The calutrons are located around the ring.

895:, where they were cast into cylindrical billets, and then to 229:

could be initiated, and therefore that the development of an

748:

Control panels and operators for calutrons at the Oak Ridge

326:

The principle of electromagnetic separation is that charged

2710: 2708: 1850:"A. Theodore Forrester; UCLA Professor, Acclaimed Inventor" 1693: 1691: 1289:, and PARSIFAL at the military research laboratory of the 770:

as the primary contractor for the design and engineering.

1277:. Owing to the success of the gaseous diffusion plant at 284:

of 10 kg, which was small enough to be carried by a

3688:. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press. 2125: 2123: 2121: 1923: 1921: 873:, and asked for the transfer of silver bullion from the 3554:

International Atomic Energy Agency (13 November 2013).

2785: 2783: 2683: 2681: 2679: 2677: 2200: 2198: 1832: 1830: 233:

was a theoretical possibility. There were fears that a

1018:

Beta product, enriched to as high as 89% uranium-235.

4966: 4147:

Journal of the American Society for Mass Spectrometry

4105:. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. 252:

Diagram of uranium isotope separation in the calutron

4019:

Infinite Potential: The Life and Times of David Bohm

2045:

Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society

4822: 4791: 4724: 4513: 4382: 4296: 3306:

Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research

3176:

Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research

3141:

Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research

2828: 2801: 2774: 2750: 2699: 2668: 2653: 2634: 2433: 2153: 1912: 1216:from the Beta calutrons was used for research into 3639:Oliphant: The Life and Times of Sir Mark Oliphant 1953: 1951: 527:Methods of and apparatus for separating materials 217:were then able to confirm that Bohr was correct. 4208:Guthrie, Andrew; Wakerling, R. K., eds. (1949). 4191:Guthrie, Andrew; Wakerling, R. K., eds. (1949). 431:developed a device known as an isotron. Using a 264:assigned two refugee physicists—Otto Frisch and 185:that was primarily responsible for fission with 3587:Albright, David; Hibbs, Mark (September 1991). 2864: 2852: 2840: 2726: 2559: 2355: 2281: 2189: 2177: 1942: 1760: 1748: 1576: 1564: 1521: 1509: 1470: 1374: 879: 803:uranium would have to be 90% pure uranium-235. 2524:"From Treasury Vault to the Manhattan Project" 2465:. Oak Ridge National Lab. 2002. Archived from 843:The Chief Engineer of the Manhattan District, 4265: 3502: 3463: 2102:. Lawrence Berkeley Lab. 1981. Archived from 1733: 996:Alpha II racetrack. There were four of these. 336:Office of Scientific Research and Development 177:of the nucleus, he theorized that it was the 8: 2370: 161:in 1938, and its theoretical explanation by 64:and was based on his earlier invention, the 2218:"Lawrence and his Laboratory: The Calutron" 1333:in India was used to produce plutonium for 877:. Nichols later recalled the conversation: 4272: 4258: 4250: 4022:. Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley. 3637:Cockburn, Stewart; Ellyard, David (1981). 659:, so work with it had to be undertaken in 4193:Volume 1: Vacuum Equipment and Techniques 3983: 2913: 2911: 2909: 2486: 2484: 1667: 1606: 481:. In November 1943 they were joined by a 477:, William E. Parkins, Bernard Peters and 2878:"9731: First building completed at Y-12" 1070: 4973: 3748:Manhattan: The Army and the Atomic Bomb 3024: 3022: 3020: 2738: 2522:Reed, Cameron (January–February 2011). 2445: 1927: 1772: 1721: 1386: 1367: 2953: 2129: 2023:United States Atomic Energy Commission 1997:United States Atomic Energy Commission 1971:United States Atomic Energy Commission 1876: 1545: 1533: 1494: 651:). While nowhere near as nasty as the 346:from his work with his invention, the 169:, was brought to the United States by 3928:. Washington, DC: Manhattan District. 3914:. Washington, DC: Manhattan District. 3900:. Washington, DC: Manhattan District. 3886:. Washington, DC: Manhattan District. 3795:Bulletin for the History of Chemistry 2813: 2789: 2762: 2714: 2687: 2622: 2610: 2547: 2418: 2406: 2394: 2382: 2343: 2305: 2293: 2266: 2254: 2242: 2204: 2165: 2141: 1900: 1888: 1836: 1709: 1697: 1682: 1629: 1482: 1398: 260:in Britain, the Australian physicist 109:, an instrument in which a sample is 7: 4049:. Yardley, Pennsylvania: Westholme. 3661:Britain and Atomic Energy, 1935–1945 3249:. British Movietone. 4 February 1957 2965: 2459:"The Silver Lining of the Calutrons" 1821: 1271:Atomic Energy Research Establishment 615:) to produce uranium tetrachloride. 1317:(ISOLDE), which was built in 1967. 1046:S-50 liquid thermal diffusion plant 5031:University of California, Berkeley 4737:Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki 3955:Parkins, William E. (1 May 2005). 3722:. New York: Simon & Schuster. 3476:Gsponer, André A. (31 July 2001). 1648:Proceedings of the Royal Society A 1315:Isotope Separator On-Line Detector 201:to create a microscopic amount of 181:isotope and not the more abundant 25: 3594:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 3521:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 1327:Saha Institute of Nuclear Physics 493:, and British physicists such as 48:originally designed and used for 5016:History of the Manhattan Project 4988: 4976: 4953: 4952: 4232: 4120:"Niels Bohr and Nuclear Physics" 4081:. London: Simon & Schuster. 3663:. London: Macmillan Publishing. 2978:Bell, W.A.; Tracy, J.G. (1987). 408:, a uranium beam intensity of 5 3563:. Vol. INFCIRC 254/rev. 12 3478:"Iraq's calutrons: 1991 - 2001" 3271:Nuclear Instruments and Methods 3036:(Report). Vol. ISRI-95-03. 3005:Huotari, John (27 March 2015). 867:Under Secretary of the Treasury 599:), which was then reacted with 533:(Oppenheimer and Frankel), and 404:brought the United States into 402:Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor 4128:Niels Bohr: A Centenary Volume 3615:10.1080/00963402.1991.11460006 3589:"Iraq's Nuclear Hide and Seek" 3541:10.1080/00963402.1991.11460018 3515:Simpson, John (October 1991). 