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dull or shooting pains about the region of the liver, take one of the powders in a little sugar and water, every six hours, until they produce four or five large evacuations from the bowels..." He urged that the patient stay in bed and "drink plentifully" of barley or chicken water. Then after the "bowels are thoroughly cleaned," it was proper to take 8 to 10 ounces of blood from the arm if, after purging, the pulse was full or tense. To keep the body open he recommended more calomel or small doses of cream of tartar or other salts. If the pulse was weak and low, he recommended camomile or snakeroot as a stimulant, and blisters or blankets soaked in hot vinegar wrapped around the lower limbs. To restore the patient he recommended "gruel, sago, panada, tapioca, tea, coffee, weak chocolate, wine whey, chicken broth, and white meats, according to the weak or active state of the system; the fruits of the season may be eaten with advantage at all times." The sick room should be kept cool and vinegar should be sprinkled around the floor.
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Residents next anticipated freezing temperatures at night, which they knew were associated with ending fall fevers, but not why this was so. By the first two weeks of
October, which was the peak of the crisis, gloom pervaded the city. Most churches had stopped holding services, and the post office moved out of the area of the highest number of cases. The market days continued, and bakers continued to make and distribute bread. Several members of the Mayor's Committee died. African-American nurses had also begun dying of the fever. Carts took ill victims to Bush Hill and the dead to burial grounds. Doctors also became ill and died, and fewer were available to care for patients. Three of Rush's apprentices and his sister died; he was too sick to leave his house. Such news cast doubts on Rush's methods, but none of those victims had submitted to his harsh treatment.
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consulted how to act on so truly alarming and melancholy occasion. After some conversation, we found a freedom to go forth, confiding in Him who can preserve in the midst of a burning fiery furnace, sensible that it was our duty to do all the good we could to our suffering fellow mortals. We set out to see where we could be useful. The first we visited was a man in Emsley's alley, who was dying, and his wife lay dead at the time in the house, there were none to assist but two poor helpless children. We administered what relief we could, and applied to the overseers of the poor to have the woman buried. We visited upwards of twenty families that day—they were scenes of woe indeed! The Lord was plentiful to strengthen us, and removed all fear from us...
165:, a doctor's apprentice during the city's 1762 Yellow Fever epidemic, saw the pattern; he recognized that yellow fever had returned. Rush alerted his colleagues and the government that the city faced an epidemic of "highly contagious, as well as mortal... bilious remitting yellow fever." Adding to the alarm was that, unlike with most fevers, the principal victims were not very young or very old. Many of the early deaths were teenagers and heads of families in the dockside areas. Believing that the refugees from Saint-Domingue were carrying the disease, the city imposed a quarantine of two to three weeks on immigrants and their goods but was unable to enforce it as the epidemic increased its reach.
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Gray; and, in order that the distressed might know where to apply, the mayor advised that upon application to them they would be supplied. Soon after, the mortality increased, the difficulty of getting a corpse taken away, was such, that few were willing to do it, when offered great rewards. The black people were looked to. We then offered our services in the public papers, by advertising that we would remove the dead and procure nurses. Our services were the production of real sensibility—we sought not fee nor reward, until the increase of the disorder rendered our labour so arduous that we were not adequate to the service we had assumed.
60:, making the epidemic in the city of 50,000 people one of the most severe in United States history. By the end of September, 20,000 people had fled the city, including congressional and executive officials of the federal government. Most did not return until after the epidemic had abated in late November. The mortality rate peaked in October before frost finally killed the mosquitoes and brought an end to the outbreak. Doctors tried a variety of treatments but knew neither the origin of the fever nor that the disease was transmitted by mosquitoes (this information was not verified until the late 19th century).
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and camphor in infected rooms "cannot be used too frequently upon handkerchiefs, or in smelling bottles, by persons whose duty calls to visit or attend the sick." They outlined measures for city officials: stopping the tolling of church bells and making burials private; cleaning streets and wharves; exploding gunpowder in the street to increase the amount of oxygen. Everyone should avoid unnecessary contact with the sick. Crews were sent to clean the wharves, streets, and the market, which cheered those remaining in the city. Many of those who could, left the city.
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outside the city to wait another week or 10 days before returning. In the belief that the epidemic was related to bad air, the
Committee published directions for cleaning houses which had been closed up, recommending that they be aired for several days with all windows and doors open. "Burning of nitre will correct the corrupt air which they may contain. Quick lime should be thrown into the privies and the chambers whitewashed." On the 31st, a white flag was hoisted over Bush Hill with the legend, "No More Sick Persons Here."
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also used medicines to evacuate the bowels. Like Rush, he thought poisons had to be "abstracted" in severely debilitated patients. Instead of purges, he used blisters to raise welts on the skin. Unlike Kuhn, he did not favor baths. He preferred to apply heat, using hot bricks on hands or feet. He strongly discounted the traditional treatment for severe fevers, which was to wrap patients in blankets, give them camomile tea or
Madeira, and try to bring on sweats. He preferred "acidulated" water to the use of
118:, the months of August and September were considered the "sickly season," when fevers were prevalent. In the South, planters and other wealthy people usually left the Low Country during this season. Natives thought that newcomers especially had to undergo a "seasoning" and were more likely to die of what were thought to be seasonal fevers in their early years in the region. In 1793 Philadelphia was the temporary capital of the United States, and the government was due to return in the fall. President
735:(1949). While Powell did not write a scholarly history of the epidemic, his work reviewed its historical importance. Since the mid-twentieth century, scholars have studied aspects of the epidemic, first in papers. For example, Martin Pernick's "Politics, Parties, and Pestilence: Epidemic Yellow Fever in Philadelphia and the Rise of the First Party System," developed statistical evidence to show that Republican doctors generally used Rush's therapies and Federalist doctors used Kuhn's.
