Y chromosome - Knowledge (XXG)

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of autosomal chromosomes while only half the population contains 1 Y chromosome. Thus, genetic drift is an exceptionally strong force acting upon the Y chromosome. Through sheer random assortment, an adult male may never pass on his Y chromosome if he only has female offspring. Thus, although a male may have a well adapted Y chromosome free of excessive mutation, it may never make it into the next gene pool. The repeat random loss of well-adapted Y chromosomes, coupled with the tendency of the Y chromosome to evolve to have more deleterious mutations rather than less for reasons described above, contributes to the species-wide degeneration of Y chromosomes through

58: 5880: 759:; these strings of bases contain functioning genes important for male fertility. Most of the sequence pairs are greater than 99.97% identical. The extensive use of gene conversion may play a role in the ability of the Y chromosome to edit out genetic mistakes and maintain the integrity of the relatively few genes it carries. In other words, since the Y chromosome is single, it has duplicates of its genes on itself instead of having a second, homologous, chromosome. When errors occur, it can use other parts of itself as a template to correct them. 1318: 1338: 8219: 645:, which encourages further mutation. These two conditions combined put the Y chromosome at a greater opportunity of mutation than the rest of the genome. The increased mutation opportunity for the Y chromosome is reported by Graves as a factor 4.8. However, her original reference obtains this number for the relative mutation rates in male and female germ lines for the lineage leading to humans. 1260: 693:. Massive accumulations of retrotransposable elements are scattered throughout the Y. The random insertion of DNA segments often disrupts encoded gene sequences and renders them nonfunctional. However, the Y chromosome has no way of weeding out these "jumping genes". Without the ability to isolate alleles, selection cannot effectively act upon them. 1094: 563:(PAR). The PAR undergoes frequent recombination between the X and Y chromosomes, but recombination is suppressed in other regions of the Y chromosome. These regions contain sex-determining and other male-specific genes. Without this suppression, these genes could be lost from the Y chromosome from recombination and cause issues such as infertility. 2717:, Seattle, investigated the origin of male chromosomes found in the peripheral blood of women who had not had male progeny. A total of 120 subjects (women who had never had sons) were investigated, and it was found that 21% of them had male DNA in their peripheral blood. The subjects were categorised into four groups based on their case histories: 2536:

The cause can be seen as an incomplete Y chromosome: the usual karyotype in these cases is 45X, plus a fragment of Y. This usually results in defective testicular development, such that the infant may or may not have fully formed male genitalia internally or externally. The full range of ambiguity of

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intermediates preceding gene conversion were found to rarely take the alternate route of crossover recombination. The Y-Y gene conversion rate in humans is about 1.52 x 10 conversions/base/year. These gene conversion events may reflect a basic function of meiosis, that of conserving the integrity of

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Even if a well adapted Y chromosome manages to maintain genetic activity by avoiding mutation accumulation, there is no guarantee it will be passed down to the next generation. The population size of the Y chromosome is inherently limited to 1/4 that of autosomes: diploid organisms contain two copies

2598:, finding a higher than expected number of patients to have an extra Y chromosome. The authors of this study wondered "whether an extra Y chromosome predisposes its carriers to unusually aggressive behaviour", and this conjecture "framed the next fifteen years of research on the human Y chromosome". 1787:

More specifically, PAR1 is at 0.1–2.7 Mb. PAR2 is at 56.9–57.2 Mb. The non-recombining region (NRY) or male-specific region (MSY) sits between. Their sizes is now known perfectly from CHM13: 2.77 Mb and 329.5 kb. Until CHM13 the data in PAR1 and PAR2 was just copied over from X chromosome.

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Modern data cast doubt on the hypothesis that the Y-chromosome will disappear. This conclusion was reached by scientists who studied the Y chromosomes of rhesus monkeys. When genomically comparing the Y chromosome of rhesus monkeys and humans, scientists found very few differences, given that humans

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Greater degrees of Y chromosome polysomy (having more than one extra copy of the Y chromosome in every cell, e.g., XYYY) are considerably more rare. The extra genetic material in these cases can lead to skeletal abnormalities, dental abnormalities, decreased IQ, delayed development, and respiratory

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of this 1,393-gene loss over 300 million years gives a rate of genetic loss of 4.6 genes per million years. Continued loss of genes at the rate of 4.6 genes per million years would result in a Y chromosome with no functional genes – that is the Y chromosome would lose complete function – within the

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According to some theories, in the terminal stages of the degeneration of the Y chromosome, other chromosomes may increasingly take over genes and functions formerly associated with it and finally, within the framework of this theory, the Y chromosome disappears entirely, and a new sex-determining

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caused the organism to be male. The chromosome with this allele became the Y chromosome, while the other member of the pair became the X chromosome. Over time, genes that were beneficial for males and harmful to (or had no effect on) females either developed on the Y chromosome or were acquired by

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Through studies over the next decade, this conjecture was shown to be incorrect: the elevated crime rate of XYY males is due to lower median intelligence and not increased aggression, and increased height was the only characteristic that could be reliably associated with XYY males. The "criminal

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Further studies are needed to understand how mosaic Y chromosome loss may contribute to other sex differences in health outcomes, such as how male smokers have between 1.5 and 2 times the risk of non-respiratory cancers as female smokers. Potential countermeasures identified so far include not

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Outside of mammals, some organisms have lost the Y chromosome, such as most species of Nematodes. However, in order for the complete elimination of Y to occur, it was necessary to develop an alternative way of determining sex (for example, by determining sex by the ratio of the X chromosome to

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47, XYY syndrome (simply known as XYY syndrome) is caused by the presence of a single extra copy of the Y chromosome in each of a male's cells. 47, XYY males have one X chromosome and two Y chromosomes, for a total of 47 chromosomes per cell. Researchers have found that an extra copy of the Y

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to natural selection. Deleterious alleles are allowed to "hitchhike" with beneficial neighbors, thus propagating maladapted alleles into the next generation. Conversely, advantageous alleles may be selected against if they are surrounded by harmful alleles (background selection). Due to this

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The chromosome was given the name "Y" simply to follow on from Henking's "X" alphabetically. The idea that the Y chromosome was named after its similarity in appearance to the letter "Y" is mistaken. All chromosomes normally appear as an amorphous blob under the microscope and only take on a

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G-banding patterns of human Y chromosome in three different resolutions (400, 550 and 850). Band length in this diagram is based on the ideograms from ISCN (2013). This type of ideogram represents actual relative band length observed under a microscope at the different moments during the

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Y chromosomes (first published in 2005) show that the human Y chromosome has not lost any genes since the divergence of humans and chimpanzees between 6–7 million years ago. Additionally, a scientific report in 2012 stated that only one gene had been lost since humans diverged from the

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The study noted that 10% of the women had never been pregnant before, raising the question of where the Y chromosomes in their blood could have come from. The study suggests that possible reasons for occurrence of male chromosome microchimerism could be one of the following:

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of the Y chromosome, but a condition of having an extra X chromosome, which usually results in defective postnatal testicular function. The mechanism is not fully understood; it does not seem to be due to direct interference by the extra X with expression of Y genes.

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with respect to the main body of genetic information. Brandeis proposed that the basic function of meiosis (particularly meiotic recombination) is the conservation of the integrity of the genome, a proposal consistent with the idea that meiosis is an adaptation for

2509:(YCM) is a family of genetic disorders caused by missing genes in the Y chromosome. Many affected men exhibit no symptoms and lead normal lives. However, YCM is also known to be present in a significant number of men with reduced fertility or reduced sperm count. 1052:, in which the XY system is still developing and cross over between the X and Y is still possible. Because the male specific region is very small and contains no essential genes, it is even possible to artificially induce XX males and YY females to no ill effect. 934:

autosomes), and any genes necessary for male function had to be moved to other chromosomes. In the meantime, modern data demonstrate the complex mechanisms of Y chromosome evolution and the fact that the disappearance of the Y chromosome is not guaranteed.

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Other organisms have mirror image sex chromosomes: where the homogeneous sex is the male, with two Z chromosomes, and the female is the heterogeneous sex with a Z chromosome and a W chromosome. For example, the ZW sex-determination system is found in

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analysis reveals that many mammalian species are experiencing a similar loss of function in their heterozygous sex chromosome. Degeneration may simply be the fate of all non-recombining sex chromosomes, due to three common evolutionary forces: high

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Since almost half of the human Y sequence was unknown before 2022, it could not be screened out as contamination in microbial sequencing projects. As a result, the NCBI RefSeq bacterial genome database mistakenly includes some Y chromosome data.

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Too many subsections. Article might benefit from moving h3 subsections into h2 sections, if we can somehow reconcile the gap between all therians and humans. "Origins and evolution" section has a human focus, but the discussion does include all

1230:(and after many updates) almost half of the Y chromosome remained un-sequenced even in 2021; a different Y chromosome from the HG002 (GM24385) genome was completely sequenced in January 2022 and is included in the new "complete genome" human 5855: 498:

hermaphroditism, where the same organism produces male and female gametes at the same time. Most simultaneous hermaphrodite species are invertebrates, and among vertebrates, simultaneous hermaphroditism has only been discovered in a few

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and have a shorter life expectancy. In many cases, a cause and effect relationship between the Y chromosome and health outcomes has not been determined, and some propose loss of the Y chromosome could be a "neutral

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Grützner F, Rens W, Tsend-Ayush E, El-Mogharbel N, O'Brien PC, Jones RC, et al. (December 2004). "In the platypus a meiotic chain of ten sex chromosomes shares genes with the bird Z and mammal X chromosomes".

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chromosome is associated with increased stature and an increased incidence of learning problems in some boys and men, but the effects are variable, often minimal, and the vast majority do not know their karyotype.

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model is flawed and suggest that the current human Y chromosome is either no longer shrinking or is shrinking at a much slower rate than the 4.6 genes per million years estimated by the linear extrapolation model.

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possess four or five pairs of XY sex chromosomes, each pair consisting of sex chromosomes with homologous regions. The chromosomes of neighboring pairs are partially homologous, such that a chain is formed during

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Veerappa AM, Padakannaya P, Ramachandra NB (August 2013). "Copy number variation-based polymorphism in a new pseudoautosomal region 3 (PAR3) of a human X-chromosome-transposed region (XTR) in the Y chromosome".

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Yan Z, Lambert NC, Guthrie KA, Porter AJ, Loubiere LS, Madeleine MM, et al. (August 2005). "Male microchimerism in women without sons: quantitative assessment and correlation with pregnancy history".

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Hughes JF, Skaletsky H, Pyntikova T, Minx PJ, Graves T, Rozen S, et al. (September 2005). "Conservation of Y-linked genes during human evolution revealed by comparative sequencing in chimpanzee".

2683:), use of the information contained in the Y chromosome is of particular interest because, unlike other chromosomes, the Y chromosome is passed exclusively from father to son, on the patrilineal line. 1069:. The first X chromosome in the chain is also partially homologous with the last Y chromosome, indicating that profound rearrangements, some adding new pieces from autosomes, have occurred in history. 4046: 3655:

Watson JM, Riggs A, Graves JA (October 1992). "Gene mapping studies confirm the homology between the platypus X and echidna X1 chromosomes and identify a conserved ancestral monotreme X chromosome".

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G-banding ideogram of human Y chromosome in resolution 850 bphs. Band length in this diagram is proportional to base-pair length. This type of ideogram is generally used in genome browsers (e.g.

774:. The comparison demonstrated that the same phenomenon of gene conversion appeared to be at work more than 5 million years ago, when humans and the non-human primates diverged from each other. 989:

Many groups of organisms in addition to therian mammals have Y chromosomes, but these Y chromosomes do not share common ancestry with therian Y chromosomes. Such groups include monotremes,

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have entropy rates of 1.5–1.9 bits per nucleotide (compared to the theoretical maximum of exactly 2 for no redundancy), the Y chromosome's entropy rate is only 0.84. From the definition of

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have evolved fertile females who possess the genotype generally coding for males, XY, in addition to the ancestral XX female, through a variety of modifications to the X and Y chromosomes.

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Research is currently investigating whether male-pattern neural development is a direct consequence of Y-chromosome-related gene expression or an indirect result of Y-chromosome-related

7807: 1818:). Among various projects, CCDS takes an extremely conservative strategy. So CCDS's gene number prediction represents a lower bound on the total number of human protein-coding genes. 4314:

Rozen S, Skaletsky H, Marszalek JD, Minx PJ, Cordum HS, Waterston RH, et al. (June 2003). "Abundant gene conversion between arms of palindromes in human and ape Y chromosomes".

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only classifies 63 out of 107 genes, though CCDS estimates are often considered lower bounds due to their conservative classification strategy. All single-copy Y-linked genes are

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Goto H, Peng L, Makova KD (February 2009). "Evolution of X-degenerate Y chromosome genes in greater apes: conservation of gene content in human and gorilla, but not chimpanzee".

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mammals are not present on the autosomes of platypus and birds. The older estimate was based on erroneous reports that the platypus X chromosomes contained these sequences.

1242:. This added 30 million base pairs, but it was discovered that the Y chromosome can vary a lot in size between individuals, from 45.2 million to 84.9 million base pairs. 4597:

Arakawa Y, Nishida-Umehara C, Matsuda Y, Sutou S, Suzuki H (2002). "X-chromosomal localization of mammalian Y-linked genes in two XO species of the Ryukyu spiny rat".

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Cortez D, Marin R, Toledo-Flores D, Froidevaux L, Liechti A, Waters PD, et al. (April 2014). "Origins and functional evolution of Y chromosomes across mammals".

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Mosaic loss may be related to health outcomes, indicating that the Y chromosome plays important roles outside of sex determination. Males with a higher percentage of

365:. Stevens proposed that chromosomes always existed in pairs and that the smaller chromosome (now labelled "Y") was the pair of the X chromosome discovered in 1890 by 5575:

Sethakulvichai W, Manitpornsut S, Wiboonrat M, Lilakiatsakun W, Assawamakin A, Tongsima S (2012). "Estimation of band level resolutions of human chromosome images".

641:. Each cellular division provides further opportunity to accumulate base pair mutations. Additionally, sperm are stored in the highly oxidative environment of the 629:

The human Y chromosome is particularly exposed to high mutation rates due to the environment in which it is housed. The Y chromosome is passed exclusively through

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These values (ISCN start/stop) are based on the length of bands/ideograms from the ISCN book, An International System for Human Cytogenetic Nomenclature (2013).