824:The Y-12 electromagnetic plant 1: 4159:10.1016/S1044-0305(97)00123-2 4078:The Making of the Atomic Bomb 3679:; Anderson, Oscar E. (1962). 2096:"Lawrence and his Laboratory" 1307:Soreq Nuclear Research Center 1206:Oak Ridge National Laboratory 1033:from the Manhattan Project's 875:West Point Bullion Depository 280:of uranium-235 was within an 4897:Oppenheimer security hearing 3919:Manhattan District (1947f). 3905:Manhattan District (1947e). 3891:Manhattan District (1947b). 3877:Manhattan District (1947a). 3846:10.1126/science.182.4110.343 3718:Hiltzik, Michael A. (2015). 3484:. The Nuclear Weapon Archive 3412:10.1016/0168-583X(87)90729-4 3326:10.1016/0029-554X(81)90894-6 3291:10.1016/0029-554X(76)90662-5 3231:10.1016/0168-583X(92)95902-4 3196:10.1016/0029-554x(81)90926-5 3161:10.1016/0029-554X(81)90885-5 3126:10.1016/0168-583X(92)95899-3 3091:10.1016/0168-583x(92)95898-2 2319:"Thomas T. Crenshaw Jr. '31" 1237:Like the United States, the 151:discovery of nuclear fission 5026:Particle physics facilities 2865:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 2853:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 2841:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 2727:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 2560:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 2356:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 2282:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 2190:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 2178:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 1943:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 1761:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 1749:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 1577:Cockburn & Ellyard 1981 1565:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 1522:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 1510:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 1471:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 1375:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 1267:British atomic bomb project 1066:atomic bombing of Hiroshima 205:uranium-235 in April 1940. 5052: 4118:Stuewer, Roger H. (1985). 1595:Pure and Applied Chemistry 1335:India's first nuclear test 1243:Soviet atomic bomb project 235:German atomic bomb project 105:The calutron is a type of 4950: 4840:Bismuth phosphate process 4835:Atomic Energy Act of 1946 4287: 4126:; Kennedy, P. J. (eds.). 3641:. Adelaide: Axiom Books. 3517:"NPT stronger after Iraq" 3503:Albright & Hibbs 1991 3464:Albright & Hibbs 1991 3428:(January–February 2006). 1967:Frankel, Stanley Phillips 1734:Albright & Hibbs 1991 1301:Israel, Japan, and France 1170: 1165: 1155: 1152: 1149: 1141: 1138: 1135: 1127: 1124: 1121: 1113: 1110: 1107: 1099: 1096: 1093: 1085: 1082: 1079: 1076: 461:, A. Theodore Forrester, 274:Frisch–Peierls memorandum 91:produced was used in the 4045:Phelps, Stephen (2010). 3682:The New World, 1939–1946 3482:nuclearweaponarchive.org 2829:Manhattan District 1947a 2802:Manhattan District 1947f 2775:Manhattan District 1947f 2751:Manhattan District 1947f 2700:Manhattan District 1947f 2669:Manhattan District 1947f 2654:Manhattan District 1947e 2635:Manhattan District 1947f 2434:Manhattan District 1947e 2371:Yergey & Yergey 1997 2154:Manhattan District 1947b 1913:Manhattan District 1947b 1210:Atomic Energy Commission 1064:atomic bomb used in the 706:Johns Hopkins University 663:that were kept dry with 414:Metallurgical Laboratory 309:University of California 288:of the day. The British 258:University of Birmingham 113:and then accelerated by 107:sector mass spectrometer 100:detonated over Hiroshima 70:University of California 4917:S-1 Executive Committee 4865:Einstein–Szilard letter 4016:Peat, F. David (1997). 3745:Jones, Vincent (1985). 3361:10.1023/A:1012689128103 2323:Princeton Alumni Weekly 1608:10.1351/pac200375060683 1356:Nuclear Suppliers Group 987:University of Tennessee 195:University of Minnesota 50:separating the isotopes 4359:Salt Wells Pilot Plant 3341:Hyperfine Interactions 2928:. 2009. Archived from 2753:, pp. S4–S7, 4.5. 2491:Smith, D. Ray (2006). 2057:10.1098/rsbm.1981.0006 1963:J. Robert, Oppenheimer 1809:10.1103/PhysRev.72.989 1669:10.1098/rspa.1934.0197 1450:10.1103/PhysRev.57.546 1283:University of Paris IX 1233:Soviet Union and China 1204:, the director of the 1196: 1025: 997: 967: 919: 888: 825: 753: 718:Clinton Engineer Works 509: 467:Kenneth Ross MacKenzie 369: 344:charged-particle beams 253: 227:nuclear chain reaction 81:Clinton Engineer Works 56:. It was developed by 37: 4937:X-10 Graphite Reactor 4892:Nobel Prize laureates 4762:509th Composite Group 3426:Langewiesche, William 2994:on 27 September 2012. 