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498:"A poor black man, named Sampson, went constantly from house to house where distress was, and no assistance, without fee or reward. He was smitten with the disorder, and died. After his death his family were neglected by those he had served. Sarah Bass, a poor black widow, gave all the assistance she could, in several families, for which she did not receive any thing; and when any thing was offered her, she left it to the option of those she served."
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patients." Despite Rush's theory, most of the city's people of color, who were born in North
America, were not immune to the fever. Many of the slaves in Charleston in 1742 could have gained immunity before having been transported from Africa, by having been exposed to yellow fever in a mild case. People who survived one attack gained immunity. A total of 240 blacks died in Philadelphia, in proportion to their population at the same rate as whites.
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into the middle of the streets, to avoid being infected in passing by houses wherein people had died. Acquaintances and friends avoided each other in the streets, and only signified their regard by a cold nod. The old custom of shaking hands fell in such general disuse, that many shrunk back with affright at even the offer of a hand. A person with crape , or any appearance of mourning, was shunned like a viper."
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names of victims, based on the minutes of the Mayor's
Committee. The Appendix of the on-line edition of Minutes lists the names of all the patients admitted to Bush Hill hospital, as well as the disposition of their cases. The publisher Mathew Carey released his history of the epidemic just weeks after its end. He listed the names of the dead at the back of the book, which is one reason it was a bestseller.
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with blood and that these organs had to be emptied at all costs. "On this account," Mitchell argued, "an ill-timed scrupulousness about the weakness of the body is of bad consequences in these urging circumstances.... I can affirm that I have given a purge in this case, when the pulse has been so low that it can hardly be felt, and the debility extreme, yet both one and the other have been restored by it."
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was especially great in
Philadelphia. This fact, along with the spread of the disease between Boston and Charleston between 1793 and 1802, made yellow fever a national crisis. As Thomas A. Apel has written "Yellow fever constituted the most pressing national problem of the early national problem. Yellow fever eroded public virtue, the cornerstone of a health republic."
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water twice a day over the naked body. The patient is to be placed in a large empty tub, and two buckets full of water, of the temperature 75 or 80 degrees
Fahrenheit's thermometer, according to the state of the atmosphere, are to be thrown on him." The water treatment was also advocated by Dr. Edward Stevens, who in mid-September claimed it had cured
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a female matron. They assigned the 14 rooms to separate male and female patients. With the discovery of a spring on the estate, workers were organized to have clean water pumped into the hospital. Helm and Girard informed the
Committee that they could accommodate more than the 60 patients then under their care, and soon the hospital had 140 patients.
489:, mayor of the city, and president of the committee. He sent for us, and requested we would use our influence to lessen the wages of the nurses. But on informing him of the cause, i.e. that of the people over-bidding one another, it was concluded unnecessary to attempt any thing on that head; therefore it was left to the people concerned.
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of the 1793 epidemic to eliminate reference to the disease being contagious. He varied his cures. In 1798 he was appointed as the chief doctor at the fever hospital. The mortality rate that year was roughly the same as it had been at Bush Hill in 1793, despite radical difference between the therapies used.
71:, which was typically the most common source of fever epidemics during the summer months. Black nurses aided the sick, and the group's leaders hired additional men to take away corpses, which most people would not touch. But black people in the city died at the same rate as whites, about 240 altogether.
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of the Free
African Society published their own account rebutting Carey's attacks; by that time Carey had already published the fourth edition of his popular pamphlet. Allen and Jones noted that some blacks had worked for free, that they had died at the same rate as whites from the epidemic, and that
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Unlike other doctors, Devèze did not offer advice in the newspapers during the epidemic. He later discussed treatment in his memoir, which included 18 case studies and descriptions of several autopsies. While he deprecated Rush's harsh purgatives and "heroic" bleeding, he moderately bled patients and
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An official register of deaths listed more than 5000 people as dying from the 50,000 citizens of
Philadelphia between August 1 and November 9, 1793, based on grave counts, so the total was probably higher. City officials, medical and religious leaders, and newspaper publishers reported the number and
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On October 16, after temperatures cooled, a newspaper reported that "the malignant fever has very considerably abated." Stores began to reopen October 25, many families returned, and the wharves were "once more enlivened" as a London-based ship arrived with goods. The Mayor's Committee advised people
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They made rapid improvements in hospital operations: bedsteads were repaired and more brought from the prison so patients would not have to lie on the floor. A barn was adapted as a place for convalescing patients. On September 17, the managers hired 9 female nurses and 10 male attendants, as well as
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The state legislature cut short its September session after a dead body was found on the steps of State House. Governor Mifflin became ill and was advised by his doctor to leave. The city's banks remained open. But, banking operations were so slowed by the inability of people to pay off notes because
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compound) before Rush and that "its efficacy was great and rescued many from death." Carey added that the "efficacy of bleeding, in all cases not attended with putridity, was great." Rush taught the African-American nurses how to bleed and purge patients. Allen and Jones wrote that they were thankful
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mosquito. Efforts to clean the city did not defeat the spread of the fever, as the mosquitoes breed in clean water as well as in dirty water. Philadelphia's newspapers continued to publish during the epidemic, and the doctors and others tried to understand and combat the epidemic. On September 7, Dr.