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Until recently, the X and Y chromosomes in mammals were thought to have diverged around 300 million years ago. However, research published in 2008 analyzing the

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gave the following basic explanation in his 1967 paper on "Extraordinary sex ratios", given the condition that males and females cost equal amounts to produce:

211: 170: 6480:. McInnes, Roderick R., Willard, Huntington F., Hamosh, Ada., Thompson, Margaret W. (Margaret Wilson), 1920- (7th. ed.). Philadelphia: Saunders/Elsevier. 906:, the females, with just one X chromosome each, produce X gametes only, and the males, XY, produce Y gametes, or gametes devoid of any sex chromosome, through 4877:

Hamilton WD (April 1967). "Extraordinary sex ratios. A sex-ratio theory for sex linkage and inbreeding has new implications in cytogenetics and entomology".

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between the X and Y chromosomes. The bulk of the Y chromosome, which does not recombine, is called the "NRY", or non-recombining region of the Y chromosome.

419:, which triggers embryonic development as a male. The Y chromosomes of humans and other mammals also contain other genes needed for normal sperm production. 4050: 4471:

Marchal JA, Acosta MJ, Bullejos M, Díaz de la Guardia R, Sánchez A (2003). "Sex chromosomes, sex determination, and sex-linked sequences in Microtidae".

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portion of the Y chromosome to move to the X chromosome. When such an X chromosome is present in a zygote, male gonads develop because of the SRY gene.

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have no sex chromosomes. If these species have different sexes, sex is determined environmentally rather than genetically. For some species, especially

8140: 4370:"Recombination dynamics of a human Y-chromosomal palindrome: rapid GC-biased gene conversion, multi-kilobase conversion tracts, and rare inversions" 7924: 7840: 737:

discovered a process which may slow down the process of degradation. They found that human Y chromosome is able to "recombine" with itself, using

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Witkin HA, Mednick SA, Schulsinger F, Bakkestrom E, Christiansen KO, Goodenough DR, et al. (August 1976). "Criminality in XYY and XXY men".

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Just W, Baumstark A, Süss A, Graphodatsky A, Rens W, Schäfer N, et al. (2007). "Ellobius lutescens: sex determination and sex chromosome".

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Not a gene. First part of the AZF (Azoospermia factor) region on arm q. Contains the four following genes. X counterparts escape inactivation.

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Jacobs PA, Brunton M, Melville MM, Brittain RP, McClemont WF (December 1965). "Aggressive behavior, mental sub-normality and the XYY male".

8258: 7802: 1962: 6347: 4974:"Landscape of snake' sex chromosomes evolution spanning 85 MYR reveals ancestry of sequences despite distinct evolutionary trajectories" 2922: 41: 8268: 7035: 6485: 2776: 2710:

In 1996, it was found that male fetal progenitor cells could persist postpartum in the maternal blood stream for as long as 27 years.

216: 7301: 4180: 3180: 2662: 1763: 1141: 1080:), and the SRY gene so central to sex-determination in most other mammals is apparently not involved in platypus sex-determination. 450:(Swyer syndrome). A Y chromosome may also be present but fail to result in the development of a male phenotype in individuals with 8195: 8010: 2621:

The following Y-chromosome-linked diseases are rare, but notable because of their elucidation of the nature of the Y chromosome.

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with a single X (X0), are male but sterile. There are some species of Drosophila in which X0 males are both viable and fertile.

454:, instead resulting in a female or ambiguous phenotype. In other cases, the SRY gene is copied to the X, leading to birth of an 2752:

A 2012 study at the same institute has detected cells with the Y chromosome in multiple areas of the brains of deceased women.

2525:. The lack of the second X results in infertility. In other words, viewed from the opposite direction, the person goes through 2207:

Second AZF region on arm q. Prone to NAHR with AZFc. Overlaps with AZFc. Contains three single-copy gene regions and repeats.

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Brandeis M (May 2018). "New-age ideas about age-old sex: separating meiosis from mating could solve a century-old conundrum".

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and at least one potential drug that "may help counteract the harmful effects of the chromosome loss" is under investigation.

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Therefore, parents genetically disposed to produce males tend to have more than average numbers of grandchildren born to them.

8118: 6988: 5776: 2791: 1781: 1279:, TTTY transcripts, etc. Best if we add a figure that mashes together the tops of Colaco 2018 Fig 1 and PMID 12815422 fig 3.. 2404:

CDY1 is actually two identical copies. CDY2 is two closely related copies in palindrome P5. Probably derived from autosomal

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Ortiz MI, Pinna-Senn E, Dalmasso G, Lisanti JA (2009). "Chromosomal aspects and inheritance of the XY female condition in

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The following are some of the gene count estimates of human Y chromosome. Because researchers use different approaches to

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By one estimate, the human Y chromosome has lost 1,393 of its 1,438 original genes over the course of its existence, and

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Guo X, Dai X, Zhou T, Wang H, Ni J, Xue J, Wang X (April 2020). "Mosaic loss of human Y chromosome: what, how and why".

3099:"Sex determination and sex differentiation in fish: an overview of genetic, physiological, and environmental influences" 784:

are long, about 2,068 base pairs, and significantly biased towards the fixation of G or C nucleotides (GC biased). The

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genome suggested that the XY sex-determination system would not have been present more than 166 million years ago, when

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A newborn male then has better mating prospects than a newborn female, and therefore can expect to have more offspring.

7919: 7914: 7909: 7904: 7833: 1073: 1022: 302: 7000: 4830:"Sequencing of rhesus macaque Y chromosome clarifies origins and evolution of the DAZ (Deleted in AZoospermia) genes" 1001:, the Y chromosome does not trigger male development. Instead, sex is determined by the number of X chromosomes. The 6124:"Loss of chromosome Y (LOY) in blood cells is associated with increased risk for disease and mortality in aging men" 8273: 8128: 7968: 4419:

Bonito M, D'Atanasio E, Ravasini F, Cariati S, Finocchio A, Novelletto A, Trombetta B, Cruciani F (November 2021).

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With a 30% difference between humans and chimpanzees, the Y chromosome is one of the fastest-evolving parts of the

393:, has two very short branches which can look merged under the microscope and appear as the descender of a Y-shape. 2311: 978:

The same reasoning holds if females are substituted for males throughout. Therefore, 1:1 is the equilibrium ratio.

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loss. Mosaic loss is strongly associated with age, and smoking is another important risk factor for mosaic loss.

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spp. have relocated some other genes ancestrally present on the Y chromosome to the X chromosome. Both sexes of

389:. This shape is vaguely X-shaped for all chromosomes. It is entirely coincidental that the Y chromosome, during 7899: 7624: 7408: 6422: 6176:"Mosaic loss of chromosome Y in peripheral blood is associated with shorter survival and higher risk of cancer" 3040: 2595: 2546: 2541:

is present. When the Y fragment is minimal and nonfunctional, the child is usually a girl with the features of

841: 818: 785: 708:, the Y chromosome has a much lower information content relative to its overall length, and is more redundant. 652: 556: 515:, when an ancestral animal developed an allelic variation (a so-called "sex locus") and simply possessing this 374: 2687:, maternally inherited to both sons and daughters, is used in an analogous way to trace the matrilineal line. 6972: 411:

Most therian mammals have only one pair of sex chromosomes in each cell. Males have one Y chromosome and one

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Findings were confirmed by comparing similar regions of the Y chromosome in humans to the Y chromosomes of

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inability to sort through its gene content, the Y chromosome is particularly prone to the accumulation of

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The human Y chromosome is normally unable to recombine with the X chromosome, except for small pieces of

175: 8200: 7565: 7463: 4779:"Neo-sex chromosomes in the black muntjac recapitulate incipient evolution of mammalian sex chromosomes" 4421:"New insights into the evolution of human Y chromosome palindromes through mutation and gene conversion" 4206:"Sequence space coverage, entropy of genomes and the potential to detect non-human DNA in human samples" 2781: 2761: 2642: 1850: 1183: 915: 439: 358: 235: 134: 97: 4925:"Bird and mammal sex-chromosome orthologs map to the same autosomal region in a salamander (ambystoma)" 942: 3098: 8248: 8135: 7785: 7710: 7695: 7525: 7473: 7448: 7388: 7263: 7048: 7009: 6923: 6825: 6594: 6518: 6378: 6279: 6077: 5446: 5303: 5140: 4985: 4886: 4702: 4323: 4084: 4003: 3933: 3845: 3739: 3613: 3502: 3489:

Warren WC, Hillier LW, Marshall Graves JA, Birney E, Ponting CP, Grützner F, et al. (May 2008).

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Graves JA, Koina E, Sankovic N (June 2006). "How the gene content of human sex chromosomes evolved".

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The lack of recombination across the majority of the Y chromosome makes it a useful tool in studying

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Lindblad-Toh K, Wade CM, Mikkelsen TS, Karlsson EK, Jaffe DB, Kamal M, et al. (December 2005).

1104: 607:. However, these changes have been limited to non-coding sequences and comparisons of the human and 8032: 8000: 7453: 7270: 6628:

Witkin HA, Goodenough DR, Hirschhorn K (October 1977). "XYY men: are they criminally aggressive?".

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Forsberg LA, Rasi C, Malmqvist N, Davies H, Pasupulati S, Pakalapati G, et al. (June 2014).

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The X and Y chromosomes are thought to have evolved from a pair of identical chromosomes, termed

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at different points in its life, but never producing both at the same time. This is opposed to

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Dumanski JP, Rasi C, Lönn M, Davies H, Ingelsson M, Giedraitis V, et al. (January 2015).

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Therefore, the genes for male-producing tendencies spread, and male births become more common.

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Hallast P, Ebert P, Loftus M, Yilmaz F, Audano PA, Logsdon GA, et al. (September 2023).

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Viana PF, Ezaz T, de Bello Cioffi M, Liehr T, Al-Rikabi A, Goll LG, et al. (July 2020).

2865: 2482:". However, a 2022 study showed that mosaic loss of the Y chromosome causally contributes to 2429: 2217: 2212: 2100: 2095: 2090:

X-transposed region (XTR) from Xq21, one of two genes. Once dubbed "PAR3" but later refuted.

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next 10 million years, or half that time with the current age estimate of 160 million years.

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In 1974, male chromosomes were discovered in fetal cells in the blood circulation of women.

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As the 1:1 sex ratio is approached, the advantage associated with producing males dies away.

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possess an XX genotype. The new sex-determining system(s) for these rodents remains unclear.

826: 422:

There are exceptions, however. Among humans, some males are born two Xs and a Y ("XXY", see

7760: 7755: 2385: 2301: 2297: 2292: 2288: 2114: 2066: 8185: 8167: 8113: 8057: 7597: 7418: 7366: 7275: 7025: 7013: 6814:"Male fetal progenitor cells persist in maternal blood for as long as 27 years postpartum" 6268:"Hematopoietic loss of Y chromosome leads to cardiac fibrosis and heart failure mortality" 5708:"Scientists Reshape Y Chromosome Haplogroup Tree Gaining New Insights Into Human Ancestry" 4642:"Multiple origins of XY female mice (genus Akodon): phylogenetic and chromosomal evidence" 2587: 2542: 2417: 2413: 2405: 2397: 2373: 2336: 2315: 2269: 2192: 2187: 2119: 1815: 1811: 1776:(which comprise about 5% of the chromosome's length). These regions are relics of ancient 1272: 864: 777: 745: 567: 500: 435: 366: 88: 5290:

Rhie A, Nurk S, Cechova M, Hoyt SJ, Taylor DJ, Altemose N, et al. (September 2023).

3976: 3551:

Veyrunes F, Waters PD, Miethke P, Rens W, McMillan D, Alsop AE, et al. (June 2008).

3147:"6. Sex Determination and Gametogenesis §6.4 Environmental Sex Determination in Reptiles" 6927: 6829: 6598: 6522: 6382: 6283: 6266:

Sano S, Horitani K, Ogawa H, Halvardson J, Chavkin NW, Wang Y, et al. (July 2022).

6081: 5578:

2012 Ninth International Conference on Computer Science and Software Engineering (JCSSE)

5467: 5450: 5434: 5324: 5307: 5291: 5144: 4989: 4890: 4706: 4527: 4327: 4266:

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences

4088: 4007: 3937: 3849: 3743: 3617: 3506: 3270: 3213: 3115: 1281:

Please expand the article to include this information. Further details may exist on the

7941: 7488: 7412: 7036:

Genetic Genealogy: About the use of mtDNA and Y chromosome analysis in ancestry testing

6946: 6911: 6740: 6713: 6689: 6664: 6641: 6399: 6366: 6300: 6267: 6200: 6175: 6148: 6123: 5950: 5923: 5753: 5726: 5651: 5383: 5356: 5006: 4973: 4949: 4924: 4854: 4829: 4805: 4778: 4666: 4641: 4445: 4420: 4396: 4369: 4286: 4261: 4232: 4205: 4163:

Bernstein H, Hopf FA, Michod RE (1987). "The molecular basis of the evolution of sex".

3809: 3784: 3760: 3727: 3577: 3552: 3523: 3490: 3463: 3439:"Y-chromosome evolution: emerging insights into processes of Y-chromosome degeneration" 3438: 3292:

Lahn BT, Page DC (October 1999). "Four evolutionary strata on the human X chromosome".

3198:"Hermaphroditism in fishes: an annotated list of species, phylogeny, and mating system" 3066: 2610: 2526: 2463: 1832: 1167: 954: 922:, evolved new X and Y chromosomes through fusions of the ancestral sex chromosomes and 907: 882: 613: 483: 343: 306: 286: 4172: 3858: 3833: 3123: 415:, while females have two X chromosomes. In mammals, the Y chromosome contains a gene, 8263: 8237: 8155: 8086: 8052: 7963: 7929: 7468: 7201: 7196: 7191: 7186: 7181: 7176: 7171: 7166: 7161: 7156: 7151: 7146: 7141: 6910:

Chan WF, Gurnot C, Montine TJ, Sonnen JA, Guthrie KA, Nelson JL (26 September 2012).