1218:thermonuclear weapons 1194: 1024: 1011:Los Alamos Laboratory 995: 965: 917: 823: 778:Leslie R. Groves, Jr. 747: 739:Franklin D. Roosevelt 621:uranium pentachloride 507: 475:J. Robert Oppenheimer 394:Uranium tetrachloride 360: 251: 35: 4845:British contribution 4747:Operation Peppermint 4742:Operation Crossroads 4601:Maria Goeppert Mayer 4241:at Wikimedia Commons 3940:. New York: Morrow. 3430:"Point of No Return" 2926:Department of Energy 2885:Department of Energy 2583:Department of Energy 1275:Harwell, Oxfordshire 1153:$ 38.8 million 1150:$ 2.48 million 1136:$ 6.63 million 1122:$ 19.6 million 1111:$ 3.75 billion 1097:$ 4.75 billion 909:Milwaukee, Wisconsin 893:Carteret, New Jersey 722:Oak Ridge, Tennessee 665:phosphorus pentoxide 653:uranium hexafluoride 601:carbon tetrachloride 421:Princeton University 386:Research Corporation 313:Radiation Laboratory 85:Oak Ridge, Tennessee 4606:George Kistiakowsky 4561:Charles Critchfield 4097:Smyth, Henry DeWolf 3976:2005PhT....58e..45P 3838:1973Sci...182..343L 3677:Hewlett, Richard G. 3607:1991BuAtS..47g..14A 3533:1991BuAtS..47h..12S 3404:1987NIMPB..26...34K 3353:2000HyInt.129....1J 3318:1981NIMPR.186..105C 3283:1976NucIM.139..101M 3223:1992NIMPB..70...17G 3188:1981NIMPR.186..353G 3153:1981NIMPR.186...25M 3118:1992NIMPB..70....9V 3083:1992NIMPB..70....5A 2843:, pp. 624–625. 2765:, pp. 144–145. 2717:, pp. 140–142. 2637:, pp. 3.5–3.7. 2613:, pp. 134–136. 2503:on 17 December 2007 2385:, pp. 128–129. 2346:, pp. 117–118. 2308:, pp. 118–122. 2269:, pp. 126–127. 2019:Lawrence, Ernest O. 1993:Lawrence, Ernest O. 1879:, pp. 256–260. 1801:1947PhRv...72..989S 1700:, pp. 188–189. 1685:, pp. 164–165. 1660:1934RSPSA.146..922O 1632:, pp. 156–157. 1548:, pp. 281–283. 1536:, pp. 126–128. 1497:, pp. 322–325. 1442:1940PhRv...57..546N 1389:, pp. 211–214. 1172:$ 8.95 billion 1139:$ 104 million 1125:$ 307 million 1108:$ 240 million 1094:$ 304 million 1073: 768:Stone & Webster 380:niversity and cyclo 364:(center right) and 276:indicated that the 272:. Their March 1940 153:by German chemists 5011:Isotope separation 4995:Nuclear technology 4983:History of Science 4671:Henry DeWolf Smyth 4450:Robert Oppenheimer 4405:Priscilla Duffield 2592:on 25 January 2016 2531:American Scientist 2469:on 6 December 2008 2224:on 8 February 2015 2106:on 8 February 2015 1345:After the 1990–91 1325:A calutron at the 1295:Bruyères-le-Châtel 1208:(ORNL), asked the 1197: 1167:$ 573 million 1071: 1026: 998: 968: 920: 901:Bayway, New Jersey 855:Kenneth D. Nichols 852:Lieutenant Colonel 850:, and his deputy, 826: 754: 510: 437:Cornell University 370: 352:isotope separation 282:order of magnitude 254: 211:Aristid von Grosse 102:on 6 August 1945. 77:uranium enrichment 38: 5021:Mass spectrometry 4964: 4963: 4886:Los Alamos Primer 4875:Interim Committee 4830:African Americans 4782:The Great Artiste 4641:Isidor Isaac Rabi 4636:Norman Ramsey Jr. 4435:Franklin Matthias 4374:Heavy water sites 4281:Manhattan Project 4237:Media related to 4137:978-0-674-62415-3 4056:978-1-59416-116-2 4029:978-0-201-40635-1 3994:10.1063/1.1995747 3832:(4110): 343–352. 3769:on 7 October 2014 3729:978-1-4516-7575-7 3648:978-0-9594164-0-4 3466:, pp. 17–20. 3050:. Global Security 2702:, pp. S4–S7. 2656:, pp. S5–S7. 2325:. 13 October 1993 2245:, pp. 46–47. 1945:, pp. 92–93. 1855:Los Angeles Times 1824:, pp. 64–65. 1775:, pp. 45–46. 1751:, pp. 56–58. 1579:, pp. 74–78. 1567:, pp. 43–44. 1524:, pp. 39–40. 1473:, pp. 10–14. 1377:, pp. 10–12. 1177: 1176: 848:James C. Marshall 775:Brigadier General 759:Manhattan Project 714:Tennessee Eastman 710:Purdue University 471:Frank Oppenheimer 423:, a group led by 362:Frank Oppenheimer 321:gaseous diffusion 199:mass spectrometer 191:Alfred O. C. Nier 189:. To verify this 175:liquid drop model 138:gaseous diffusion 117:and deflected by 62:Manhattan Project 46:mass spectrometer 27:Mass spectrometer 16:(Redirected from 5043: 4993: 4992: 4991: 4981: 4980: 4979: 4972: 4956: 4955: 4907:Quebec Agreement 4691:John von Neumann 4631:George B. Pegram 4440:Dorothy McKibbin 4274: 4267: 4260: 4251: 4236: 4221: 4204: 4178: 4141: 4114: 4092: 4068: 4041: 4012: 4010: 4008: 4002: 3996:. Archived from 3987: 3961: 3951: 3934:Nichols, Kenneth 3929: 3927: 3915: 3913: 3901: 3899: 3887: 3885: 3873: 3818: 3816: 3814: 3791: 3783:Larson, Clarence 3778: 3776: 3774: 3768: 3762:. Archived from 3753: 3741: 3714: 3712: 3710: 3687: 3672: 3657:Gowing, Margaret 3652: 3633: 3631: 3629: 3573: 3572: 3570: 3568: 3562: 3551: 3545: 3544: 3512: 3506: 3500: 3494: 3493: 3491: 3489: 3473: 3467: 3461: 3455: 3454: 3452: 3450: 3422: 3416: 3415: 3387: 3381: 3380: 3336: 3330: 3329: 3312:(1–2): 105–114. 