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Those refugees from Saint-Domingue who thought they had immunity used the streets freely, but few other residents did. Those who had not escaped the city tried to wait out the epidemic in their homes. When the Mayor's Committee took a quick census of the dead, they found that the majority of victims
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The Yearly Meeting of the Society of Friends at the Arch Street Meeting House drew 100 attendees, most from outside the city. The meetinghouse is not far from the waterfront where the epidemic had started. In their Yearly Epistle following the meeting, the Friends wrote that to have changed the time
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Preached to a large gathering about Jes.26,1. I showed that Philadelphia a very blessed city—the Lord is among us and especially in our congregation. I proved this with examples of dead and still living people. Baptized a child. Announced that I could not be with the corpses, that the sick should be
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established quarantines for refugees and goods from Philadelphia. New York established a "Committee appointed to prevent the spreading and introduction of infectious diseases in this city", which set up citizen patrols to monitor entry to the city. Stage coaches from Philadelphia were not allowed in
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I even saw one of the diseased ... the contents of his stomach upon . What did Girard do? ... He wiped the patient's cloaths, comforted ... arranged the bed, inspired with courage, by renewing in him the hope that he should recover. —From him he went to another, that vomited offensive matter that
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Between the college's advisory on August 25 and the death of Dr. Hutchinson from yellow fever on September 7, panic spread throughout the city; more people fled. Between August 1 and September 7, 456 people died in the city; 42 deaths were reported on September 8. An estimated 20,000 people left the
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a magazine that collected accounts of fever epidemics throughout the nation. Webster used this data in his 1798 book, suggesting that the nation was being subjected to a widespread "epidemic constitution" in the atmosphere that might last 50 years and make deadly epidemics almost certain. Mortality
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The rapid succession of other yellow fever epidemics in Philadelphia and elsewhere in the northeastern United States inspired many accounts of the efforts to contain, control and cope with the disease. Rush wrote accounts of the 1797, 1798, and 1799 epidemics in Philadelphia. He revised his account
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But, after some warm days, fever cases recurred. The white flag had to be struck. Finally on November 13, stagecoaches resumed service to the north and south. A merchant reported that the streets were "in an uproar and rendered the wharves impossible by reason of the vast quantities of wine, sugar,
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Allen and Jones noted that white nurses also profited and stole from their patients. "We know that six pounds was demanded by and paid to a white woman, for putting a corpse into a coffin; and forty dollars was demanded and paid to four white men, for bringing it down the stairs." Many black nurses
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Allen and Jones quickly wrote a pamphlet to defend the people of color in the crisis. The historian Julie Winch believes they wanted to defend their community, knowing how powerful Carey was, and wanting to maintain the reputation of their people in the aftermath of the epidemic. The men noted that
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The College of Physicians' advisory implied the fever was contagious and people should avoid contact with its victims although "duty" required that they be cared for. Yet in families, when the person with the fever was a mother or father, they could forbid their children from coming near them. Rush
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The college published a letter in the city's newspapers, written by a committee headed by Rush, suggesting 11 measures to prevent the "progress" of the fever. They warned citizens to avoid fatigue, the hot sun, night air, too much liquor, and anything else that might lower their resistance. Vinegar
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On September 10, he published a guide to treating the fever: "Dr. Rush's Directions for Curing and Treating the Yellow Fever", outlining a regimen of self-medication. At the first sign of symptoms, "more especially if those symptoms be accompanied by a redness, or faint yellowness in the eyes, and
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diluted with rich lemonade. The quantity is to be determined by the effects it produces and by the state of debility which prevails, guarding against its occasioning or encreasing the heat, restlessness or delirium." He placed "the greatest dependence for the cure to the disease, on throwing cool
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When the Mayor's Committee inspected the Bush Hill fever hospital, they found the nurses unqualified and arrangements chaotic. "The sick, the dying, and the dead were indiscriminately mingled together. The ordure and other evacuations of the sick, were allowed to remain in the most offensive state
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organized the city's response to the epidemic. Most of the Common Council members fled, along with 20,000 other residents. People who did not leave Philadelphia before the second week in September could leave the city only with great difficulty, and they faced road blocks, patrols, inspections and
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Some of the city's clergy suggested the epidemic was a judgment from God. Led by the Quakers, the religious community petitioned the state legislature to prohibit theatrical presentations in the state. Such entertainment had been banned during the Revolution and had only recently been authorized.
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The Governor created a middle path: he ordered the city to be kept clean and the port policed to prevent infected ships, or those from the Caribbean, from docking until they had gone through a period of quarantine. The city suffered additional yellow fever epidemics in 1797, 1798, and 1799, which
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assure a cure. A characteristic sign of death was black vomit, which salivation seemed to ward off. Since he urged purging at the first sign of fever, other doctors began seeing patients who were in severe abdominal distress. Autopsies after their death revealed stomachs destroyed by such purges.