6848: 6813: 6781: 6765:"Fetal leukocytes in the maternal circulation after delivery. I. Cytological aspects" 6764: 6252: 6105: 5576: 5484: 5341: 4746: 4729: 3553:"Bird-like sex chromosomes of platypus imply recent origin of mammal sex chromosomes" 3239: 2606: 1238:

of a human Y chromosome was shown to contain 62,460,029 base pairs and 41 additional

1207: 1199: 1163: 899: 756: 690: 638: 634: 597: 589: 579: 495: 487: 6798: 6003: 5604: 5233: 5117: 5074: 4763: 4626: 4578: 4500: 3961: 3875: 3684: 570:, since recombination complicates the mathematical models used to trace ancestries. 559:

during meiosis. However, in males, the X and Y pair in a shared region known as the

377:

is, in fact, due to the presence or absence of the Y chromosome. In the early 1920s

17: 8222: 8074: 7946: 7892: 7443: 7317: 7258: 7219: 7136: 7131: 7126: 7121: 7116: 7111: 7106: 7101: 7096: 7071: 6546: 5784: 5168: 4730:"A model of the evolution of the unusual sex chromosome system of Microtus oregoni" 4351: 4149: 4073:"Genome sequence, comparative analysis and haplotype structure of the domestic dog" 4031: 3800: 3641: 3383: 2577: 2530: 2521:(i.e., is born with female-like genitalia) even though that person possesses an XY 2274: 1987: 1968: 1967:

In general, the human Y chromosome is extremely gene poor—it is one of the largest

1195: 875: 813:

have reached a stage where the XY system has been modified, in the following ways:

705: 701: 697: 604: 427: 412: 298: 271: 252: 151: 539:

XY system is based on the finding that sequences that are on the X chromosomes of

381:

determined that X and Y chromosomes determined sex in humans (and other mammals).

6936: 6888: 5549: 4898: 4714: 4386: 3305: 729:

As it has been already mentioned, the Y chromosome is unable to recombine during

7662: 7657: 7520: 7498: 7493: 7361: 7079: 6994: 6730: 4940: 2025: 1037: 475: 326: 6818:

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

6236: 5586: 5458: 5435:"Assembly of 43 human Y chromosomes reveals extensive complexity and variation" 5315: 4997: 3366: 3349: 3222: 3197: 7682: 7672: 7667: 7652: 7592: 7582: 7483: 7458: 7432: 7383: 7373: 7321: 6139: 5987: 5940: 5924:"Genetics of the human Y chromosome and its association with male infertility" 5686: 5679: 5671: 5406: 5101: 5047: 5030: 4247: 3945: 3410: 3168: 2564: 2466: 2444: 2177: 2172: 2058: 1837: 1235: 1191: 1187: 1155: 991: 810: 752: 738: 669: 540: 120: 115: 5743: 5373: 4514:

Wilson MA, Makova KD (2009). "Genomic analyses of sex chromosome evolution".

3231: 3131: 8062: 8037: 8027: 8015: 7634: 7378: 7356: 7337: 7286: 6495: 6390: 6291: 6089: 5667: 5551:

ISCN 2013: An International System for Human Cytogenetic Nomenclature (2013)

5088:

Schartl M (July 2004). "A comparative view on sex determination in medaka".

4795: 4222: 2801: 2680: 2522: 2518: 2475: 1356: 1203: 950: 741: 544: 532: 472: 447: 431: 362: 310: 77: 63: 47: 6955: 6896: 6749: 6698: 6649: 6606: 6408: 6309: 6244: 6209: 6157: 6097: 6068:

Zeiher A, Braun T (July 2022). "Mosaic loss of Y chromosome during aging".

6054: 5995: 5959: 5830: 5762: 5548:

International Standing Committee on Human Cytogenetic Nomenclature (2013).

5476: 5392: 5333: 5219: 5160: 5109: 5066: 5015: 4958: 4863: 4845: 4814: 4755: 4675: 4657: 4618: 4570: 4535: 4492: 4454: 4405: 4343: 4295: 4277: 4241: 4141: 4106: 4047:"Biologists Debunk the 'Rotting' Y Chromosome Theory, Men Will Still Exist" 4023: 3953: 3910: 3818: 3769: 3633: 3586: 3532: 3472: 3418: 3375: 3313: 3278: 2941: 1259: 163: 6857: 6838: 6812:

Bianchi DW, Zickwolf GK, Weil GJ, Sylvester S, DeMaria MA (January 1996).

6790: 6538: 4906: 4436: 4190: 3889:

Graves JA (2004). "The degenerate Y chromosome--can conversion save it?".

3867: 3676: 1040:; the females have ZW sex chromosomes, and males have ZZ sex chromosomes. 8079: 7980: 7620: 7404: 7211: 7088: 6614: 2676: 2591: 2483: 2280: 1784:(SNPs) in this region are used to trace direct paternal ancestral lines. 1773: 1276: 1061: 923: 851: 656: 528: 512: 406: 361:

independently discovered the same mechanisms the same year, working with

351: 108: 5152: 4335: 4097: 4072: 4015: 3625: 3514: 3491:"Genome analysis of the platypus reveals unique signatures of evolution" 1072:

Platypus sex chromosomes have strong sequence similarity with the avian

446:

gene is activated and/or the SRY gene is damaged leading to birth of an

8047: 8020: 7790: 7644: 7555: 7550: 6448:"Loss of male sex chromosome may lead to earlier death for men – study" 6045: 5530:. U.S. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). 2015-08-11 5505:. U.S. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). 2014-06-04 3668: 3568: 2903:. U.S. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). 2014-06-03 2331: 2080: 1990: 1913: 1345: 1324: 1066: 806: 781: 771: 730: 681: 664: 649: 479: 455: 390: 386: 329:. The Y chromosome is passed only from male parents to male offspring. 261: 158: 6680: 6530: 6035: 6018: 5258: 5210: 5200: 5183: 5057: 4610: 4562: 4484: 4133: 3751: 3432: 3430: 3428: 8069: 8042: 7875: 7700: 7587: 7351: 7347: 7342: 6367:"Mutagenesis. Smoking is associated with mosaic loss of chromosome Y" 5831:"Human chromosome Y: entries, gene names and cross-references to MIM" 5727:"Between a chicken and a grape: estimating the number of human genes" 5357:"Between a chicken and a grape: estimating the number of human genes" 2646: 2590:

and colleagues published a chromosome survey of 315 male patients at

2470: 2323: 2241: 2226: 2033: 1005:

Y chromosome does contain genes necessary for male fertility. So XXY

891: 802: 767: 733:

like the other human chromosomes; however, in 2003, researchers from

685: 660: 642: 536: 516: 491: 290: 242: 199: 6191: 4368:

Hallast P, Balaresque P, Bowden GR, Ballereau S, Jobling MA (2013).

3902: 3454: 3254: 2724:

Patients in Group B (22%) had a history of one or more miscarriages.

2630:

issues, but the severity features of these conditions are variable.

995:, some other insects, some fish, some reptiles, and some plants. In 6712:

Kopsida E, Stergiakouli E, Lynn PM, Wilkinson LS, Davies W (2009).

4777:

Zhou Q, Wang J, Huang L, Nie W, Wang J, Liu Y, et al. (2008).

1178:. However, some genes are repeated, making the number of exclusive 616:

25 million years ago. These facts provide direct evidence that the

342:

The Y chromosome was identified as a sex-determining chromosome by

7765: 7750: 7745: 7740: 7735: 7730: 7725: 7720: 7715: 7690: 7628: 6665:"Rare 48, XYYY syndrome: case report and review of the literature" 2796: 2727:

Patients Group C (57%) had their pregnancies medically terminated.

2479: 2260: 2255: 2231: 2162: 2157: 2147: 2142: 2110: 2071: 2053: 2048: 2038: 1033: 663:

suggests an evolutionary explanation for the adaptive function of

630: 482:, sex depends on the incubation temperature. Some vertebrates are 7018: 7870: 6562:

Sex Itself: The Search for Male & Female in the Human Genome

5524:"Ideogram data for Homo sapience (550 bphs, Assembly GRCh38.p3)" 3196:

Kuwamura T, Sunobe T, Sakai Y, Kadota T, Sawada K (2020-07-01).

2897:"Ideogram data for Homo sapience (850 bphs, Assembly GRCh38.p3)" 2422: 2393: 2381: 2369: 2365: 2361: 2129: 2005: 1239: 1171: 1029: 443: 7822: 7290: 7044: 7040: 5499:"Ideogram data for Homo sapience (400 bphs, Assembly GRCh38.p3" 2455:

Males can lose the Y chromosome in a subset of cells, known as

535:

split from other mammals. This re-estimation of the age of the

7849: 2987:. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. pp. 170–2. 2650: 2020: 2015: 2000: 1253: 1159: 1087: 846: 490:, meaning the organism switches sex, producing male or female 416: 322: 318: 5678:: Region which is negatively stained by G banding, generally 2923:"Theophilus Shickel Painter: August 22, 1889-October 5, 1969" 2432:

family. The two copies of BPY1 are instead in Yq11.221/AZFa.

696:

A clear, quantitative indication of this inefficiency is the

6423:"Loss of male sex chromosome leads to earlier death for men" 1202:. Traits that are inherited via the Y chromosome are called 5860:

National Center for Biotechnology Information Gene Database

3350:"Sex chromosome specialization and degeneration in mammals" 373:, that the X chromosome determines sex, was wrong and that 309:

chromosome because the presence of the Y chromosome causes

7006: 6763:

Schröder J, Tiilikainen A, De la Chapelle A (April 1974).

3703:"On PAR: How X and Y Chromosomes Recombine During Meiosis" 2322:

Found in the "blue" amplicon. Identified by similarity to

700:

of the Y chromosome. Whereas all other chromosomes in the

4122:

Biological Reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society

2443:

Diseases linked to the Y chromosome typically involve an

1979:

Genes on the non-recombining portion of the Y chromosome

648:

The observation that the Y chromosome experiences little

434:), and some have a single X instead of two Xs ("X0", see 6320:"As Y Chromosomes Vanish With Age, Heart Risks May Grow" 3785:"Y-chromosomal genes affecting male fertility: A review" 2930:

Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences

1975:

genes, genes encoded on the human Y chromosome include:

7808:

International System for Human Cytogenetic Nomenclature

5255:"National Library of Medicine's Genetic Home Reference" 4167:. Advances in Genetics. Vol. 24. pp. 323–70. 3834:"Human evolution. Y-chromosome clues to human ancestry" 2469:

lacking the Y chromosome have a higher risk of certain

1154:

The human Y chromosome is composed of about 62 million

7818: 5184:"The evolution of marsupial and monotreme chromosomes" 4592: 4590: 4588: 3343: 2356:

Final (distal) part of the AZF. Multiple palindromes.

1814:

on each chromosome varies (for technical details, see

1271:

about NRY/MSY structure - How there's a huge chunk of

6991:—From the Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research 3341: 3339: 3337: 3335: 3333: 3331: 3329: 3327: 3325: 3323: 3012:"Swyer syndrome — Symptoms, Causes, Treatment | NORD" 7003:—Use of Novel Mechanism Preserves Y chromosome Genes 6663:

Abedi M, Salmaninejad A, Sakhinia E (January 2018).

3106:. Sex determination and sex differentation in fish. 2817:

Y-chromosome haplogroups in populations of the world

1190:(present on only one chromosome) except in cases of 1166:

and represents almost 2% of the total DNA in a male

8166: 7999: 7856: 7778: 7681: 7643: 7613: 7541: 7397: 7328: 7251: 7237: 7210: 7087: 7078: 5902:"Homo sapiens Y chromosome non-coding pseudo genes" 5031:"Sex chromosome evolution in moths and butterflies" 659:and degradative change compared to the rest of the 260: 241: 234: 222: 210: 198: 186: 181: 169: 157: 145: 133: 128: 114: 104: 87: 75: 70: 34: 5634:For cytogenetic banding nomenclature, see article 3783:Dhanoa JK, Mukhopadhyay CS, Arora JS (July 2016). 3097: 3052: 930:and rhesus monkeys diverged 30 million years ago. 684:, the Y chromosome is unable to expose individual 486:, though hermaphroditic species are most commonly 5806:"Chromosome Y: Chromosome summary — Homo sapiens" 4828:Hughes JF, Skaletsky H, Page DC (December 2012). 2953: 2951: 27:Sex chromosome in the XY sex-determination system 7001:National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI) 6714:"The Role of the Y Chromosome in Brain Function" 6348:"Y men are more likely to get cancer than women" 6169: 6167: 6117: 6115: 4260:Charlesworth B, Charlesworth D (November 2000). 3707:GEN — Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology News 3255:"A gene for the fourth chromosome of Drosophila" 3175:(6th ed.). Sinauer Associates. p. 60. 3061:(2nd ed.). Academic Press. pp. 71–74. 963:Suppose male births are less common than female. 889:, and multiple species in the grass mouse genus 6912:"Male microchimerism in the human female brain" 5428: 5426: 5292:"The complete sequence of a human Y chromosome" 4466: 4464: 3696: 3694: 2517:This results in the person presenting a female 438:). There are other variations in which, during 6869: 6867: 4363: 4361: 4204:Liu Z, Venkatesh SS, Maley CC (October 2008). 2962:. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. 7834: 7302: 7056: 6471: 6469: 5777:"Statistics & Downloads for chromosome Y" 5029:Sahara K, Yoshido A, Traut W (January 2012). 4918: 4916: 4309: 4307: 4305: 3726:Peneder P, Wallner B, Vogl C (October 2017). 3399:Current Opinion in Genetics & Development 2960:X in Sex : How the X Chromosome Controls 2730:Group D (10%) had never been pregnant before. 1359:of human Y chromosome in resolution 850 bphs 294: 8: 6564:. Chicago: U. of Chicago Press. p. 84. 6478:Thompson & Thompson genetics in medicine 5881:"Homo sapiens Y chromosome non-coding genes" 5554:. Karger Medical and Scientific Publishers. 5285: 5283: 5281: 5279: 5277: 5275: 4516:Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics 2602:karyotype" concept is therefore inaccurate. 2010:Sex-determining region. This is the p arm . 744:sequences. Such a "recombination" is called 321:. In mammals, the Y chromosome contains the 6017:Raudsepp T, Chowdhary BP (6 January 2016). 3598: 3596: 3546: 3544: 3542: 7841: 7827: 7819: 7640: 7309: 7295: 7287: 7084: 7063: 7049: 7041: 7031:NPR's Human Male: Still A Work In Progress 4640:Hoekstra HE, Edwards SV (September 2000). 3153:(13th ed.). Oxford University Press. 3051:Dominguez AA, Reijo Pera RA (2013-01-01). 2985:In Pursuit of the Gene: From Darwin to DNA 2594:'s only special security hospital for the 1275:in q, nomenclature of the palindromes and 56: 40: 6945: 6935: 6847: 6837: 6780: 6739: 6729: 6688: 6398: 6299: 6199: 6147: 6044: 6034: 5949: 5939: 5752: 5742: 5466: 5382: 5372: 5323: 5209: 5199: 5056: 5046: 5005: 4948: 4853: 4804: 4794: 4745: 4728:Charlesworth B, Dempsey ND (April 2001). 4665: 4444: 4395: 4385: 4285: 4231: 4221: 4096: 3857: 3808: 3759: 3576: 3522: 3484: 3482: 3462: 3365: 3221: 3035: 3033: 3031: 2891: 2889: 2887: 2721:Group A (8%) had had only female progeny. 2563:Klinefelter syndrome (47, XXY) is not an 2428:Three copies of VCX2 (BPY2). Part of the 2345:of RNA recognition motif (RRM) proteins. 1310:G-banding ideograms of human Y chromosome 1142:Learn how and when to remove this message 369:. She realized that the previous idea of 5856:"Homo sapiens Y chromosome coding genes" 5666:: Region which is positively stained by 3891:Reproduction, Fertility, and Development 1977: 1820: 1354: 1184:Consensus Coding Sequence (CCDS) Project 1118:Relevant discussion may be found on the 833:, and the Japanese spinous country rats 680:Without the ability to recombine during 520:the Y chromosome through the process of 5646: 5644: 3006: 3004: 2828: 2380:RRM genes in two palindromic clusters. 6019:"The Eutherian Pseudoautosomal Region" 5928:Reproductive Biology and Endocrinology 2834: 2832: 2797:Y chromosome Short Tandem Repeat (STR) 2715:Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center 2236:Another copy of ribosomal protein S4. 945:outlines why almost all species using 751:In the case of the Y chromosomes, the 31: 7798:List of organisms by chromosome count 5976:Functional & Integrative Genomics 5182:Deakin JE, Graves JA, Rens W (2012). 2772:Haplodiploid sex-determination system 2447:, an atypical number of chromosomes. 1170:. The human Y chromosome carries 693 7: 5355:Pertea M, Salzberg SL (2010-05-05). 4923:Smith JJ, Voss SR (September 2007). 3977:"Male Chromosome May Evolve Fastest" 3096:Devlin RH, Nagahama Y (2002-06-21). 1963:Category:Genes on human chromosome Y 1048:There are some species, such as the 325:gene, which triggers development of 7937:Heterogametic sex / Homogametic sex 7007:Ysearch.org – Public Y-DNA database 4528:10.1146/annurev-genom-082908-150105 4262:"The degeneration of Y chromosomes" 2864:Strachan T, Read A (2 April 2010). 2537:structure may occur, especially if 2341:Large number of copies. Part of an 6642:10.1002/j.2326-1951.1977.tb01570.x 5922:Colaco S, Modi D (February 2018). 5234:"Ensembl Human MapView release 43" 3067:10.1016/B978-0-12-374984-0.00793-2 3059:Brenner's Encyclopedia of Genetics 2777:Human Y chromosome DNA haplogroups 1971:in the human genome. Disregarding 1222:Sequence of the human Y chromosome 1206:traits, or holandric traits (from 25: 4165:Molecular Genetics of Development 3169:"Environmental Sex Determination" 2840:"Homo sapiens Y chromosome genes" 2748:possibly from sexual intercourse. 2663:Human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup 1764:Human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup 845:, have lost the Y chromosome and 8218: 8217: 8011:Evolution of sexual reproduction 6983:Human Genome Project Information 6877:The American Journal of Medicine 6782:10.1097/00007890-197404000-00003 5781:HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee 4747:10.1046/j.1365-2540.2001.00803.x 4646:Proceedings. Biological Sciences 3041:"XX Male Syndrome — an overview" 2844:CCDS Release 20 for Homo sapiens 1336: 1316: 1258: 1092: 7419:Macrochromosome/Microchromosome 6718:Open Neuroendocrinology Journal 6023:Cytogenetic and Genome Research 5188:Cytogenetic and Genome Research 4599:Cytogenetic and Genome Research 4473:Cytogenetic and Genome Research 4049:. Medical Daily. Archived from 3259:Journal of Experimental Zoology 3145:Barresi MJ, Gilbert SF (2023). 3057:. In Maloy S, Hughes K (eds.). 2870:. Garland Science. p. 45. 1782:Single-nucleotide polymorphisms 1758:Non-combining region of Y (NRY) 1162:, making it similar in size to 655:and has an accelerated rate of 452:androgen insensitivity syndrome 430:). Some females have three Xs ( 403:Androgen insensitivity syndrome 8119:Sexual reproduction in animals 6346:Coghlan A (13 December 2014). 5725:Pertea M, Salzberg SL (2010). 3926:Journal of Molecular Evolution 3832:Brookfield JF (October 1995). 3801:10.14202/vetworld.2016.783-791 2792:Single nucleotide polymorphism 2306:Found in the "blue" amplicon. 1234:sequence, CHM13. The complete 350:in 1905 during a study of the 89: 1: 7019:Y chromosome Consortium (YCC) 6985:—Human Chromosome Y Launchpad 4173:10.1016/S0065-2660(08)60012-7 3859:10.1016/S0960-9822(95)00224-7 3124:10.1016/S0044-8486(02)00057-1 2645:in the formation of the male 2105:The other X-transposed gene. 7991:Sex as a biological variable 7974:Simultaneous hermaphroditism 6937:10.1371/journal.pone.0045592 6889:10.1016/j.amjmed.2005.03.037 6476:Nussbaum, Robert L. (2007). 5783:. 2017-05-12. Archived from 4899:10.1126/science.156.3774.477 4715:10.1016/j.mambio.2008.03.001 4693:(Rodentia, Sigmodontinae)". 4387:10.1371/journal.pgen.1003666 3437:Bachtrog D (February 2013). 3306:10.1126/science.286.5441.964 2439:Y-chromosome-linked diseases 914:Outside of the rodents, the 8259:Genes on human chromosome Y 6731:10.2174/1876528900902010020 4941:10.1534/genetics.107.072033 4250:estimators of entropy rate. 3975:Wade N (January 13, 2010). 2625:More than two Y chromosomes 1112:. The specific problem is: 1023:ZW sex-determination system 303:XY sex-determination system 62:Y chromosome in human male 8290: 8129:Penile-vaginal intercourse 7969:Sequential hermaphroditism 7459:Dinoflagellate chromosomes 6997:—focus on the Y chromosome 6237:10.1007/s00439-020-02114-w 5587:10.1109/JCSSE.2012.6261965 5459:10.1038/s41586-023-06425-6 5316:10.1038/s41586-023-06457-y 4998:10.1038/s41598-020-69349-5 3367:10.1016/j.cell.2006.02.024 3223:10.1007/s10228-020-00754-6 2660: 2575: 2556: 2507:Y chromosome microdeletion 2502:Y chromosome microdeletion 1960: 1761: 1108:to meet Knowledge (XXG)'s 1020: 400: 385:well-defined shape during 46:Human Y chromosome (after 8269:Sex-determination systems 8213: 7959:Testis-determining factor 7803:List of sequenced genomes 7571:Chromosomal translocation 7444:A chromosome/B chromosome 7435:(or accessory chromosome) 6318:Kolata G (14 July 2022). 6140:10.1007/s00439-017-1799-2 5988:10.1007/s10142-013-0323-6 5941:10.1186/s12958-018-0330-5 5407:"Definition of holandric" 5102:10.1016/j.mod.2004.03.001 5090:Mechanisms of Development 5048:10.1007/s10577-011-9262-z 3946:10.1007/s00239-008-9189-y 3411:10.1016/j.gde.2006.04.007 2124:Testis-specific protein. 1810:their predictions of the 1044:Non-inverted Y chromosome 633:, which undergo multiple 426:), one X and two Ys (see 55: 39: 7900:Sex-determination system 7625:Telomere-binding protein 7439:Supernumerary chromosome 6122:Forsberg LA (May 2017). 5744:10.1186/gb-2010-11-5-206 5374:10.1186/gb-2010-11-5-206 3701:LeMieux J (2020-05-29). 3443:Nature Reviews. Genetics 3348:Graves JA (March 2006). 2867:Human Molecular Genetics 2596:developmentally disabled 2547:mixed gonadal dysgenesis 2388:are autosomal homologs. 985:Non-therian Y chromosome 842:Tokudaia tokunoshimensis 819:Transcaucasian mole vole 551:Recombination inhibition 305:, in which the Y is the 7245:Human mitochondrial DNA 6391:10.1126/science.1262092 6292:10.1126/science.abn3100 6090:10.1126/science.add0839 4796:10.1186/gb-2008-9-6-r98 4223:10.1186/1471-2164-9-509 3202:Ichthyological Research 1770:pseudoautosomal regions 998:Drosophila melanogaster 805:in the sister families 7883:Sexual differentiation 7561:Structural alterations 6989:On Topic: Y Chromosome 6978:Ensembl genome browser 6973:CHM13v2.0 Y chromosome 6607:10.1126/science.959813 6560:Richardson SS (2013). 