3301: 3295: 3294: 3265: 3259: 3258: 3256: 3254: 3241: 3235: 3234: 3206: 3200: 3199: 3171: 3165: 3164: 3136: 3130: 3129: 3101: 3095: 3094: 3066: 3060: 3059: 3057: 3055: 3044: 3038: 3037: 3035: 3026: 3015: 3014: 3002: 2996: 2995: 2993: 2986: 2975: 2969: 2963: 2957: 2951: 2945: 2944: 2942: 2940: 2934: 2923: 2919:"Beta 3 at Y-12" 2915: 2904: 2903: 2901: 2899: 2893: 2887:. Archived from 2882: 2874: 2868: 2862: 2856: 2850: 2844: 2838: 2832: 2826: 2817: 2811: 2805: 2799: 2793: 2787: 2778: 2772: 2766: 2760: 2754: 2748: 2742: 2736: 2730: 2724: 2718: 2712: 2703: 2697: 2691: 2685: 2672: 2666: 2657: 2651: 2638: 2632: 2626: 2620: 2614: 2608: 2602: 2601: 2599: 2597: 2591: 2585:. Archived from 2580: 2572: 2563: 2557: 2551: 2545: 2539: 2538: 2528: 2519: 2513: 2512: 2510: 2508: 2499:. Archived from 2488: 2479: 2478: 2476: 2474: 2455: 2449: 2443: 2437: 2431: 2422: 2416: 2410: 2404: 2398: 2392: 2386: 2380: 2374: 2368: 2359: 2353: 2347: 2341: 2335: 2334: 2332: 2330: 2315: 2309: 2303: 2297: 2291: 2285: 2279: 2270: 2264: 2258: 2252: 2246: 2240: 2234: 2233: 2231: 2229: 2220:. Archived from 2214: 2208: 2202: 2193: 2187: 2181: 2175: 2169: 2163: 2157: 2151: 2145: 2139: 2133: 2127: 2116: 2115: 2113: 2111: 2100:LBL Newsmagazine 2092: 2077: 2076: 2037: 2031: 2030: 2029: 2025: 2011: 2005: 2004: 2003: 1999: 1985: 1979: 1978: 1977: 1973: 1955: 1946: 1940: 1931: 1925: 1916: 1910: 1904: 1898: 1892: 1886: 1880: 1874: 1868: 1867: 1865: 1863: 1846: 1840: 1834: 1825: 1819: 1813: 1812: 1795:(11): 989–1002. 1782: 1776: 1770: 1764: 1758: 1752: 1746: 1737: 1731: 1725: 1719: 1713: 1707: 1701: 1695: 1686: 1680: 1674: 1673: 1671: 1654:(859): 922–929. 1639: 1633: 1627: 1621: 1620: 1610: 1586: 1580: 1574: 1568: 1562: 1549: 1543: 1537: 1531: 1525: 1519: 1513: 1507: 1498: 1492: 1486: 1480: 1474: 1468: 1462: 1461: 1408: 1402: 1396: 1390: 1384: 1378: 1372: 1337:on 18 May 1974. 1309:. There is also 1083:Cost (2023 USD) 1080:Cost (1946 USD) 1074: 1068:in August 1945. 1059: 1058: 1057: 980: 979: 975: 940: 939: 935: 782:Harold A. Fidler 702:Brown University 687: 686: 685: 677: 676: 650: 649: 648: 634: 633: 632: 617:Charles A. Kraus 614: 613: 612: 598: 597: 596: 582: 581: 580: 569:uranium trioxide 562: 561: 560: 429:Robert R. Wilson 187:thermal neutrons 159:Fritz Strassmann 123:electric current 89:enriched uranium 21: 5051: 5050: 5046: 5045: 5044: 5042: 5041: 5040: 5001: 5000: 4999: 4989: 4987: 4977: 4975: 4967: 4965: 4960: 4946: 4912:RaLa Experiment 4818: 4787: 4752:Project Alberta 4720: 4716:Chien-Shiung Wu 4646:James Rainwater 4581:Richard Feynman 4571:John R. Dunning 4546:Norris Bradbury 4509: 4495:Stafford Warren 4465:William Purnell 4445:Kenneth Nichols 4425:Ernest Lawrence 4400:James B. Conant 4378: 4292: 4283: 4278: 4229: 4224: 4207: 4190: 4186: 4184:Further reading 4181: 4144: 4138: 4117: 4095: 4089: 4073:Rhodes, Richard 4071: 4057: 4044: 4030: 4015: 4006: 4004: 4000: 3985:10.1.1.579.4119 3959: 3954: 3948: 3932: 3925: 3918: 3911: 3904: 3897: 3890: 3883: 3876: 3821: 3812: 3810: 3789: 3781: 3772: 3770: 3766: 3751: 3744: 3730: 3717: 3708: 3706: 3696: 3685: 3675: 3655: 3649: 3636: 3627: 3625: 3586: 3582: 3577: 3576: 3566: 3564: 3560: 3553: 3552: 3548: 3514: 3513: 3509: 3501: 3497: 3487: 3485: 3475: 3474: 3470: 3462: 3458: 3448: 3446: 3424: 3423: 3419: 3389: 3388: 3384: 3338: 3337: 3333: 3303: 3302: 3298: 3267: 3266: 3262: 3252: 3250: 3243: 3242: 3238: 3208: 3207: 3203: 3173: 3172: 3168: 3138: 3137: 3133: 3103: 3102: 3098: 3068: 3067: 3063: 3053: 3051: 3048:"Sverdlovsk-45" 3046: 3045: 3041: 3033: 3028: 3027: 3018: 3004: 3003: 2999: 2991: 2984: 2977: 2976: 2972: 2964: 2960: 2952: 2948: 2938: 2936: 2935:on 4 March 2016 2932: 2921: 2917: 2916: 2907: 2897: 2895: 2894:on 4 March 2016 2891: 2880: 2876: 2875: 2871: 2863: 2859: 2851: 2847: 2839: 2835: 2827: 2820: 2812: 2808: 2800: 2796: 2788: 2781: 2777:, p. 4.11. 2773: 2769: 2761: 2757: 2749: 2745: 2737: 2733: 2725: 2721: 2713: 2706: 2698: 2694: 2686: 2675: 2667: 2660: 2652: 2641: 2633: 2629: 2621: 2617: 2609: 2605: 2595: 2593: 2589: 2578: 2574: 2573: 2566: 2558: 2554: 2546: 2542: 2526: 2521: 2520: 2516: 2506: 2504: 2490: 2489: 2482: 2472: 2470: 2457: 2456: 2452: 2444: 2440: 2432: 2425: 2417: 2413: 2405: 2401: 2393: 2389: 2381: 2377: 2369: 2362: 2354: 2350: 2342: 2338: 2328: 2326: 2317: 2316: 2312: 2304: 2300: 2292: 2288: 2280: 2273: 2265: 2261: 2253: 2249: 2241: 2237: 2227: 2225: 2216: 2215: 2211: 2203: 2196: 2188: 2184: 2176: 2172: 2164: 2160: 2156:, p. 2.10. 