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Rush's therapy was generalized as "purge and bleed," and as long as the patient remained debilitated, Rush urged further purging and bleeding. Not a few of his patients became comatose. The calomel in his pills soon brought on a state of constant salivation, which Rush urged patients to attain to
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Rush searched the medical literature for other approaches. Benjamin Franklin had given him letters sent by Dr. John Mitchell, related to treating patients during a 1741 yellow fever outbreak in Virginia. (Franklin never published the letters.) Mitchell noted that the stomach and intestines filled
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at their noses, or smelling-bottles full of the thieves' vinegar. Others carried pieces of tarred rope in their hands or pockets, or camphor bags tied round their necks... People hastily shifted their course at the sight of a hearse coming towards them. Many never walked on the footpath, but went
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Rush later described some early cases: On August 7, he treated a young man for headaches, fever, and vomiting, and on the 15th treated his brother. On the same day a woman he was treating turned yellow. On the 18th a man on the third day of fever had no pulse, was cold, clammy, and yellow, but he
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Then the largest city in the US, with around 50,000 residents, Philadelphia was relatively compact and most houses were within seven blocks of its major port on the Delaware River. Docking facilities extended from Southwark south of the city to Kensington to the north. Cases of fever clustered at
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In order the better to regulate our conduct, we called on the mayor the next day, to consult with him on how to proceed, so as to be the most useful. The first object he recommended was a strict attention to the sick, and the procuring of nurses. This was attended to by Absalom Jones and William
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Currie's work was the first of several medical accounts published within a year of the epidemic. Dr. Benjamin Rush published an account more than 300 pages long. Two French doctors, Jean Devèze and Nassy, published shorter accounts. Clergymen also published accounts; the most notable was by the
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Merchants worried more about Rush's theory that the fever arose from the filth of Philadelphia and was not imported from the West Indies. They did not want the port's reputation to suffer permanently. Doctors used his treatments while rejecting his etiology of the disease. Others deprecated his
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Doctors, preachers, and laymen all looked to the coming of autumn to end the epidemic. At first they hoped a seasonal "equinoctial gale," or hurricane, common at that time of year, would blow away the fever. Instead, heavy rains in late September seemed to correlate with a higher rate of cases.
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On the 14th, Clarkson was joined by 26 men, who formed committees to reorganize the fever hospital, arrange visits to the sick, feed those unable to care for themselves, and arrange for wagons to carry the sick to the hospital and the dead to Potter's Field. The Committee acted quickly: after a
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In his 1793 account of the epidemic, Mathew Carey contrasted the sacrifices of men like Joseph Inskeep, a Quaker who served on the Mayor's Committee and also visited the sick, with the selfishness of others. When Inskeep contracted the fever, he asked for the assistance of a family whom he had
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Early in September, a solicitation appeared in the public papers, to the people of colour to come forward and assist the distressed, perishing, and neglected sick; with a kind of assurance, that people of our colour were not liable to take the infection. Upon which we and a few others met and
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Allen noted in his account that because of the increase in mortality, he and Jones had to hire five men to assist them in removing corpses, as most people avoided the sick and the dead. In a September 6 letter to his wife, Rush said that the "African brethren ... furnish nurses to most of my
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rum, coffee, cotton & c. The porters are quite savvy and demand extravagantly for anything they do." On November 14, the Mayor's Committee recommended purifying houses, clothing and bedding, but said that anyone could come to the city "without danger from the late prevailing disorder."
553:. Washington left the plague-ridden city for Mount Vernon on September 10. He and his cabinet reassembled in Germantown in early November. On November 11, Washington visited the city before the official all clear on November 14, but did not reoccupy the President's House until December.
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therapies, such as Dr. Devèze, but agreed that the fever had local origins. Devèze had arrived on the refugee ship from Saint-Domingue, which many accused of having carried the disease, but he thought it healthy. The doctors did not understand the origin or transmittal of the disease.
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Banneker's almanac, for the year 1795: Being the Third After Leap Year: Containing, (besides every thing necessary in an almanac,) an Account of the Yellow Fever, lately prevalent in Philadelphia, with the Number of those who died, from the First of August till the Ninth of November,
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In the first week of September 1793, Dr. William Currie published a description of the epidemic and an account of its progress during August. The publisher Mathew Carey had an account of the epidemic for sale in the third week of October, before the epidemic had ended.
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Elizabeth Drinker, a married Quaker woman, kept a journal for years; her account from August 23 through August 30 tells the quickening story of the spread of the disease in the city and the rising toll of deaths. She also describes the many people leaving the city.
689:, a Cuban doctor, argued that mosquito bites caused yellow fever; he credited Rush's published account of the 1793 epidemic for giving him the idea. He said that Rush had written: "Mosquitoes (the usual attendants of a sickly autumn) were uncommonly numerous..."
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and mosquitoes. Mosquito bites transmit the virus. Mosquitoes easily breed in small amounts of standing water. The medical community and others in 1793 did not understand the role of mosquitoes in the transmission of yellow fever, malaria, and other diseases.