6427:University of Virginia 5528:Genome Decoration Page 5503:Genome Decoration Page 4846:10.1002/bies.201200066 4658:10.1098/rspb.2000.1217 4278:10.1098/rstb.2000.0717 3279:10.1002/jez.1400170303 2901:Genome Decoration Page 2529:but fails to complete 2513:Defective Y chromosome 2279:Found in the "yellow" 2043:Ribosomal protein S4. 1269:is missing information 561:pseudoautosomal region 371:Clarence Erwin McClung 7925:Temperature-dependent 7578:Numerical alterations 7566:Chromosomal inversion 7464:Homologous chromosome 6839:10.1073/pnas.93.2.705 6669:Clinical Case Reports 3732:Ecology and Evolution 3173:Developmental Biology 3151:Developmental Biology 2958:Bainbridge D (2003). 2782:List of Y-STR markers 2762:Genealogical DNA test 2681:traditional genealogy 2643:genetic recombination 2182:Histone demethylase. 1762:Further information: 887:Dicrostonyx torquatus 863:have an XO genotype ( 780:tracts formed during 676:Inefficient selection 462:Origins and evolution 440:embryonic development 359:Edmund Beecher Wilson 83:62,460,029 bp (CHM13) 7786:Extrachromosomal DNA 7474:Satellite chromosome 7449:Lampbrush chromosome 7389:Nuclear organization 7264:Human Genome Project 7239:Mitochondrial genome 5581:. pp. 276–282. 2713:A 2004 study at the 2675:(the application of 2559:Klinefelter syndrome 2451:Loss of Y chromosome 2152:Ubiquitin protease. 1833:Non-coding RNA genes 1828:Protein-coding genes 1228:Human Genome Project 1124:improve this section 1076:, (indicating close 920:Muntiacus crinifrons 670:repairing DNA damage 618:linear extrapolation 580:linear extrapolation 424:Klinefelter syndrome 301:, it is part of the 182:External map viewers 18:Y chromosome (human) 8254:Chromosomes (human) 8141:Hormonal motivation 8114:Fungal reproduction 8033:Reproductive system 7479:Centromere position 7454:Polytene chromosome 7424:Circular chromosome 7271:List of human genes 6928:2012PLoSO...745592C 6830:1996PNAS...93..705B 6599:1976Sci...193..547W 6523:1965Natur.208.1351J 6383:2015Sci...347...81D 6284:2022Sci...377..292S 6082:2022Sci...377..266Z 5693:: Variable region; 5451:2023Natur.621..355H 5308:2023Natur.621..344R 5153:10.1038/nature13151 5145:2014Natur.508..488C 5035:Chromosome Research 4990:2020NatSR..1012499V 4891:1967Sci...156..477H 4707:2009MamBi..74..125O 4437:10.1093/hmg/ddab189 4336:10.1038/nature01723 4328:2003Natur.423..873R 4272:(1403): 1563–1572. 4098:10.1038/nature04338 4089:2005Natur.438..803L 4016:10.1038/nature04101 4008:2005Natur.437..100H 3938:2009JMolE..68..134G 3850:1995CBio....5.1114B 3744:2017EcoEv...7.8478P 3626:10.1038/nature03021 3618:2004Natur.432..913G 3515:10.1038/nature06936 3507:2008Natur.453..175W 3271:1914JEZ....17..325M 3214:2020IchtR..67..341K 3167:Gilbert SF (2000). 3116:2002Aquac.208..191D 2983:Schwartz J (2009). 2807:Y-chromosomal Aaron 2745:vanished male twin, 1980: 1360: 1329:UCSC Genome Browser 1214:, "whole" + ἀνδρός 1182:genes just 42. The 1174:, 107 of which are 947:sexual reproduction 879:Myopus schisticolor 801:Several species of 585:Comparative genomic 467:Before Y chromosome 315:sexual reproduction 129:Complete gene lists 116:Centromere position 8146:Human reproduction 8124:Sexual intercourse 8109:Plant reproduction 7024:2017-01-16 at the 7012:2011-01-04 at the 6324:The New York Times 5810:Ensembl Release 88 4978:Scientific Reports 4551:Sexual Development 4246:Fig. 6, using the 3669:10.1007/BF00360536 3569:10.1101/gr.7101908 3253:Muller HJ (1914). 2812:Y-chromosomal Adam 2697:androgenic hormone 2667:Y-chromosomal Adam 2478:related to normal 1978: 1355: 1226:At the end of the 1084:Human Y chromosome 1050:Japanese rice fish 943:Fisher's principle 861:Ellobius lutescens 836:Tokudaia osimensis 823:Ellobius lutescens 625:High mutation rate 379:Theophilus Painter 236:Full DNA sequences 35:Human Y chromosome 8274:Sexual dimorphism 8231: 8230: 8151:Lordosis behavior 7866:Sexual dimorphism 7816: 7815: 7774: 7773: 7511:Centromere number 7428:Linear chromosome 7284: 7283: 7276:Human archaeology 7233: 7232: 6681:10.1002/ccr3.1311 6593:(4253): 547–555. 6571:978-0-226-08468-8 6531:10.1038/2081351a0 6036:10.1159/000443157 5596:978-1-4673-1921-8 5561:978-3-318-02253-7 5445:(7978): 355–364. 5302:(7978): 344–354. 5201:10.1159/000339433 5139:(7497): 488–493. 4885:(3774): 477–488. 4740:(Pt 4): 387–394. 4695:Mammalian Biology 4652:(1455): 1825–31. 4611:10.1159/000071608 4563:10.1159/000104771 4485:10.1159/000074347 4431:(23): 2272–2285. 4322:(6942): 873–876. 4134:10.1111/brv.12367 4083:(7069): 803–819. 4002:(7055): 100–103. 3844:(10): 1114–1115. 3752:10.1002/ece3.3278 3738:(20): 8478–8487. 3501:(7192): 175–183. 3160:978-0-19-757459-1 3076:978-0-12-374984-0 2994:978-0-674-03491-4 2969:978-0-674-01621-7 2877:978-1-136-84407-2 2767:Genetic genealogy 2685:Mitochondrial DNA 2673:genetic genealogy 2657:Genetic genealogy 2586:In 1965 and 1966 2490:, and mortality. 2436: 2435: 1954: 1953: 1808:genome annotation 1755: 1754: 1300: 1299: 1152: 1151: 1144: 1110:quality standards 1101:This section may 1056:Multiple XY pairs 555:Most chromosomes 375:sex determination 348:Bryn Mawr College 297:. Along with the 279: 278: 16:(Redirected from 8281: 8221: 8220: 8181:Animal sexuality 8104:Sexual selection 7843: 7836: 7829: 7820: 7641: 7605:Polyploidization 7433:Extra chromosome 7348:Genetic material 7311: 7304: 7297: 7288: 7085: 7065: 7058: 7051: 7042: 6960: 6959: 6949: 6939: 6907: 6901: 6900: 6871: 6862: 6861: 6851: 6841: 6809: 6803: 6802: 6784: 6760: 6754: 6753: 6743: 6733: 6709: 6703: 6702: 6692: 6660: 6654: 6653: 6625: 6619: 6618: 6582: 6576: 6575: 6557: 6551: 6550: 6517:(5017): 1351–2. 6506: 6500: 6499: 6473: 6464: 6463: 6461: 6459: 6444: 6438: 6437: 6435: 6433: 6419: 6413: 6412: 6402: 6362: 6356: 6355: 6343: 6337: 6334: 6332: 6330: 6313: 6303: 6263: 6257: 6256: 6220: 6214: 6213: 6203: 6171: 6162: 6161: 6151: 6119: 6110: 6109: 6065: 6059: 6058: 6048: 6038: 6014: 6008: 6007: 5970: 5964: 5963: 5953: 5943: 5919: 5913: 5912: 5910: 5909: 5898: 5892: 5891: 5889: 5888: 5877: 5871: 5870: 5868: 5867: 5852: 5846: 5845: 5843: 5842: 5827: 5821: 5820: 5818: 5817: 5802: 5796: 5795: 5793: 5792: 5773: 5767: 5766: 5756: 5746: 5722: 5716: 5715: 5704: 5698: 5661: 5655: 5648: 5639: 5632: 5626: 5615: 5609: 5608: 5572: 5566: 5565: 5545: 5539: 5538: 5536: 5535: 5520: 5514: 5513: 5511: 5510: 5495: 5489: 5488: 5470: 5430: 5421: 5420: 5418: 5417: 5403: 5397: 5396: 5386: 5376: 5352: 5346: 5345: 5327: 5287: 5270: 5269: 5267: 5266: 5257:. Archived from 5251: 5245: 5244: 5242: 5241: 5230: 5224: 5223: 5213: 5203: 5194:(2–4): 113–129. 5179: 5173: 5172: 5128: 5122: 5121: 5096:(7–8): 639–645. 5085: 5079: 5078: 5060: 5050: 5026: 5020: 5019: 5009: 4969: 4963: 4962: 4952: 4920: 4911: 4910: 4874: 4868: 4867: 4857: 4825: 4819: 4818: 4808: 4798: 4774: 4768: 4767: 4749: 4725: 4719: 4718: 4686: 4680: 4679: 4669: 4637: 4631: 4630: 4594: 4583: 4582: 4546: 4540: 4539: 4511: 4505: 4504: 4479:(3–4): 266–273. 4468: 4459: 4458: 4448: 4416: 4410: 4409: 4399: 4389: 4365: 4356: 4355: 4311: 4300: 4299: 4289: 4257: 4251: 4245: 4235: 4225: 4201: 4195: 4194: 4160: 4154: 4153: 4117: 4111: 4110: 4100: 4068: 4062: 4061: 4059: 4058: 4042: 4036: 4035: 3991: 3985: 3984: 3972: 3966: 3965: 3921: 3915: 3914: 3886: 3880: 3879: 3861: 3829: 3823: 3822: 3812: 3780: 3774: 3773: 3763: 3723: 3717: 3716: 3714: 3713: 3698: 3689: 3688: 3652: 3646: 3645: 3600: 3591: 3590: 3580: 3548: 3537: 3536: 3526: 3486: 3477: 3476: 3466: 3434: 3423: 3422: 3394: 3388: 3387: 3369: 3345: 3318: 3317: 3289: 3283: 3282: 3250: 3244: 3243: 3225: 3193: 3187: 3186: 3164: 3142: 3136: 3135: 3101: 3093: 3087: 3086: 3084: 3083: 3056: 3048: 3037: 3026: 3025: 3023: 3022: 3016:rarediseases.org 3008: 2999: 2998: 2980: 2974: 2973: 2955: 2946: 2945: 2927: 2921:Glass B (1990). 2918: 2912: 2911: 2909: 2908: 2893: 2882: 2881: 2861: 2855: 2854: 2852: 2851: 2836: 2787:Muller's ratchet 2641:occurs due to a 2639:XX male syndrome 2634:XX male syndrome 2496:stopping smoking 1981: 1821: 1792:Sequence classes 1746: 1741: 1714: 1709: 1681: 1676: 1649: 1644: 1616: 1611: 1584: 1579: 1552: 1547: 1520: 1515: 1488: 1483: 1455: 1450: 1423: 1418: 1361: 1340: 1320: 1303:Cytogenetic band 1295: 1292: 1286: 1262: 1254: 1232:reference genome 1147: 1140: 1136: 1133: 1127: 1096: 1095: 1088: 1060:Monotremes like 1009:are female, and 904:Microtus oregoni 869:Ellobius tancrei 831:Ellobius tancrei 827:Zaisan mole vole 798:system arises. 793:Future evolution 719:Muller's ratchet 355:Tenebrio molitor 275: 256: 91: 60: 44: 32: 21: 8289: 8288: 8284: 8283: 8282: 8280: 8279: 8278: 8234: 8233: 8232: 8227: 8209: 8196:Differentiation 8186:Human sexuality 8176:Plant sexuality 8162: 8058:Spermatogenesis 8002: 7995: 7858: 7852: 7847: 7817: 7812: 7770: 7677: 7639: 7609: 7598:Paleopolyploidy 7543: 7537: 7393: 7367:Heterochromatin 7330: 7324: 7315: 7285: 7280: 7247: 7229: 7206: 7074: 7069: 7026:Wayback Machine 7014:Wayback Machine 6969: 6964: 6963: 6909: 6908: 6904: 6873: 6872: 6865: 6811: 6810: 6806: 6769:Transplantation 6762: 6761: 6757: 6711: 6710: 6706: 6662: 6661: 6657: 6627: 6626: 6622: 6584: 6583: 6579: 6572: 6559: 6558: 6554: 6508: 6507: 6503: 6488: 6475: 6474: 6467: 6457: 6455: 6452:The Independent 6446: 6445: 6441: 6431: 6429: 6421: 6420: 6416: 6377:(6217): 81–83. 6364: 6363: 6359: 6345: 6344: 6340: 6328: 6326: 6317: 6278:(6603): 292–7. 6265: 6264: 6260: 6222: 6221: 6217: 6192:10.1038/ng.2966 6180:Nature Genetics 6173: 6172: 6165: 6121: 6120: 6113: 6076:(6603): 266–7. 6067: 6066: 6062: 6016: 6015: 6011: 5972: 5971: 5967: 5921: 5920: 5916: 5907: 5905: 5900: 5899: 5895: 5886: 5884: 5879: 5878: 5874: 5865: 5863: 5854: 5853: 5849: 5840: 5838: 5829: 5828: 5824: 5815: 5813: 5804: 5803: 5799: 5790: 5788: 5775: 5774: 5770: 5724: 5723: 5719: 5714:. 3 April 2008. 5706: 5705: 5701: 5682:and gene rich; 5674:and gene poor; 5662: 5658: 5649: 5642: 5633: 5629: 5621:": Short arm; " 5616: 5612: 5597: 5574: 5573: 5569: 5562: 5547: 5546: 5542: 5533: 5531: 5522: 5521: 5517: 5508: 5506: 5497: 5496: 5492: 5432: 5431: 5424: 5415: 5413: 5405: 5404: 5400: 5354: 5353: 5349: 5289: 5288: 5273: 5264: 5262: 5253: 5252: 5248: 5239: 5237: 5236:. February 2014 5232: 5231: 5227: 5181: 5180: 5176: 5130: 5129: 5125: 5087: 5086: 5082: 5028: 5027: 5023: 4971: 4970: 4966: 4922: 4921: 4914: 4876: 4875: 4871: 4840:(12): 1035–44. 4827: 4826: 4822: 4776: 4775: 4771: 4727: 4726: 4722: 4688: 4687: 4683: 4639: 4638: 4634: 4596: 4595: 4586: 4548: 4547: 4543: 4513: 4512: 4508: 4470: 4469: 4462: 4418: 4417: 4413: 4380:(7): e1003666. 