2152: 2148: 2140: 2136: 2128: 2119: 2109: 2107: 2094: 2093: 2080: 2039: 2038: 2034: 2027: 2013: 2012: 2008: 2001: 1987: 1986: 1982: 1975: 1957: 1956: 1949: 1941: 1934: 1926: 1919: 1911: 1907: 1899: 1895: 1887: 1883: 1875: 1871: 1861: 1859: 1858:. 31 March 1987 1848: 1847: 1843: 1835: 1828: 1820: 1816: 1788:Physical Review 1784: 1783: 1779: 1771: 1767: 1759: 1755: 1747: 1740: 1732: 1728: 1720: 1716: 1708: 1704: 1696: 1689: 1681: 1677: 1641: 1640: 1636: 1628: 1624: 1588: 1587: 1583: 1575: 1571: 1563: 1552: 1544: 1540: 1532: 1528: 1520: 1516: 1508: 1501: 1493: 1489: 1481: 1477: 1469: 1465: 1429:Physical Review 1412:Nier, Alfred O. 1410: 1409: 1405: 1397: 1393: 1385: 1381: 1373: 1369: 1364: 1343: 1323: 1303: 1263: 1235: 1230: 1228:Other countries 1189: 1147:Silver Program 1056: 1053: 1052: 1051: 1049: 1035:Ames Laboratory 977: 973: 972: 960: 937: 933: 932: 818: 793:nuclear reactor 730: 690:chemical weapon 684: 681: 680: 679: 675: 672: 671: 670: 668: 647: 644: 643: 642: 640: 631: 628: 627: 626: 624: 611: 608: 607: 606: 604: 595: 592: 591: 590: 588: 585:uranium dioxide 579: 576: 575: 574: 572: 559: 556: 555: 554: 552: 535:Calutron system 499:Thomas Allibone 483:British Mission 463:Irving Langmuir 446: 366:Robert Thornton 305:Ernest Lawrence 215:Eugene T. Booth 207:John R. Dunning 173:. Based on his 147: 119:magnetic fields 115:electric fields 58:Ernest Lawrence 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 5049: 5047: 5039: 5038: 5033: 5028: 5023: 5018: 5013: 5003: 5002: 4998: 4997: 4985: 4962: 4961: 4951: 4948: 4947: 4945: 4944: 4939: 4934: 4929: 4924: 4919: 4914: 4909: 4904: 4899: 4894: 4889: 4882: 4877: 4872: 4867: 4862: 4857: 4855:Chicago Pile-1 4852: 4850:Calutron Girls 4847: 4842: 4837: 4832: 4826: 4824: 4823:Related topics 4820: 4819: 4817: 4816: 4811: 4806: 4801: 4795: 4793: 4789: 4788: 4786: 4785: 4778: 4771: 4764: 4759: 4754: 4749: 4744: 4739: 4734: 4728: 4726: 4722: 4721: 4719: 4718: 4713: 4708: 4703: 4698: 4693: 4688: 4686:Stanisław Ulam 4683: 4678: 4673: 4668: 4663: 4658: 4653: 4648: 4643: 4638: 4633: 4628: 4623: 4621:Edwin McMillan 4618: 4613: 4608: 4603: 4598: 4593: 4588: 4583: 4578: 4573: 4568: 4566:Harry Daghlian 4563: 4558: 4556:John Cockcroft 4553: 4551:James Chadwick 4548: 4543: 4538: 4533: 4528: 4523: 4517: 4515: 4511: 4510: 4508: 4507: 4502: 4497: 4492: 4487: 4482: 4477: 4475:Charles Thomas 4472: 4470:Frank Spedding 4467: 4462: 4457: 4452: 4447: 4442: 4437: 4432: 4430:James Marshall 4427: 4422: 4417: 4412: 4410:Thomas Farrell 4407: 4402: 4397: 4395:Arthur Compton 4392: 4386: 4384: 4383:Administrators 4380: 4379: 4377: 4376: 4371: 4366: 4361: 4356: 4351: 4346: 4341: 4336: 4331: 4326: 4321: 4311: 4306: 4300: 4298: 4294: 4293: 4288: 4285: 4284: 4279: 4277: 4276: 4269: 4262: 4254: 4248: 4247: 4242: 4228: 4227:External links 4225: 4223: 4222: 4205: 4187: 4185: 4182: 4180: 4179: 4153:(9): 943–953. 4142: 4136: 4115: 4093: 4087: 4069: 4055: 4042: 4028: 4013: 4003:on 26 May 2020 3952: 3946: 3930: 3916: 3902: 3888: 3874: 3819: 3802:(2): 101–109. 3779: 3742: 3728: 3715: 3694: 3673: 3653: 3647: 3634: 3583: 3581: 3578: 3575: 3574: 3546: 3507: 3495: 3468: 3456: 3417: 3398:(1–3): 34–36. 3382: 3331: 3296: 3260: 3236: 3217:(1–4): 17–20. 3201: 3166: 3147:(1–2): 25–33. 3131: 3096: 3061: 3039: 3016: 2997: 2970: 2968:, p. 347. 2958: 2956:, p. 108. 2946: 2905: 2869: 2867:, p. 646. 2857: 2855:, p. 630. 2845: 2833: 2831:, p. 3.5. 2818: 2816:, p. 536. 2806: 2804:, p. 4.6. 2794: 2792:, p. 148. 2779: 2767: 2755: 2743: 2741:, p. 131. 2731: 2729:, p. 143. 2719: 2704: 2692: 2690:, p. 139. 2673: 2658: 2639: 2627: 2625:, p. 138. 2615: 2603: 2564: 2562:, p. 153. 2552: 2550:, p. 133. 2540: 2514: 2480: 2450: 2438: 2436:, p. 4.1. 2423: 2421:, p. 132. 2411: 2409:, p. 134. 2399: 2397:, p. 130. 2387: 2375: 2373:, p. 947. 2360: 2358:, p. 108. 2348: 2336: 2310: 2298: 2296:, p. 120. 2286: 2271: 2259: 2247: 2235: 2209: 2207:, p. 125. 2194: 2182: 2170: 2168:, p. 123. 2158: 2146: 2144:, p. 188. 2134: 2132:, p. 102. 2117: 2078: 2041:Massey, Harrie 2032: 2006: 1980: 1947: 1932: 1917: 1915:, p. 1.8. 1905: 1903:, p. 192. 1893: 1891:, p. 124. 1881: 1869: 1841: 1839:, p. 190. 1826: 1814: 1777: 1765: 1753: 1738: 1726: 1724:, p. 238. 1714: 1712:, p. 119. 1702: 1687: 1675: 1634: 1622: 1601:(6): 683–800. 1581: 1569: 1550: 1538: 1526: 1514: 1499: 1487: 1475: 1463: 1424:von Grosse, A. 1420:Dunning, J. R. 1403: 1401:, p. 172. 