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that "we have been the instruments, in the hand of God, for saving the lives of hundreds of our suffering fellow mortals." Rush's brand of medicine became the standard American treatment for fevers in the 1790s and was widely used for the next 50 years.
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first around the Arch Street wharf. Rush blamed "some damaged coffee which putrefied on the wharf near Arch Street" for causing the fevers. Soon cases appeared in Kensington. As the port was critical to the state's economy, the Pennsylvania governor,
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News that patients treated at the hospital were recovering encouraged many people to believe that medicine was gaining control of the fever. But, it soon became clear that mortality at the hospital remained high; about 50% of those admitted died.
838:"Where this parasite is endemic, young children have repeated malaria attacks. Repeated malaria infections strengthen adaptive immunity and broaden its effects against parasites expressing different to the good old immunity against malaria."
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in 1798, making yellow fever a national crisis. New York doctors finally admitted that they had had an outbreak of yellow fever in 1791 that killed more than 100 people. All the cities that suffered epidemics continued to grow rapidly.
173:, had responsibility for its health. He asked the port physician, Dr. James Hutchinson, to assess his conditions. The doctor found that 67 of about 400 residents near the Arch Street wharf were sick, but only 12 had "malignant fevers."
408:(now Haiti). Devèze cared only for the patients at the hospital, and he was assisted by French apothecaries. Devèze admired Girard's fearlessness in his devotion to the patients. In a memoir published in 1794, Devèze wrote of Girard:
632:, which was dried and powdered before ingesting) would create the desired elimination he was seeking. Since the demand for his services was so great, he had his assistants make as many of his powders in pill form as they could.
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The recurrences of yellow fever kept discussions about causes, treatment and prevention going until the end of decade. Other major ports also had epidemics, beginning with Baltimore in 1794, New York in 1795 and 1798, and
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or place of the meeting would have been a "haughty attempt" to escape "the rod" of God, from which there was no escape. The Quaker John Todd, who attended the meeting, contracted the fever and died of it. His young widow,
137:. Letters describing their cases were published in a pamphlet about a month after they died. The young doctor sent by the Overseers of the Poor to treat the Irish woman was perplexed, and his treatment did not save her.
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2458:"A Description of the Malignant Infectious Fever prevailing at Present in Philadelphia; with an account of the means to prevent infection, and the remedies and method of treatment, which have been found most successful"
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During the epidemic of 1798, Benjamin Rush commuted daily from a house just outside the city, near what is now 15th and Columbia streets, to the new city fever hospital, where as chief doctor he treated fever victims.
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could sit up in his bed. He died a few hours later. On the 19th a woman Rush visited died within hours. Another physician said five persons within sight of her door died. None of those victims was a recent immigrant.
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Rush's claim that his remedies cured 99 out of 100 patients has led historians and modern doctors to ridicule his remedies and approach to medical science. Some contemporaries also attacked him. The newspaper editor
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A 2013 book by Billy G. Smith, professor of history at Montana State University, makes a case that the principal vector of the 1793 plague in Philadelphia (and other Atlantic ports) was the British merchant ship
1912:"Account of the Yellow fever which prevailed in Virginia in the years 1737, 1741, and 1742, in a letter to the late Cadwallader Colden, Esq. of New York, from the late John Mitchell, M.D.F.R.S. of Virginia,"
270:," a Quaker who had provided schooling for blacks, Rush suggested that the city's people of color had immunity and solicited them "to offer your services to attend the sick to help those known in distress."
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Sermon, preached September 20th, 1793; a day set apart, in the city of New-York, for public fasting, humiliation and prayer, on account of a malignant and mortal fever prevailing in the city of Philadelphia
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He also left a diary. On September 16 he reported that his church was "very full" the day before. In one week in October, 130 members of his congregation were buried. On October 13, he wrote in his diary:
322:, and published his theories. The hope offered by any of these treatments was soon dashed when it became clear that they did not cure the disease, and the doctors' competing claims demoralized patients.
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city through September, including national leaders. The daily death toll remained above 30 until October 26. The worst seven-day period was between October 7 and 13, when 711 deaths were reported.
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in the island's north. They crowded the port of Philadelphia, where the first yellow fever epidemic in the city in 30 years began. It is likely that the refugees and ships carried the yellow fever
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the first nurses from the Free African Society had worked without any pay. As the mortality rate increased, they had to hire men to get anyone to deal with the sick and dying. They recounted that
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Given the limited resources and knowledge of the times, the city's response was credible. The medical community did not know the natural history of yellow fever, a viral infection spread by the
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A Narrative of the Proceedings of the Black People, During the Late Awful Calamity in Philadelphia in the Year 1793 and a Refutation of Some Censures, Thrown upon them in some late Publications
1672:"Yearly Meeting Epistle 1793," Swarthmore College Library Quaker Collection; see also letter by Margaret Morris to her daughter August 31, 1793, Haverford College Library Manuscript Collection.
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quarantines. On September 12, Clarkson summoned fellow citizens interested in helping the Guardians of the Poor. They formed a committee to take over from the Guardians and address the crisis.