4367: 4366: 4359: 4313: 4312: 4303: 4259: 4258: 4254: 4203: 4202: 4198: 4183: 4162: 4161: 4157: 4119: 4118: 4114: 4070: 4069: 4065: 4056: 4054: 4044: 4043: 4039: 3993: 3992: 3988: 3974: 3973: 3969: 3923: 3922: 3918: 3903:10.1071/RD03096 3888: 3887: 3883: 3838:Current Biology 3831: 3830: 3826: 3782: 3781: 3777: 3725: 3724: 3720: 3711: 3709: 3700: 3699: 3692: 3663:(10): 596–601. 3654: 3653: 3649: 3612:(7019): 913–7. 3602: 3601: 3594: 3557:Genome Research 3550: 3549: 3540: 3488: 3487: 3480: 3455:10.1038/nrg3366 3436: 3435: 3426: 3396: 3395: 3391: 3347: 3346: 3321: 3300:(5441): 964–7. 3291: 3290: 3286: 3252: 3251: 3247: 3195: 3194: 3190: 3183: 3166: 3165: 3161: 3144: 3143: 3139: 3095: 3094: 3090: 3081: 3079: 3077: 3050: 3049: 3039: 3038: 3029: 3020: 3018: 3010: 3009: 3002: 2995: 2982: 2981: 2977: 2970: 2957: 2956: 2949: 2925: 2920: 2919: 2915: 2906: 2904: 2895: 2894: 2885: 2878: 2863: 2862: 2858: 2849: 2847: 2838: 2837: 2830: 2825: 2758: 2705: 2693: 2669: 2661:Main articles: 2659: 2636: 2627: 2619: 2605:There are also 2588:Patricia Jacobs 2580: 2574: 2561: 2555: 2543:Turner syndrome 2531:masculinization 2515: 2504: 2453: 2441: 2343:RBM gene family 1973:pseudoautosomal 1965: 1959: 1816:gene prediction 1812:number of genes 1804: 1802:Number of genes 1799: 1794: 1766: 1760: 1744: 1739: 1712: 1707: 1679: 1674: 1647: 1642: 1614: 1609: 1582: 1577: 1550: 1545: 1518: 1513: 1486: 1481: 1453: 1448: 1421: 1416: 1389: 1384: 1379: 1374: 1353: 1352: 1351: 1350: 1349: 1346:mitotic process 1341: 1333: 1332: 1321: 1312: 1311: 1305: 1296: 1290: 1287: 1280: 1273:heterochromatin 1263: 1252: 1224: 1148: 1137: 1131: 1128: 1117: 1097: 1093: 1086: 1058: 1046: 1025: 1019: 1011:D. melanogaster 1007:D. melanogaster 1003:D. melanogaster 987: 940: 867:), whereas all 865:Turner syndrome 795: 778:Gene conversion 746:gene conversion 727: 725:Gene conversion 714: 678: 627: 576: 568:human evolution 553: 509: 469: 464: 436:Turner syndrome 409: 399: 367:Hermann Henking 340: 335: 307:sex-determining 295:other organisms 291:therian mammals 287:sex chromosomes 266: 247: 123: 66: 51: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 8287: 8285: 8277: 8276: 8271: 8266: 8261: 8256: 8251: 8246: 8236: 8235: 8229: 8228: 8226: 8225: 8214: 8211: 8210: 8208: 8207: 8206: 8205: 8204: 8203: 8198: 8193: 8178: 8172: 8170: 8164: 8163: 8161: 8160: 8159: 8158: 8153: 8148: 8143: 8138: 8133: 8132: 8131: 8116: 8111: 8106: 8101: 8100: 8099: 8094: 8084: 8083: 8082: 8077: 8067: 8066: 8065: 8060: 8050: 8045: 8040: 8035: 8030: 8025: 8024: 8023: 8018: 8007: 8005: 7997: 7996: 7994: 7993: 7988: 7983: 7978: 7977: 7976: 7971: 7961: 7956: 7955: 7954: 7949: 7942:Sex chromosome 7939: 7934: 7933: 7932: 7927: 7922: 7917: 7912: 7907: 7897: 7896: 7895: 7890: 7880: 7879: 7878: 7873: 7862: 7860: 7854: 7853: 7848: 7846: 7845: 7838: 7831: 7823: 7814: 7813: 7811: 7810: 7805: 7800: 7795: 7794: 7793: 7782: 7780: 7776: 7775: 7772: 7771: 7769: 7768: 7763: 7758: 7753: 7748: 7743: 7738: 7733: 7728: 7723: 7718: 7713: 7708: 7703: 7698: 7693: 7687: 7685: 7679: 7678: 7676: 7675: 7670: 7665: 7660: 7655: 7649: 7647: 7638: 7637: 7632: 7617: 7615: 7611: 7610: 7608: 7607: 7602: 7601: 7600: 7595: 7590: 7585: 7575: 7574: 7573: 7568: 7558: 7553: 7547: 7545: 7539: 7538: 7536: 7535: 7534: 7533: 7528: 7523: 7518: 7508: 7507: 7506: 7501: 7496: 7491: 7489:Submetacentric 7486: 7476: 7471: 7466: 7461: 7456: 7451: 7446: 7441: 7436: 7430: 7421: 7416: 7415:or heterosome) 7409:Sex chromosome 7401: 7399: 7395: 7394: 7392: 7391: 7386: 7381: 7376: 7371: 7370: 7369: 7364: 7354: 7345: 7340: 7334: 7332: 7326: 7325: 7316: 7314: 7313: 7306: 7299: 7291: 7282: 7281: 7279: 7278: 7273: 7268: 7267: 7266: 7255: 7253: 7252:Related topics 7249: 7248: 7243: 7241: 7235: 7234: 7231: 7230: 7228: 7227: 7222: 7216: 7214: 7212:Sex chromosome 7208: 7207: 7205: 7204: 7199: 7194: 7189: 7184: 7179: 7174: 7169: 7164: 7159: 7154: 7149: 7144: 7139: 7134: 7129: 7124: 7119: 7114: 7109: 7104: 7099: 7093: 7091: 7082: 7080:Nuclear genome 7076: 7075: 7070: 7068: 7067: 7060: 7053: 7045: 7039: 7038: 7033: 7028: 7016: 7004: 6998: 6992: 6986: 6980: 6975: 6968: 6967:External links 6965: 6962: 6961: 6902: 6883:(8): 899–906. 6863: 6804: 6775:(4): 346–354. 6755: 6704: 6675:(1): 179–184. 6655: 6620: 6577: 6570: 6552: 6501: 6487:978-1416030805 6486: 6465: 6454:. 14 July 2022 6439: 6414: 6357: 6338: 6336: 6335: 6316:News article: 6258: 6231:(4): 421–446. 6225:Human Genetics 6215: 6163: 6134:(5): 657–663. 6128:Human Genetics 6111: 6060: 6029:(2–3): 81–94. 6009: 5982:(3): 285–293. 5965: 5914: 5893: 5872: 5847: 5822: 5797: 5768: 5731:Genome Biology 5717: 5699: 5656: 5652:Arbitrary unit 5640: 5627: 5610: 5595: 5567: 5560: 5540: 5515: 5490: 5422: 5411:Dictionary.com 5398: 5361:Genome Biology 5347: 5271: 5246: 5225: 5174: 5123: 5080: 5021: 4964: 4935:(1): 607–613. 4912: 4869: 4820: 4783:Genome Biology 4769: 4720: 4681: 4632: 4605:(1–4): 303–9. 4584: 4557:(4): 211–221. 4541: 4522:(1): 333–354. 4506: 4460: 4411: 4357: 4301: 4252: 4196: 4181: 4155: 4128:(2): 801–810. 4112: 4063: 4037: 3986: 3981:New York Times 3967: 3932:(2): 134–144. 3916: 3897:(5): 527–534. 3881: 3824: 3775: 3718: 3690: 3647: 3592: 3563:(6): 965–973. 3538: 3478: 3449:(2): 113–124. 3424: 3405:(3): 219–224. 3389: 3360:(5): 901–914. 3319: 3284: 3265:(3): 325–336. 3245: 3208:(3): 341–360. 3188: 3181: 3159: 3137: 3110:(3): 191–364. 3088: 3075: 3045:Science Direct 3027: 3000: 2993: 2975: 2968: 2947: 2913: 2883: 2876: 2856: 2827: 2826: 2824: 2821: 2820: 2819: 2814: 2809: 2804: 2799: 2794: 2789: 2784: 2779: 2774: 2769: 2764: 2757: 2754: 2750: 2749: 2746: 2743: 2740: 2732: 2731: 2728: 2725: 2722: 2704: 2703:Microchimerism 2701: 2692: 2691:Brain function 2689: 2658: 2655: 2649:, causing the 2635: 2632: 2626: 2623: 2618: 2615: 2611:XXXXY syndrome 2576:Main article: 2573: 2570: 2557:Main article: 2554: 2551: 2527:defeminization 2514: 2511: 2503: 2500: 2452: 2449: 2440: 2437: 2434: 2433: 2426: 2420: 2410: 2409: 2402: 2400: 2390: 2389: 2378: 2376: 2358: 2357: 2354: 2351: 2347: 2346: 2339: 2334: 2328: 2327: 2320: 2318: 2308: 2307: 2304: 2295: 2285: 2284: 2277: 2272: 2266: 2265: 2263: 2258: 2252: 2251: 2249: 2244: 2238: 2237: 2234: 2229: 2223: 2222: 2220: 2215: 2209: 2208: 2205: 2202: 2198: 2197: 2195: 2190: 2184: 2183: 2180: 2175: 2169: 2168: 2165: 2160: 2154: 2153: 2150: 2145: 2139: 2138: 2135: 2132: 2126: 2125: 2122: 2117: 2107: 2106: 2103: 2098: 2092: 2091: 2088: 2083: 2077: 2076: 2074: 2069: 2063: 2062: 2056: 2051: 2045: 2044: 2041: 2036: 2030: 2029: 2023: 2018: 2012: 2011: 2008: 2003: 1997: 1996: 1993: 1985: 1958: 1955: 1952: 1951: 1948: 1946: 1943: 1940: 1937: 1931: 1930: 1927: 1925: 1922: 1919: 1916: 1910: 1909: 1906: 1904: 1901: 1898: 1895: 1889: 1888: 1885: 1883: 1880: 1877: 1874: 1868: 1867: 1864: 1862: 1859: 1856: 1853: 1847: 1846: 1843: 1840: 1835: 1830: 1825: 1803: 1800: 1798: 1795: 1793: 1790: 1772:(PARs) at the 1759: 1756: 1753: 1752: 1750: 1747: 1742: 1737: 1734: 1731: 1728: 1725: 1721: 1720: 1718: 1715: 1710: 1705: 1702: 1699: 1696: 1693: 1689: 1688: 1685: 1682: 1677: 1672: 1669: 1666: 1663: 1660: 1656: 1655: 1653: 1650: 1645: 1640: 1637: 1634: 1631: 1628: 1624: 1623: 1620: 1617: 1612: 1607: 1604: 1601: 1598: 1595: 1591: 1590: 1588: 1585: 1580: 1575: 1572: 1569: 1566: 1563: 1559: 1558: 1556: 1553: 1548: 1543: 1540: 1537: 1534: 1531: 1527: 1526: 1524: 1521: 1516: 1511: 1508: 1505: 1502: 1499: 1495: 1494: 1492: 1489: 1484: 1479: 1476: 1473: 1470: 1467: 1463: 1462: 1459: 1456: 1451: 1446: 1443: 1440: 1437: 1434: 1430: 1429: 1427: 1424: 1419: 1414: 1411: 1408: 1405: 1402: 1398: 1397: 1394: 1391: 1386: 1381: 1376: 1371: 1368: 1365: 1342: 1335: 1334: 1322: 1315: 1314: 1313: 1309: 1308: 1307: 1306: 1304: 1301: 1298: 1297: 1266: 1264: 1257: 1251: 1248: 1223: 1220: 1180:protein-coding 1176:protein-coding 1150: 1149: 1122:. Please help 1100: 1098: 1091: 1085: 1082: 1057: 1054: 1045: 1042: 1021:Main article: 1018: 1017:ZW chromosomes 1015: 986: 983: 982: 981: 980: 979: 976: 973: 970: 967: 964: 955:W. D. Hamilton 939: 936: 912: 911: 908:nondisjunction 896: 883:Arctic lemming 872: 794: 791: 726: 723: 713: 710: 677: 674: 635:cell divisions 626: 623: 614:rhesus macaque 592:, inefficient 575: 572: 552: 549: 508: 505: 484:hermaphrodites 468: 465: 463: 460: 398: 395: 344:Nettie Stevens 339: 336: 334: 331: 317:to be of male 285:is one of two 277: 276: 264: 258: 257: 245: 239: 238: 232: 231: 226: 220: 219: 214: 208: 207: 202: 196: 195: 190: 184: 183: 179: 178: 173: 167: 166: 161: 155: 154: 149: 143: 142: 137: 131: 130: 126: 125: 118: 112: 111: 106: 102: 101: 94: 85: 84: 81: 73: 72: 68: 67: 61: 53: 52: 45: 37: 36: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 8286: 8275: 8272: 8270: 8267: 8265: 8262: 8260: 8257: 8255: 8252: 8250: 8247: 8245: 8242: 8241: 8239: 8224: 8216: 8215: 8212: 8202: 8199: 8197: 8194: 8192: 8189: 8188: 8187: 8184: 8183: 8182: 8179: 8177: 8174: 8173: 8171: 8169: 8165: 8157: 8156:Pelvic thrust 8154: 8152: 8149: 8147: 8144: 8142: 8139: 8137: 8134: 8130: 8127: 8126: 8125: 8122: 8121: 8120: 8117: 8115: 8112: 8110: 8107: 8105: 8102: 8098: 8095: 8093: 8090: 8089: 8088: 8087:Fertilization 8085: 8081: 8078: 8076: 8073: 8072: 8071: 8068: 8064: 8061: 8059: 8056: 8055: 8054: 8053:Gametogenesis 8051: 8049: 8046: 8044: 8041: 8039: 8036: 8034: 8031: 8029: 8026: 8022: 8019: 8017: 8014: 8013: 8012: 8009: 8008: 8006: 8004: 7998: 7992: 7989: 7987: 7986:parasexuality 7984: 7982: 7979: 7975: 7972: 7970: 7967: 7966: 7965: 7964:Hermaphrodite 7962: 7960: 7957: 7953: 7950: 7948: 7945: 7944: 7943: 7940: 7938: 7935: 7931: 7930:Haplodiploidy 7928: 7926: 7923: 7921: 7918: 7916: 7913: 7911: 7908: 7906: 7903: 7902: 7901: 7898: 7894: 7891: 7889: 7886: 7885: 7884: 7881: 7877: 7874: 7872: 7869: 7868: 7867: 7864: 7863: 7861: 7855: 7851: 7844: 7839: 7837: 7832: 7830: 7825: 7824: 7821: 7809: 7806: 7804: 7801: 7799: 7796: 7792: 7789: 7788: 7787: 7784: 7783: 7781: 7777: 7767: 7764: 7762: 7759: 7757: 7754: 7752: 7749: 7747: 7744: 7742: 7739: 7737: 7734: 7732: 7729: 7727: 7724: 7722: 7719: 7717: 7714: 7712: 7709: 7707: 7704: 7702: 7699: 7697: 7694: 7692: 7689: 7688: 7686: 7684: 7680: 7674: 7671: 7669: 7666: 7664: 7661: 7659: 7656: 7654: 7651: 7650: 7648: 7646: 7642: 7636: 7633: 7630: 7626: 7622: 7619: 7618: 7616: 7612: 7606: 7603: 7599: 7596: 7594: 7591: 7589: 7586: 7584: 7581: 7580: 7579: 7576: 7572: 7569: 7567: 7564: 7563: 7562: 7559: 7557: 7554: 7552: 7549: 7548: 7546: 7544:and evolution 7540: 7532: 7529: 7527: 7524: 7522: 7519: 7517: 7514: 7513: 7512: 7509: 7505: 7502: 7500: 7497: 7495: 7492: 7490: 7487: 7485: 7482: 7481: 7480: 7477: 7475: 7472: 7470: 7469:Isochromosome 7467: 7465: 7462: 7460: 7457: 7455: 7452: 7450: 7447: 7445: 7442: 7440: 7437: 7434: 7431: 7429: 7425: 7422: 7420: 7417: 7414: 7410: 7406: 7403: 7402: 7400: 7396: 7390: 7387: 7385: 7382: 7380: 7377: 7375: 7372: 7368: 7365: 7363: 7360: 7359: 7358: 7355: 7353: 7349: 7346: 7344: 7341: 7339: 7336: 7335: 7333: 7327: 7323: 7319: 7312: 7307: 7305: 7300: 7298: 7293: 7292: 7289: 7277: 7274: 7272: 7269: 7265: 7262: 7261: 7260: 7257: 7256: 7254: 7250: 7246: 7242: 7240: 7236: 7226: 7223: 7221: 7218: 7217: 7215: 7213: 7209: 7203: 7200: 7198: 7195: 7193: 7190: 7188: 7185: 7183: 7180: 7178: 7175: 7173: 7170: 7168: 7165: 7163: 7160: 7158: 7155: 7153: 7150: 7148: 7145: 7143: 7140: 7138: 7135: 7133: 7130: 7128: 7125: 7123: 7120: 7118: 7115: 7113: 7110: 7108: 7105: 7103: 7100: 7098: 7095: 7094: 7092: 7090: 7086: 7083: 7081: 7077: 7073: 7066: 7061: 7059: 7054: 7052: 7047: 7046: 7043: 7037: 7034: 7032: 7029: 7027: 7023: 7020: 7017: 7015: 7011: 7008: 7005: 7002: 6999: 6996: 6993: 6990: 6987: 6984: 6981: 6979: 6976: 6974: 6971: 6970: 6966: 6957: 6953: 6948: 6943: 6938: 6933: 6929: 6925: 6922:(9): e45592. 