1391: 1379: 1366: 1365: 1363: 1360: 1342: 1339: 1322: 1319: 1302: 1299: 1262: 1261:United Kingdom 1259: 1234: 1231: 1229: 1226: 1188: 1185: 1175: 1174: 1169: 1164: 1158: 1157: 1154: 1151: 1148: 1144: 1143: 1140: 1137: 1134: 1130: 1129: 1126: 1123: 1120: 1116: 1115: 1112: 1109: 1106: 1102: 1101: 1098: 1095: 1092: 1088: 1087: 1084: 1081: 1078: 1054: 1031:Frank Spedding 1003:Calutron Girls 959: 956: 905:Allis-Chalmers 871:Daniel W. Bell 817: 814: 805:Edward Lofgren 729: 726: 682: 673: 645: 629: 609: 593: 577: 557: 546:nuclear fusion 542:Bohm diffusion 531:Magnetic shims 479:Joseph Slepian 459:Donald Cooksey 445: 442: 425:Henry D. Smyth 298:John Cockcroft 294:Tizard Mission 290:Maud Committee 266:Rudolf Peierls 146: 143: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5048: 5037: 5034: 5032: 5029: 5027: 5024: 5022: 5019: 5017: 5014: 5012: 5009: 5008: 5006: 4996: 4986: 4984: 4974: 4970: 4959: 4949: 4943: 4940: 4938: 4935: 4933: 4930: 4928: 4925: 4923: 4920: 4918: 4915: 4913: 4910: 4908: 4905: 4903: 4900: 4898: 4895: 4893: 4890: 4888: 4887: 4883: 4881: 4878: 4876: 4873: 4871: 4870:Franck Report 4868: 4866: 4863: 4861: 4858: 4856: 4853: 4851: 4848: 4846: 4843: 4841: 4838: 4836: 4833: 4831: 4828: 4827: 4825: 4821: 4815: 4812: 4810: 4807: 4805: 4802: 4800: 4797: 4796: 4794: 4790: 4784: 4783: 4779: 4777: 4776: 4772: 4770: 4769: 4765: 4763: 4760: 4758: 4755: 4753: 4750: 4748: 4745: 4743: 4740: 4738: 4735: 4733: 4732:Alsos Mission 4730: 4729: 4727: 4723: 4717: 4714: 4712: 4709: 4707: 4706:Robert Wilson 4704: 4702: 4701:Eugene Wigner 4699: 4697: 4694: 4692: 4689: 4687: 4684: 4682: 4681:Edward Teller 4679: 4677: 4674: 4672: 4669: 4667: 4664: 4662: 4659: 4657: 4656:Glenn Seaborg 4654: 4652: 4649: 4647: 4644: 4642: 4639: 4637: 4634: 4632: 4629: 4627: 4626:Mark Oliphant 4624: 4622: 4619: 4617: 4616:Willard Libby 4614: 4612: 4609: 4607: 4604: 4602: 4599: 4597: 4594: 4592: 4589: 4587: 4584: 4582: 4579: 4577: 4574: 4572: 4569: 4567: 4564: 4562: 4559: 4557: 4554: 4552: 4549: 4547: 4544: 4542: 4539: 4537: 4534: 4532: 4529: 4527: 4526:Robert Bacher 4524: 4522: 4519: 4518: 4516: 4512: 4506: 4505:Roscoe Wilson 4503: 4501: 4498: 4496: 4493: 4491: 4488: 4486: 4483: 4481: 4478: 4476: 4473: 4471: 4468: 4466: 4463: 4461: 4458: 4456: 4453: 4451: 4448: 4446: 4443: 4441: 4438: 4436: 4433: 4431: 4428: 4426: 4423: 4421: 4420:John Lansdale 4418: 4416: 4415:Leslie Groves 4413: 4411: 4408: 4406: 4403: 4401: 4398: 4396: 4393: 4391: 4390:Vannevar Bush 4388: 4387: 4385: 4381: 4375: 4372: 4370: 4367: 4365: 4362: 4360: 4357: 4355: 4352: 4350: 4347: 4345: 4342: 4340: 4337: 4335: 4332: 4330: 4327: 4325: 4322: 4319: 4315: 4312: 4310: 4307: 4305: 4302: 4301: 4299: 4295: 4291: 4286: 4282: 4275: 4270: 4268: 4263: 4261: 4256: 4255: 4252: 4246: 4243: 4240: 4235: 4231: 4230: 4226: 4219: 4215: 4211: 4206: 4202: 4198: 4194: 4189: 4188: 4183: 4176: 4172: 4168: 4164: 4160: 4156: 4152: 4148: 4143: 4139: 4133: 4129: 4125: 4124:French, A. P. 4121: 4116: 4112: 4108: 4104: 4103: 4098: 4094: 4090: 4088:0-671-44133-7 4084: 4080: 4079: 4074: 4070: 4066: 4062: 4058: 4052: 4048: 4043: 4039: 4035: 4031: 4025: 4021: 4020: 4014: 3999: 3995: 3991: 3986: 3981: 3977: 3973: 3969: 3965: 3964:Physics Today 3958: 3953: 3949: 3947:0-688-06910-X 3943: 3939: 3935: 3931: 3924: 3923: 3917: 3910: 3909: 3903: 3896: 3895: 3889: 3882: 3881: 3875: 3871: 3867: 3863: 3859: 3855: 3851: 3847: 3843: 3839: 3835: 3831: 3827: 3826: 3820: 3809: 3805: 3801: 3797: 3796: 3788: 3784: 3780: 3765: 3761: 3757: 3750: 3749: 3743: 3739: 3735: 3731: 3725: 3721: 3716: 3705: 3701: 3697: 3695:0-520-07186-7 3691: 3684: 3683: 3678: 3674: 3670: 3666: 3662: 3658: 3654: 3650: 3644: 3640: 3635: 3624: 3620: 3616: 3612: 3608: 3604: 3600: 3596: 3595: 3590: 3585: 3584: 3579: 3559: 3558: 3550: 3547: 3542: 3538: 3534: 3530: 3526: 3522: 3518: 3511: 3508: 3505:, p. 23. 3504: 3499: 3496: 3483: 3479: 3472: 3469: 3465: 3460: 3457: 3445: 3441: 3437: 3436: 3431: 3427: 3421: 3418: 3413: 3409: 3405: 3401: 3397: 3393: 3386: 3383: 3378: 3374: 3370: 3366: 3362: 3358: 3354: 3350: 3347:(1–4): 1–22. 3346: 3342: 3335: 3332: 3327: 3323: 3319: 3315: 3311: 3307: 3300: 3297: 3292: 3288: 3284: 3280: 3276: 3272: 3264: 3261: 3248: 3247: 3240: 3237: 3232: 3228: 3224: 3220: 3216: 3212: 3205: 3202: 3197: 3193: 3189: 3185: 3181: 3177: 3170: 3167: 3162: 3158: 3154: 3150: 3146: 3142: 3135: 3132: 3127: 3123: 3119: 3115: 3112:(1–4): 9–11. 