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was requested by the city and readily agreed to by its members. Parties mistakenly assumed that people of African descent would have the same partial immunity to the new disease as many had to
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Banneker's Almanack and Ephemeris for the Year of Our Lord 1793; being The First After Bisixtile or Leap Year and Banneker's almanac, for the year 1795: Being the Third After Leap Year
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A short account of the malignant fever, lately prevalent in Philadelphia: with a statement of the proceedings that took place on the subject in different parts of the United States
266:, that African slaves appeared to be affected at rates lower than whites; he thought they had a natural immunity. Writing a short letter to the newspapers under the pseudonym "
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The Guardians of the Poor took over Bush Hill, a 150-acre estate farther outside the city, whose owner William Hamilton was in England for an extended stay. Vice President
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2043:"Observations Upon the Origin of the Malignant Bilious, or Yellow Fever in Philadelphia, and Upon the Means of Preventing It: Addressed to the Citizens of Philadelphia"
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Church clergy continued to hold services, which helped keep up residents' morale. Rev. J. Henry C. Helmuth, who led the city's German Lutheran congregation, wrote
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for their work, he suggested that blacks had caused the epidemic, and that some black nurses had charged high fees and even stolen from those for whom they cared.
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Rush claimed that he had tried Kuhn's and Steven's stimulating remedies but that his patients still died. He recommended other treatments, including purging and
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attended when several of its members were sick. They refused. He died, which might well have happened even if they had aided him. Carey reported their refusal.
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report of 15-month-old twins being orphaned, two days later the committee had identified a house for sheltering the growing number of orphans. As noted above,
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He published rumors of greed, especially by landlords who threw convalescing tenants into the street to gain control of their flats. While he praised
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Some neighboring towns refused to let refugees in from Philadelphia, fearing that they were carrying the fever. Major port cities, including those in
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published in 1912, used short excerpts from Carey's account. The first history of the epidemic to draw on more primary sources was J. H. Powell's
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Scholars celebrated the 200th anniversary of the epidemic with the publication of papers on various aspects of the epidemic. A 2004 paper in the
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of Virginia detailed his observations and treatments of victims of a "yellow fever" epidemic in 1741–2; copies of the manuscript were sent to
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1606:"Africans in America – Part 3: Brotherly Love (1791–1831) – Philadelphia/Modern Voices/Julie Winch on Jones' and Allen's response to Carey"
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Girard found that the intermittent visits by four young physicians from the city added to the confusion about patient treatment. He hired
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2122:"Africans in America – Part 3: Brotherly Love (1791–1831) – Philadelphia/Historical Documents/A Short Account of the Malignant Fever..."
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1892:
3232:
3118:
2297:
Pernick, Martin S. "Politics, Parties, and Pestilence: Epidemic Yellow Fever in Philadelphia and the Rise of the First Party System,"
562:
were poor people, who died in homes located in the alleys, behind the main streets where most of the business of city was conducted.
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to Maryland. Neighboring cities did send food supplies and money; for example, New York City sent $ 5000 to the Mayor's Committee.
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The mayor and a committee of two dozen organized a fever hospital at Bush Hill and other crisis measures. The assistance of the
56:, 5,000 or more people were listed in the register of deaths between August 1 and November 9. The vast majority of them died of
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393:, a merchant and shipowner born in France, volunteered to personally manage the hospital and represent the Mayor's Committee.
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Minutes of the Proceedings of the Committee Appointed on the Date of 14 September to Alleviate the Suffering of the Afflicted
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devoted herself to philanthropy after the epidemic, founding the Female Society for the Relief of the Distressed in 1795.
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published a short pamphlet later in the fall in which he described the changes that had occurred in the life of the city:
3142:
3136:
3045:
1931:
Dr. Mitchell misdiagnosed the disease that he observed and treated, and that the disease was probably Weil's disease, or
82:
had quarantines against refugees and goods from Philadelphia, although New York City sent financial aid to Philadelphia.
3436:
3256:
3820:
3814:
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3014:
1084:"Africans in America – Part 3: Brotherly Love (1791–1831) – Philadelphia/People & Events/The Yellow Fever epidemic"
153:) the previous November. It trailed yellow fever at every port of call in the Caribbean and eastern Atlantic seaboard.
3608:
3578:
3388:
3238:
2471:
An Inquiry into and Observations upon the Causes and Effects of the Epidemic Disease Which Raged in Philadelphia, 1794
596:
Dr. Kuhn advised drinking wine, "at first weaker wines, such as claret and Rhenish; if these cannot be had, Lisbon or
1885:
of Philadelphia; the manuscript was eventually printed (in large part) in 1805 and reprinted (in full) in 1814. See:
530:, a Virginia congressman whom she met in Philadelphia and who later was elected as US president. Philadelphia native
426:
As the death toll in the city rose, officials in neighboring communities and major port cities such as New York and
3400:
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1874:
263:
115:
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The first two people to die of yellow fever in early August in Philadelphia were both recent immigrants, one from
3124:
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2619:
2500:
2160:
2423:. Afro-American History Series (1969 Reprint ed.). Rhistoric Publications, a division of Microsurance Inc.
909:
389:
imaginable... It was, in fact, a great human slaughter-house." On September 15, Peter Helm, a barrel maker, and
3792:
3774:
854:"Andrew Brown's "Earnest Endeavor": The Federal Gazette's Role in Philadelphia's Yellow Fever Epidemic of 1793"
486:
432:
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2068:"An Earnest Call Occasioned by the Alarming Pestilential Contagion," November 8, 1793, Evans catalog #25427.