6921: 6917: 6913: 6906: 6903: 6898: 6894: 6890: 6886: 6882: 6878: 6870: 6868: 6864: 6859: 6855: 6850: 6845: 6840: 6835: 6831: 6827: 6823: 6819: 6815: 6808: 6805: 6800: 6796: 6792: 6788: 6783: 6778: 6774: 6770: 6766: 6759: 6756: 6751: 6747: 6742: 6737: 6732: 6727: 6723: 6719: 6715: 6708: 6705: 6700: 6696: 6691: 6686: 6682: 6678: 6674: 6670: 6666: 6659: 6656: 6651: 6647: 6643: 6639: 6635: 6631: 6624: 6621: 6616: 6612: 6608: 6604: 6600: 6596: 6592: 6588: 6581: 6578: 6573: 6567: 6563: 6556: 6553: 6548: 6544: 6540: 6536: 6532: 6528: 6524: 6520: 6516: 6512: 6505: 6502: 6497: 6493: 6489: 6483: 6479: 6472: 6470: 6466: 6453: 6449: 6443: 6440: 6428: 6424: 6418: 6415: 6410: 6406: 6401: 6396: 6392: 6388: 6384: 6380: 6376: 6372: 6368: 6361: 6358: 6353: 6352:New Scientist 6349: 6342: 6339: 6325: 6321: 6315: 6314: 6311: 6307: 6302: 6297: 6293: 6289: 6285: 6281: 6277: 6273: 6269: 6262: 6259: 6254: 6250: 6246: 6242: 6238: 6234: 6230: 6226: 6219: 6216: 6211: 6207: 6202: 6197: 6193: 6189: 6185: 6181: 6177: 6170: 6168: 6164: 6159: 6155: 6150: 6145: 6141: 6137: 6133: 6129: 6125: 6118: 6116: 6112: 6107: 6103: 6099: 6095: 6091: 6087: 6083: 6079: 6075: 6071: 6064: 6061: 6056: 6052: 6047: 6042: 6037: 6032: 6028: 6024: 6020: 6013: 6010: 6005: 6001: 5997: 5993: 5989: 5985: 5981: 5977: 5969: 5966: 5961: 5957: 5952: 5947: 5942: 5937: 5933: 5929: 5925: 5918: 5915: 5903: 5897: 5894: 5882: 5876: 5873: 5861: 5857: 5851: 5848: 5836: 5832: 5826: 5823: 5811: 5807: 5801: 5798: 5787:on 2017-06-29 5786: 5782: 5778: 5772: 5769: 5764: 5760: 5755: 5750: 5745: 5740: 5736: 5732: 5728: 5721: 5718: 5713: 5712:Science Daily 5709: 5703: 5700: 5696: 5692: 5688: 5685: 5681: 5677: 5673: 5669: 5665: 5660: 5657: 5653: 5647: 5645: 5641: 5637: 5631: 5628: 5624: 5620: 5614: 5611: 5606: 5602: 5598: 5592: 5588: 5584: 5580: 5579: 5571: 5568: 5563: 5557: 5553: 5552: 5544: 5541: 5529: 5525: 5519: 5516: 5504: 5500: 5494: 5491: 5486: 5482: 5478: 5474: 5469: 5464: 5460: 5456: 5452: 5448: 5444: 5440: 5436: 5429: 5427: 5423: 5412: 5408: 5402: 5399: 5394: 5390: 5385: 5380: 5375: 5370: 5366: 5362: 5358: 5351: 5348: 5343: 5339: 5335: 5331: 5326: 5321: 5317: 5313: 5309: 5305: 5301: 5297: 5293: 5286: 5284: 5282: 5280: 5278: 5276: 5272: 5261:on 2012-03-29 5260: 5256: 5250: 5247: 5235: 5229: 5226: 5221: 5217: 5212: 5207: 5202: 5197: 5193: 5189: 5185: 5178: 5175: 5170: 5166: 5162: 5158: 5154: 5150: 5146: 5142: 5138: 5134: 5127: 5124: 5119: 5115: 5111: 5107: 5103: 5099: 5095: 5091: 5084: 5081: 5076: 5072: 5068: 5064: 5059: 5054: 5049: 5044: 5040: 5036: 5032: 5025: 5022: 5017: 5013: 5008: 5003: 4999: 4995: 4991: 4987: 4983: 4979: 4975: 4968: 4965: 4960: 4956: 4951: 4946: 4942: 4938: 4934: 4930: 4926: 4919: 4917: 4913: 4908: 4904: 4900: 4896: 4892: 4888: 4884: 4880: 4873: 4870: 4865: 4861: 4856: 4851: 4847: 4843: 4839: 4835: 4831: 4824: 4821: 4816: 4812: 4807: 4802: 4797: 4792: 4788: 4784: 4780: 4773: 4770: 4765: 4761: 4757: 4753: 4748: 4743: 4739: 4735: 4731: 4724: 4721: 4716: 4712: 4708: 4704: 4700: 4696: 4692: 4691:Akodon azarae 4685: 4682: 4677: 4673: 4668: 4663: 4659: 4655: 4651: 4647: 4643: 4636: 4633: 4628: 4624: 4620: 4616: 4612: 4608: 4604: 4600: 4593: 4591: 4589: 4585: 4580: 4576: 4572: 4568: 4564: 4560: 4556: 4552: 4545: 4542: 4537: 4533: 4529: 4525: 4521: 4517: 4510: 4507: 4502: 4498: 4494: 4490: 4486: 4482: 4478: 4474: 4467: 4465: 4461: 4456: 4452: 4447: 4442: 4438: 4434: 4430: 4426: 4425:Hum Mol Genet 4422: 4415: 4412: 4407: 4403: 4398: 4393: 4388: 4383: 4379: 4375: 4371: 4364: 4362: 4358: 4353: 4349: 4345: 4341: 4337: 4333: 4329: 4325: 4321: 4317: 4310: 4308: 4306: 4302: 4297: 4293: 4288: 4283: 4279: 4275: 4271: 4267: 4263: 4256: 4253: 4249: 4243: 4239: 4234: 4229: 4224: 4219: 4215: 4211: 4207: 4200: 4197: 4192: 4188: 4184: 4182:9780120176243 4178: 4174: 4170: 4166: 4159: 4156: 4151: 4147: 4143: 4139: 4135: 4131: 4127: 4123: 4116: 4113: 4108: 4104: 4099: 4094: 4090: 4086: 4082: 4078: 4074: 4067: 4064: 4053:on 2012-02-25 4052: 4048: 4041: 4038: 4033: 4029: 4025: 4021: 4017: 4013: 4009: 4005: 4001: 3997: 3990: 3987: 3982: 3978: 3971: 3968: 3963: 3959: 3955: 3951: 3947: 3943: 3939: 3935: 3931: 3927: 3920: 3917: 3912: 3908: 3904: 3900: 3896: 3892: 3885: 3882: 3877: 3873: 3869: 3865: 3860: 3855: 3851: 3847: 3843: 3839: 3835: 3828: 3825: 3820: 3816: 3811: 3806: 3802: 3798: 3795:(7): 783–91. 3794: 3790: 3786: 3779: 3776: 3771: 3767: 3762: 3757: 3753: 3749: 3745: 3741: 3737: 3733: 3729: 3722: 3719: 3708: 3704: 3697: 3695: 3691: 3686: 3682: 3678: 3674: 3670: 3666: 3662: 3658: 3651: 3648: 3643: 3639: 3635: 3631: 3627: 3623: 3619: 3615: 3611: 3607: 3599: 3597: 3593: 3588: 3584: 3579: 3574: 3570: 3566: 3562: 3558: 3554: 3547: 3545: 3543: 3539: 3534: 3530: 3525: 3520: 3516: 3512: 3508: 3504: 3500: 3496: 3492: 3485: 3483: 3479: 3474: 3470: 3465: 3460: 3456: 3452: 3448: 3444: 3440: 3433: 3431: 3429: 3425: 3420: 3416: 3412: 3408: 3404: 3400: 3393: 3390: 3385: 3381: 3377: 3373: 3368: 3363: 3359: 3355: 3351: 3344: 3342: 3340: 3338: 3336: 3334: 3332: 3330: 3328: 3326: 3324: 3320: 3315: 3311: 3307: 3303: 3299: 3295: 3288: 3285: 3280: 3276: 3272: 3268: 3264: 3260: 3256: 3249: 3246: 3241: 3237: 3233: 3229: 3224: 3219: 3215: 3211: 3207: 3203: 3199: 3192: 3189: 3184: 3182:0-87893-243-7 3178: 3174: 3170: 3162: 3156: 3152: 3148: 3141: 3138: 3133: 3129: 3125: 3121: 3117: 3113: 3109: 3105: 3100: 3092: 3089: 3078: 3072: 3068: 3064: 3060: 3055: 3054:"Infertility" 3047:. 2023-09-12. 3046: 3042: 3036: 3034: 3032: 3028: 3017: 3013: 3007: 3005: 3001: 2996: 2990: 2986: 2979: 2976: 2971: 2965: 2961: 2954: 2952: 2948: 2943: 2939: 2935: 2931: 2924: 2917: 2914: 2902: 2898: 2892: 2890: 2888: 2884: 2879: 2873: 2869: 2868: 2860: 2857: 2845: 2841: 2835: 2833: 2829: 2822: 2818: 2815: 2813: 2810: 2808: 2805: 2803: 2800: 2798: 2795: 2793: 2790: 2788: 2785: 2783: 2780: 2778: 2775: 2773: 2770: 2768: 2765: 2763: 2760: 2759: 2755: 2753: 2747: 2744: 2741: 2739:miscarriages, 2738: 2737: 2736: 2729: 2726: 2723: 2720: 2719: 2718: 2716: 2711: 2708: 2702: 2700: 2698: 2690: 2688: 2686: 2682: 2678: 2674: 2668: 2664: 2656: 2654: 2652: 2648: 2644: 2640: 2633: 2631: 2624: 2622: 2616: 2614: 2612: 2608: 2607:XXXY syndrome 2603: 2599: 2597: 2593: 2589: 2584: 2579: 2571: 2569: 2566: 2560: 2552: 2550: 2548: 2544: 2540: 2534: 2532: 2528: 2524: 2520: 2512: 2510: 2508: 2501: 2499: 2497: 2491: 2489: 2485: 2481: 2477: 2472: 2468: 2465: 2464:hematopoietic 2460: 2458: 2450: 2448: 2446: 2438: 2431: 2427: 2424: 2421: 2419: 2415: 2412: 2411: 2407: 2403: 2401: 2399: 2395: 2392: 2391: 2387: 2383: 2379: 2377: 2375: 2371: 2367: 2363: 2360: 2359: 2355: 2352: 2349: 2348: 2344: 2340: 2338: 2335: 2333: 2330: 2329: 2325: 2321: 2319: 2317: 2313: 2310: 2309: 2305: 2303: 2299: 2296: 2294: 2290: 2287: 2286: 2282: 2278: 2276: 2273: 2271: 2268: 2267: 2264: 2262: 2259: 2257: 2254: 2253: 2250: 2248: 2245: 2243: 2240: 2239: 2235: 2233: 2230: 2228: 2225: 2224: 2221: 2219: 2216: 2214: 2211: 2210: 2206: 2203: 2200: 2199: 2196: 2194: 2191: 2189: 2186: 2185: 2181: 2179: 2176: 2174: 2171: 2170: 2166: 2164: 2161: 2159: 2156: 2155: 2151: 2149: 2146: 2144: 2141: 2140: 2136: 2133: 2131: 2128: 2127: 2123: 2121: 2118: 2116: 2112: 2109: 2108: 2104: 2102: 2099: 2097: 2094: 2093: 2089: 2087: 2084: 2082: 2079: 2078: 2075: 2073: 2070: 2068: 2065: 2064: 2060: 2057: 2055: 2052: 2050: 2047: 2046: 2042: 2040: 2037: 2035: 2032: 2031: 2027: 2024: 2022: 2019: 2017: 2014: 2013: 2009: 2007: 2004: 2002: 1999: 1998: 1994: 1992: 1989: 1986: 1983: 1982: 1976: 1974: 1970: 1964: 1956: 1949: 1947: 1944: 1941: 1938: 1936: 1933: 1932: 1928: 1926: 1923: 1920: 1917: 1915: 1912: 1911: 1907: 1905: 1902: 1899: 1896: 1894: 1891: 1890: 1886: 1884: 1881: 1878: 1875: 1873: 1870: 1869: 1865: 1863: 1860: 1857: 1854: 1852: 1849: 1848: 1845:Release date 1844: 1841: 1839: 1836: 1834: 1831: 1829: 1826: 1824:Estimated by 1823: 1822: 1819: 1817: 1813: 1809: 1801: 1796: 1791: 1789: 1785: 1783: 1779: 1775: 1771: 1765: 1757: 1751: 1748: 1743: 1738: 1735: 1732: 1729: 1726: 1723: 1722: 1719: 1716: 1711: 1706: 1703: 1700: 1697: 1694: 1691: 1690: 1686: 1683: 1678: 1673: 1670: 1667: 1664: 1661: 1658: 1657: 1654: 1651: 1646: 1641: 1638: 1635: 1632: 1629: 1626: 1625: 1621: 1618: 1613: 1608: 1605: 1602: 1599: 1596: 1593: 1592: 1589: 1586: 1581: 1576: 1573: 1570: 1567: 1564: 1561: 1560: 1557: 1554: 1549: 1544: 1541: 1538: 1535: 1532: 1529: 1528: 1525: 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900:creeping vole 897: 894: 893: 888: 884: 880: 877: 873: 870: 866: 862: 858: 854: 853: 848: 844: 843: 838: 837: 832: 828: 824: 820: 816: 815: 814: 812: 808: 804: 799: 792: 790: 787: 786:recombination 783: 779: 775: 773: 769: 765: 760: 758: 757:noncoding DNA 754: 749: 747: 743: 740: 736: 732: 724: 722: 720: 712:Genetic drift 711: 709: 707: 703: 699: 694: 692: 687: 683: 675: 673: 671: 666: 662: 658: 654: 653:recombination 651: 646: 644: 640: 639:gametogenesis 636: 632: 624: 622: 619: 615: 610: 606: 601: 599: 598:genetic drift 595: 591: 590:mutation rate 586: 581: 573: 571: 569: 564: 562: 558: 550: 548: 546: 542: 538: 534: 530: 525: 523: 522:translocation 518: 514: 506: 504: 502: 497: 493: 489: 485: 481: 477: 474: 466: 461: 459: 457: 453: 449: 445: 441: 437: 433: 429: 425: 420: 418: 414: 408: 404: 396: 394: 392: 388: 382: 380: 376: 372: 368: 364: 360: 356: 353: 349: 345: 337: 332: 330: 328: 324: 320: 316: 312: 308: 304: 300: 296: 292: 288: 284: 273: 269: 265: 263: 259: 254: 250: 246: 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Retrieved 6451: 6442: 6430:. Retrieved 6426: 6417: 6374: 6370: 6360: 6351: 6341: 6327:. Retrieved 6323: 6275: 6271: 6261: 6228: 6224: 6218: 6186:(6): 624–8. 