3111: 3107: 3100: 3097: 3092: 3088: 3084: 3080: 3076: 3072: 3065: 3062: 3049: 3043: 3040: 3032: 3025: 3023: 3021: 3017: 3012: 3008: 3001: 2998: 2990: 2983: 2982: 2974: 2971: 2967: 2962: 2959: 2955: 2950: 2947: 2931: 2927: 2920: 2914: 2912: 2910: 2906: 2890: 2886: 2879: 2873: 2870: 2866: 2861: 2858: 2854: 2849: 2846: 2842: 2837: 2834: 2830: 2825: 2823: 2819: 2815: 2810: 2807: 2803: 2798: 2795: 2791: 2786: 2784: 2780: 2776: 2771: 2768: 2764: 2759: 2756: 2752: 2747: 2744: 2740: 2735: 2732: 2728: 2723: 2720: 2716: 2711: 2709: 2705: 2701: 2696: 2693: 2689: 2684: 2682: 2680: 2678: 2674: 2671:, p. S4. 2670: 2665: 2663: 2659: 2655: 2650: 2648: 2646: 2644: 2640: 2636: 2631: 2628: 2624: 2619: 2616: 2612: 2607: 2604: 2588: 2584: 2577: 2571: 2569: 2565: 2561: 2556: 2553: 2549: 2544: 2541: 2536: 2532: 2525: 2518: 2515: 2502: 2498: 2494: 2487: 2485: 2481: 2468: 2464: 2460: 2454: 2451: 2448:, p. 42. 2447: 2442: 2439: 2435: 2430: 2428: 2424: 2420: 2415: 2412: 2408: 2403: 2400: 2396: 2391: 2388: 2384: 2379: 2376: 2372: 2367: 2365: 2361: 2357: 2352: 2349: 2345: 2340: 2337: 2324: 2320: 2314: 2311: 2307: 2302: 2299: 2295: 2290: 2287: 2284:, p. 82. 2283: 2278: 2276: 2272: 2268: 2263: 2260: 2257:, p. 70. 2256: 2251: 2248: 2244: 2239: 2236: 2223: 2219: 2213: 2210: 2206: 2201: 2199: 2195: 2192:, p. 61. 2191: 2186: 2183: 2180:, p. 60. 2179: 2174: 2171: 2167: 2162: 2159: 2155: 2150: 2147: 2143: 2138: 2135: 2131: 2126: 2124: 2122: 2118: 2105: 2101: 2097: 2091: 2089: 2087: 2085: 2083: 2079: 2074: 2070: 2066: 2062: 2058: 2054: 2050: 2046: 2042: 2036: 2033: 2024: 2020: 2016: 2010: 2007: 1998: 1994: 1990: 1984: 1981: 1972: 1968: 1964: 1960: 1954: 1952: 1948: 1944: 1939: 1937: 1933: 1930:, p. 48. 1929: 1924: 1922: 1918: 1914: 1909: 1906: 1902: 1897: 1894: 1890: 1885: 1882: 1878: 1873: 1870: 1857: 1856: 1851: 1845: 1842: 1838: 1833: 1831: 1827: 1823: 1818: 1815: 1810: 1806: 1802: 1798: 1794: 1790: 1789: 1781: 1778: 1774: 1769: 1766: 1763:, p. 59. 1762: 1757: 1754: 1750: 1745: 1743: 1739: 1736:, p. 18. 1735: 1730: 1727: 1723: 1718: 1715: 1711: 1706: 1703: 1699: 1694: 1692: 1688: 1684: 1679: 1676: 1670: 1665: 1661: 1657: 1653: 1649: 1645: 1638: 1635: 1631: 1626: 1623: 1618: 1614: 1609: 1604: 1600: 1596: 1592: 1585: 1582: 1578: 1573: 1570: 1566: 1561: 1559: 1557: 1555: 1551: 1547: 1542: 1539: 1535: 1530: 1527: 1523: 1518: 1515: 1512:, p. 42. 1511: 1506: 1504: 1500: 1496: 1491: 1488: 1485:, p. 12. 1484: 1479: 1476: 1472: 1467: 1464: 1459: 1455: 1451: 1447: 1443: 1439: 1435: 1431: 1430: 1425: 1421: 1417: 1413: 1407: 1404: 1400: 1395: 1392: 1388: 1383: 1380: 1376: 1371: 1368: 1361: 1359: 1357: 1352: 1348: 1340: 1338: 1336: 1332: 1328: 1320: 1318: 1316: 1312: 1308: 1300: 1298: 1296: 1292: 1288: 1284: 1280: 1276: 1272: 1268: 1265:In 1945, the 1260: 1258: 1255: 1253: 1248: 1247:Sverdlovsk-45 1244: 1240: 1232: 1227: 1225: 1223: 1219: 1215: 1211: 1207: 1203: 1202:Eugene Wigner 1193: 1187:Postwar years 1186: 1184: 1181: 1173: 1168: 1163: 1160: 1159: 1146: 1145: 1132: 1131: 1118: 1117: 1104: 1103: 1091:Construction 1090: 1089: 1075: 1069: 1067: 1063: 1047: 1042: 1040: 1039:Philip Baxter 1036: 1032: 1023: 1019: 1017: 1016:weapons-grade 1012: 1006: 1004: 994: 990: 988: 982: 964: 957: 955: 952: 946: 942: 928: 925: 916: 912: 910: 906: 902: 898: 894: 887: 884: 878: 876: 872: 868: 864: 860: 856: 853: 849: 846: 841: 839: 833: 831: 822: 815: 813: 810: 806: 802: 801:weapons-grade 796: 794: 790: 785: 783: 779: 776: 771: 769: 765: 760: 751: 746: 742: 740: 736: 735:Vannevar Bush 727: 725: 723: 719: 715: 712:, and by the 711: 707: 703: 697: 695: 691: 666: 662: 658: 654: 638: 622: 618: 602: 586: 570: 566: 565:uranium oxide 549: 547: 543: 538: 536: 532: 528: 524: 523:magnetic shim 521:invented the 520: 514: 506: 502: 500: 496: 492: 488: 487:Harrie Massey 484: 480: 476: 472: 468: 464: 460: 456: 455:Edward Condon 452: 443: 441: 438: 434: 430: 426: 422: 417: 415: 411: 407: 403: 398: 395: 391: 387: 383: 379: 375: 367: 363: 359: 355: 353: 349: 345: 341: 337: 333: 329: 324: 322: 318: 314: 310: 306: 301: 299: 295: 291: 287: 283: 279: 278:critical mass 275: 271: 267: 263: 262:Mark Oliphant 259: 250: 246: 244: 240: 236: 232: 228: 224: 220: 216: 212: 208: 204: 200: 196: 192: 188: 184: 180: 176: 172: 168: 164: 160: 156: 152: 144: 142: 139: 134: 132: 128: 124: 120: 116: 112: 108: 103: 101: 97: 94: 90: 86: 82: 79:plant at the 78: 75: 71: 67: 63: 59: 55: 51: 47: 43: 34: 30: 19: 4942:Y-12 Project 4941: 4927:Smyth Report 4922:S-50 Project 4884: 4880:K-25 Project 4809:Pumpkin bomb 4780: 4773: 4766: 4696:John Wheeler 4666:Louis Slotin 4661:Emilio Segrè 4611:George Koval 4591:James Franck 4576:Enrico Fermi 4521:Luis Alvarez 4480:Paul Tibbets 4455:Deak Parsons 4308: 4209: 4192: 4150: 4146: 4127: 4101: 4077: 4046: 4018: 4005:. 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