778:
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993:
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American doctors did not identify the vector of yellow fever until the late nineteenth century. In 1881
450:
312:
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64:
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Lutheran minister J. Henry C. Helmuth. In March 1794, the Mayor's Committee published its minutes.
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of disruptions from the epidemic that banks automatically renewed notes until the epidemic ended.
3547:
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2540:
An Account of the Bilious remitting Yellow Fever as it appeared in Philadelphia, in the year 1793
2538:
2457:
2346:
2196:
Yellow Fever, considered in its historical, pathological, etiological, and therapeutic relations,
1878:
602:
401:
217:
103:
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325:
In his 1794 account of the epidemic, Mathew Carey noted that other doctors claimed to have used
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1911:
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330:
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had recently rented the main house, so yellow fever patients were placed in the outbuildings.
119:
2323:
Kopperman, Paul E. "'Venerate the Lancet': Benjamin Rush's Yellow Fever Therapy in Context,"
485:
the great prices paid did not escape the observation of that worthy and vigilant magistrate,
280:
recalled their reaction to the letter in a memoir they published shortly after the epidemic:
17:
3786:
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1889:
1335:
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1918:
1896:
773:
339:
267:
2312:
A Melancholy Scene of Devastation: The Public Response to the 1793 Yellow Fever Epidemic,
1324:
Brown, Marion E. (March 1, 1950). "Adam Kuhn: Eighteenth Century Physician and Teacher".
853:
352:, who bled patients to death. In 1799 Rush won a $ 5,000 libel judgment against Cobbett.
2740:
2862:
2609:
523:
405:
390:
170:
134:
95:
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37:
2668:
An American Plague: The True and Terrifying Story of the Yellow Fever Epidemic of 1793
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987:
3836:
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2638:
2613:
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1882:
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686:
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After an extensive debate in the newspapers, the State Assembly denied the petition.
645:
629:
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474:
378:
306:
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247:"Those who ventured abroad, had handkerchiefs or sponges impregnated with vinegar of
162:
150:
146:
90:
Back in the spring of 1793, French colonial refugees, some with slaves, arrived from
79:
2560:
2515:
811:
719:, then a notable New York newspaper publisher, joined two doctors in publishing the
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550:
319:
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123:
57:
53:
41:
1605:
1339:
1176:
1083:
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A Short Account of the Yellow Fever in Philadelphia for the Reflecting Christian.
3756:
2944:
2511:
A Short Account of the Yellow Fever in Philadelphia for the Reflecting Christian
2121:
1936:
201:
32:
262:
knew of Dr. John Lining's observation during the 1742 yellow fever epidemic in
3321:
3169:
2716:
2448:
949:"When the Yellow Fever Outbreak of 1793 Sent the Wealthy Fleeing Philadelphia"
749:
224:
2693:
Bring Out Your Dead: The Great Plague of Yellow Fever in Philadelphia in 1793
2436:
2408:
1932:
617:
427:
75:
1347:
435:, for example, tried to prevent people from Philadelphia from crossing the
2696:. Reprint. (Introduction by Foster, Jenkins & Toogood). Philadelphia:
2514:. Translated by Charles Erdmann. Jones, Hoff & Derrick. Archived from
1440:
1438:
1436:
517:
reported to me in the morning so that I could visit them in the afternoon.
3676:
2822:
2818:
348:
2593:
2496:
Extracts from the Journal of Elizabeth Drinker, From 1759 to 1807, A.D.
1178:
Extracts from the Journal of Elizabeth Drinker, From 1759 to 1807, A.D.
936:
An Historical Account of the Climate and Diseases of the United States,
597:
248:
130:
68:
2152:
674:
2615:
The Coming Plague: Newly Emerging Diseases in a World Out of Balance
1792:
Welsh papers, November 13, 1793, Historical Society of Pennsylvania.
770:, quarantine hospital built in 1799 in response to the 1793 epidemic
2403:. Rhistoric publications. Philadelphia: Printed for William Young.
2369:
for relieving the Sick and Distressed, appointed by the Citizens of
1359:
1357:
648:
as many patients found the bark distasteful. He thought the use of
649:
621:
541:
192:
107:
99:
31:
612:
After experimenting, Rush decided that a powder of ten grains of
114:
In the ports and coastal areas of the United States, even in the
2428:
910:"Yellow Fever Decimates Philadelphia | History of Vaccines"
44:, where the first cluster of cases was identified in August 1793
2791:
2125:
1890:(Mitchell's account of the Yellow Fever in Virginia in 1741–2)
1610:
1088:
315:
in Sweden, advised patients to treat symptoms as they arose.
161:
After two weeks and an increasing number of fever cases, Dr.
808:
Benjamin Rush, yellow Fever and the Birth of Modern Medicine
2759:
Philadelphia: The Great Experiment, Episode II, Fever: 1793
1813:
1801:
1744:
1553:
1505:
1493:
1469:
1444:
404:, a French doctor with experience treating yellow fever in
198:
Bush Hill. The Seat of Wm. Hamilton Esqr. near Philadelphia
1423:
1421:
413:
would have disheartened any other than this wonderful man.