6183: 6179: 6131: 6127: 6073: 6069: 6063: 6026: 6022: 6012: 5979: 5975: 5968: 5931: 5927: 5917: 5906:. Retrieved 5904:. 2017-05-19 5896: 5885:. Retrieved 5883:. 2017-05-19 5875: 5864:. Retrieved 5862:. 2017-05-19 5859: 5850: 5839:. Retrieved 5837:. 2018-02-28 5834: 5825: 5814:. Retrieved 5812:. 2017-03-29 5809: 5800: 5789:. Retrieved 5785:the original 5780: 5771: 5734: 5730: 5720: 5711: 5702: 5694: 5690: 5683: 5675: 5670:, generally 5663: 5659: 5630: 5625:": Long arm. 5622: 5618: 5613: 5577: 5570: 5550: 5543: 5532:. Retrieved 5527: 5518: 5507:. Retrieved 5502: 5493: 5442: 5438: 5414:. Retrieved 5410: 5401: 5364: 5360: 5350: 5299: 5295: 5263:. Retrieved 5259:the original 5249: 5238:. Retrieved 5228: 5191: 5187: 5177: 5136: 5132: 5126: 5093: 5089: 5083: 5041:(1): 83–94. 5038: 5034: 5024: 4984:(1): 12499. 4981: 4977: 4967: 4932: 4928: 4882: 4878: 4872: 4837: 4833: 4823: 4786: 4782: 4772: 4737: 4733: 4723: 4701:(2): 125–9. 4698: 4694: 4690: 4684: 4649: 4645: 4635: 4602: 4598: 4554: 4550: 4544: 4519: 4515: 4509: 4476: 4472: 4428: 4424: 4414: 4377: 4373: 4319: 4315: 4269: 4265: 4255: 4213: 4210:BMC Genomics 4209: 4199: 4164: 4158: 4125: 4121: 4115: 4080: 4076: 4066: 4055:. Retrieved 4051:the original 4040: 3999: 3995: 3989: 3980: 3970: 3929: 3925: 3919: 3894: 3890: 3884: 3841: 3837: 3827: 3792: 3788: 3778: 3735: 3731: 3721: 3710:. Retrieved 3706: 3660: 3656: 3650: 3609: 3605: 3560: 3556: 3498: 3494: 3446: 3442: 3402: 3398: 3392: 3357: 3353: 3297: 3293: 3287: 3262: 3258: 3248: 3205: 3201: 3191: 3172: 3150: 3140: 3107: 3103: 3091: 3080:. Retrieved 3058: 3044: 3019:. Retrieved 3015: 2984: 2978: 2959: 2933: 2929: 2916: 2905:. Retrieved 2900: 2866: 2859: 2848:. Retrieved 2846:. 2016-09-08 2843: 2751: 2742:pregnancies, 2733: 2712: 2709: 2706: 2699:production. 2694: 2670: 2637: 2628: 2620: 2604: 2600: 2585: 2581: 2578:XYY syndrome 2562: 2535: 2516: 2505: 2492: 2461: 2454: 2442: 2275:XK (protein) 1969:gene deserts 1966: 1805: 1786: 1767: 1291:October 2021 1288: 1268: 1244: 1225: 1215: 1211: 1196:XYY syndrome 1153: 1138: 1132:October 2021 1129: 1113: 1102: 1074:Z chromosome 1071: 1059: 1047: 1026: 1010: 1006: 1002: 996: 990: 988: 941: 932: 928: 919: 913: 903: 890: 886: 878: 876:wood lemming 868: 860: 856: 850: 840: 834: 830: 822: 800: 796: 789:the genome. 776: 761: 750: 728: 715: 706:entropy rate 702:human genome 698:entropy rate 695: 679: 647: 628: 605:human genome 602: 577: 574:Degeneration 565: 554: 526: 510: 496:simultaneous 470: 428:XYY syndrome 421: 413:X chromosome 410: 383: 354: 341: 313:produced in 299:X chromosome 283:Y chromosome 282: 280: 229:Chromosome Y 217:Chromosome Y 205:Chromosome Y 193:Chromosome Y 29: 8249:Chromosomes 7531:Polycentric 7521:Monocentric 7504:Holocentric 7499:Acrocentric 7494:Telocentric 7484:Metacentric 7362:Euchromatin 7322:chromosomes 6046:10576/22940 3104:Aquaculture 2494:smoking or 2488:heart risks 2026:Zinc finger 1950:2017-05-19 1929:2018-02-28 1908:2017-03-29 1887:2017-05-12 1866:2016-09-08 1838:Pseudogenes 1218:, "male"). 1126:if you can. 1038:butterflies 764:chimpanzees 753:palindromes 476:vertebrates 473:ectothermic 327:male gonads 121:Acrocentric 8238:Categories 8136:Copulation 7857:Biological 7683:Centromere 7614:Structures 7593:Polyploidy 7583:Aneuploidy 7384:Nucleosome 7374:Chromosome 5908:2017-05-20 5887:2017-05-20 5866:2017-05-20 5841:2018-03-16 5816:2017-05-19 5791:2017-05-19 5737:(5): 206. 5687:Centromere 5534:2017-04-26 5509:2017-04-26 5416:2020-01-21 5367:(5): 206. 5265:2009-11-09 5240:2007-04-14 5211:1885/64794 5058:2115/49121 4789:(6): R98. 4374:PLOS Genet 4248:Lempel-Ziv 4216:(1): 509. 4057:2012-02-23 3712:2023-11-13 3657:Chromosoma 3185:. NBK9989. 3082:2023-09-12 3021:2023-09-12 2936:: 309–37. 2907:2017-04-26 2850:2017-05-28 2823:References 2565:aneuploidy 2467:stem cells 2445:aneuploidy 2326:(Chr. 4). 2167:Helicase. 2059:Amelogenin 1961:See also: 1745:57,227,415 1740:26,600,001 1713:26,600,000 1708:23,800,001 1680:23,800,000 1675:19,600,001 1648:19,600,000 1643:17,100,001 1615:17,100,000 1610:12,400,001 1583:12,400,000 1578:10,600,001 1551:10,600,000 1546:10,400,001 1519:10,400,000 1514:10,300,001 1487:10,300,000 1236:sequencing 1192:aneuploidy 1188:hemizygous 1156:base pairs 1062:platypuses 992:Drosophila 849:entirely. 811:Cricetidae 739:palindrome 691:"junk" DNA 609:chimpanzee 541:marsupials 533:monotremes 488:sequential 401:See also: 397:Variations 124:(10.4 Mbp) 8244:Andrology 8191:Mechanics 8168:Sexuality 8063:Oogenesis 8038:Sex organ 8028:Germ cell 8016:Anisogamy 7635:Protamine 7542:Processes 7526:Dicentric 7379:Chromatid 7357:Chromatin 7338:Karyotype 6724:: 20–30. 6458:31 August 6432:31 August 6329:21 August 6253:211036885 6106:250579530 5934:(1): 14. 5668:G banding 5485:261098546 5342:254181409 4834:BioEssays 3789:Vet World 3240:254168012 3232:1616-3915 3132:0044-8486 2802:Y linkage 2671:In human 2539:mosaicism 2523:karyotype 2519:phenotype 2476:karyotype 2425:through 3 1957:Gene list 1774:telomeres 1283:talk page 1277:amplicons 1250:Structure 1120:talk page 1115:therians. 951:sex ratio 924:autosomes 859:spp. and 742:base pair 594:selection 557:recombine 545:eutherian 513:autosomes 503:of fish. 448:XY female 432:Trisomy X 363:Hemiptera 338:Discovery 311:offspring 249:NC_000024 176:Gene list 164:Gene list 152:Gene list 140:Gene list 64:karyogram 48:G-banding 8223:Category 8201:Activity 8097:Internal 8092:External 7981:Intersex 7779:See also 7621:Telomere 7588:Euploidy 7516:Acentric 7413:allosome 7405:Autosome 7331:concepts 7089:Autosome 7022:Archived 7010:Archived 6956:23049819 6916:PLOS ONE 6897:16084184 6799:35983351 6750:20396406 6699:29375860 6650:11662398 6496:72774424 6409:25477213 6310:35857592 6245:32020362 6210:24777449 6158:28424864 6098:35857599 6055:26730606 6004:13443194 5996:23708688 5960:29454353 5763:20441615 5697:: Stalk. 5605:16666470 5477:37612510 5468:10726138 5393:20441615 5334:37612512 5325:10752217 5220:22777195 5161:24759410 5118:17401686 5110:15210173 5075:15130561 5067:22187366 5016:32719365 4959:17660573 4929:Genetics 4864:23055411 4815:18554412 4764:34489270 4756:11520338 4734:Heredity 4676:11052532 4627:39633026 4619:12900579 4579:25939138 4571:18391532 4536:19630566 4501:10526522 4493:14684993 4455:34244762 4406:23935520 4344:12815433 4296:11127901 4242:18973670 4142:28913952 4107:16341006 4024:16136134 3962:24010421 3954:19142680 3911:15367368 3876:16081591 3819:27536043 3770:29075464 3685:26978106 3634:15502814 3587:18463302 3533:18464734 3473:23329112 3419:16650758 3376:16530039 3314:10542153 2942:11616163 2756:See also 2677:genetics 2592:Scotland 2484:fibrosis 2281:amplicon 1778:homology 1396:Density 1388:Basepair 1383:Basepair 1204:Y-linked 1194:such as 1103:require 1078:homology 953:of 1:1. 857:Tokudaia 852:Tokudaia 772:gorillas 755:are not 657:mutation 529:platypus 480:reptiles 407:Intersex 352:mealworm 333:Overview 268:CM000686 109:Allosome 92:of genes 76:Length ( 71:Features 8048:Meiosis 8021:Isogamy 7791:Plasmid 7645:Histone 7556:Meiosis 7551:Mitosis 6947:3458919 6924:Bibcode 6858:8570620 6826:Bibcode 6791:4823382 6741:2854822 6690:5771943 6595:Bibcode 6587:Science 6547:4145850 6539:5870205 6519:Bibcode 6400:4356728 6379:Bibcode 6371:Science 6301:9437978 6280:Bibcode 6272:Science 6201:5536222 6149:5418310 6078:Bibcode 6070:Science 5951:5816366 5835:UniProt 5754:2898077 5680:CG-rich 5672:AT-rich 5447:Bibcode 5384:2898077 5304:Bibcode 5169:4462870 5141:Bibcode 5007:7385105 4986:Bibcode 4950:2013703 4907:6021675 4887:Bibcode 4879:Science 4855:3581811 4806:2481430 4703:Bibcode 4667:1690748 4446:8600007 4397:3723533 4352:4323263 4324:Bibcode 4287:1692900 4233:2628393 4191:3324702 4150:4764175 4085:Bibcode 4045:Hsu C. 4032:4418662 4004:Bibcode 3934:Bibcode 3868:8548280 3846:Bibcode 3810:4983133 3761:5648654 3740:Bibcode 3677:1424984 3642:4379897 3614:Bibcode 3578:2413164 3524:2803040 3503:Bibcode 3464:4120474 3384:8379688 3294:Science 3267:Bibcode 3210:Bibcode 3112:Bibcode 2647:gametes 2471:cancers 2430:VCX/VCY 2332:RBMY1A1 2218:CXorf15 2213:CYorf15 2101:TGIF2LX 2096:TGIF2LY 2086:PDCH11X 2081:PCDH11Y 1991:paralog 1914:UniProt 1893:Ensembl 1842:Source 1482:600,001 1454:600,000 1449:300,001 1422:300,000 1357:G-bands 1325:Ensembl 1105:cleanup 1067:mitosis 949:have a 898:In the 807:Muridae 782:meiosis 768:bonobos 731:meiosis 686:alleles 682:meiosis 665:meiosis 650:meiotic 637:during 537:therian 492:gametes 456:XX male 391:mitosis 387:mitosis 262:GenBank 188:Ensembl 159:UniProt 8070:Gamete 8043:Mating 8001:Sexual 7876:Female 7352:Genome 7343:Ploidy 6995:Nature 6954: 6944: 6895: 6856: 6846: 6797: 6789: 6748: 6738: 6697: 6687: 6648: 6615:959813 6613: 6568: 6545: 6537: 6511:Nature 6494: 6484: 6407: 6397: 6308: 6298: 6251: 6243: 6208: 6198: 6156: 6146: 6104: 6096: 6053: 6002: 5994: 5958: 5948: 5761: 5751: 5603: 5593: 5558: 5483: 5475: 5465: 5439:Nature 5391: 5381: 5340: 5332: 5322: 5296:Nature 5218: 5167: 5159: 5133:Nature 5116: 5108: 5073: 5065: 5014: 5004: 4957: 4947: 4905: 4862: 4852: 4813: 4803: 4762: 4754: 4674: 4664: 4625: 4617: 4577: 4569: 4534: 4499: 4491: 4453: 4443: 4404: 4394: 4350: 4342: 4316:Nature 4294: 4284: 4240: 4230: 4189: 4179: 4148: 4140: 4105: 4077:Nature 4030: 4022: 3996:Nature 3960: 3952: 3909: 3874: 3866: 3817: 3807: 3768: 3758: 3683: 3675: 3640: 3632: 3606:Nature 3585: 3575: 3531: 3521: 3495:Nature 3471: 3461: 3417: 3382: 3374: 3312: 3238: 3230: 3179: 3157: 3130: 3073: 2991: 2966: 2940: 2874: 2457:mosaic 2353:(none) 2324:PTPN13 2247:EIF4AX 2242:EIF1AY 2227:RPS4Y2 2204:(none) 2134:(none) 2034:RPS4Y1 1665:11.223 1633:11.222 1600:11.221 1393:Stain 1385:start 1375:start 1216:andrós 1036:, and 1034:snakes 892:Akodon 881:, the 825:, the 803:rodent 661:genome 643:testis 596:, and 517:allele 507:Origin 501:orders 442:, the 243:RefSeq 200:Entrez 7859:terms 7629:TINF2 7398:Types 7329:Basic 6849:40117 6795:S2CID 6543:S2CID 6354:: 17. 6249:S2CID 6102:S2CID 6000:S2CID 5695:stalk 5636:locus 5601:S2CID 5481:S2CID 5338:S2CID 5165:S2CID 5114:S2CID 5071:S2CID 4760:S2CID 4623:S2CID 4575:S2CID 4497:S2CID 4348:S2CID 4146:S2CID 4028:S2CID 3958:S2CID 3872:S2CID 3681:S2CID 3638:S2CID 3380:S2CID 3236:S2CID 2926:(PDF) 2480:aging 2386:DAZLA 2302:HSFX2 2298:HSFX1 2293:HSFY2 2289:HSFY1 2261:KDM5C 2256:KDM5D 2232:RPS4X 2163:DDX3X 2158:DDX3Y 2148:USP9X 2143:USP9Y 2115:TSPY2 2111:TSPY1 2072:TBL1X 2067:TBL1Y 2054:AMELX 2049:AMELY 2039:RPS4X 1995:Note 1984:Name 1797:Genes 1698:11.23 1568:11.21 1439:11.31 1407:11.32 1390:stop 1380:stop 1370:Band 1364:Chr. 1240:genes 1212:hólos 1210:ὅλος 1172:genes 1030:birds 631:sperm 471:Many 272:FASTA 253:FASTA 8264:Male 8080:ovum 7871:Male 7411:(or 6952:PMID 6893:PMID 6854:PMID 6787:PMID 6746:PMID 6695:PMID 6646:PMID 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