1939:(1957) "John Mitchell, Benjamin Rush, and Yellow fever,"
727:
General 20th-century US histories, such as the 10-volume
1226:
1224:
1264:"A Narrative of the Proceedings of the Black People..."
989:
Ship of Death: A Voyage That Changed the Atlantic World
2640:
Plague and Pestilence: A History of Infectious Disease
2493:
Drinker, Elizabeth S. (1889). Biddle, Henry D. (ed.).
1697:
Reforming Men and Women: Gender in the Antebellum City
1458:
A Narrative of the Proceedings of the Black People...,
1327:
Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences
784:
List of notable disease outbreaks in the United States
705:
some whites had also overcharged for their services.
2745:
Harvard University Library Open Collections Programs
3675:
3351:
3272:
3177:
3168:
3105:
3026:
2971:
2960:
2897:
2853:
2846:
1175:Drinker, Elizabeth (1889). Biddle, Henry D. (ed.).
661:kept the origin and treatment controversies alive.
592:Differing courses of treatment during the epidemic
2741:"The Yellow Fever Epidemic in Philadelphia, 1793"
2314:Philadelphia: Science History Publications, 1997.
514:
496:
483:
410:
288:
282:
245:
859:Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography
3808:
2803:
8:
1700:. Cornell University Press. pp. 45–46.
145:, which had fled the West African colony of
2093:
1922:American Medical and Philosophical Register
1852:September 11, 1793, also in Rush, pp. 207ff
1363:
1299:
1078:
1076:
1074:
1065:
804:"A Short History of Yellow Fever in the US"
605:, Secretary of the Treasury, of the fever.
457:, were among towns that accepted refugees.
342:attacked Rush's therapies and called him a
311:Adam Kuhn, who had studied medicine at the
3174:
2968:
2850:
2810:
2796:
2788:
1648:
1387:
1311:
2991:"Cocoliztli" epidemics in colonial Mexico
1033:. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 31.
2508:Helmuth, Justus Henry Christian (1794).
2220:10.11126/stanford/9780804797405.001.0001
2214:. Stanford University Press. p. 2.
2116:
2114:
1600:
1598:
1257:
1255:
1253:
1251:
624:(the poisonous root of a Mexican plant,
149:(an island off West Africa, present-day
2345:Allen, Richard; Jones, Absalom (1794).
1660:
1181:Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott Company.
884:Pennsylvania State University Libraries
847:
845:
794:
381:offered the services of members of the
2562:Outbreak! Plagues That Changed History
2279:from the original on February 27, 2022
2236:from the original on February 27, 2022
2049:from the original on February 27, 2022
2028:
2016:
2004:
1992:
1956:
1881:, a physician in New York, and to Dr.
1837:
1681:
1517:
1427:
1215:
973:
200:, a portrait depicting Bush Hill, the
3058:Great Plague in the late Ming dynasty
2310:Estes, J. Worth, and Smith, Billy G.
1825:
1636:
1589:
1577:
1565:
1541:
1481:
1412:
1375:
1242:
1203:
955:from the original on January 10, 2021
916:from the original on January 12, 2021
874:from the original on October 24, 2019
212:Like all hospitals of that time, the
7:
2529:. Philadelphia: R. Aitken & Son.
2523:Philadelphia Common Council (1794).
2325:Bulletin of the History of Medicine,
2183:A Brief History of Epidemic Disease,
2105:
1980:
1968:
1861:
1732:
1529:
1230:
1150:
1138:
1114:
1053:
896:
3858:1793 disasters in the United States
2163:from the original on April 16, 2019
2133:from the original on March 21, 2012
1941:Bulletin of the History of Medicine
1096:from the original on March 21, 2012
1010:from the original on March 13, 2020
742:reexamined Rush's use of bleeding.
740:Bulletin of the History of Medicine
2211:Feverish Bodies, Enlightened Minds
1618:from the original on March 8, 2012
1269:from the original on July 20, 2013
802:Arnebeck, Bob (January 30, 2008).
25:
3873:Disease outbreaks in Pennsylvania
2256:Great Epochs in American History,
1185:from the original on June 7, 2017
729:Great Epochs in American History,
3763:encephalitis lethargica epidemic
2773:program website, 30 October 2006
2698:University of Pennsylvania Press
2584:Butterfield, L. H., ed. (1951).
2381:Account of the Malignant Fever,
2351:. Philadelphia: Franklin's Head.
1814:Philadelphia Common Council 1794
1802:Philadelphia Common Council 1794
1745:Philadelphia Common Council 1794
1554:Philadelphia Common Council 1794
1506:Philadelphia Common Council 1794
1494:Philadelphia Common Council 1794
1470:Philadelphia Common Council 1794
1445:Philadelphia Common Council 1794
868:University of Pennsylvania Press
752:
102:. The 2,000 immigrants fled the
36:The Arch Street wharf along the
3541:Gorakhpur Japanese encephalitis
2838:List of epidemics and pandemics
2439:. Rhistoric Publication No. 202
2362:. Philadelphia: self-published.
2208:Apel, Thomas (March 30, 2016).
1901:The Philadelphia Medical Museum
1401:From Humors to Medical Science,
852:Smith, Mark A. (October 1996).
356:Government responses to crisis
1:
3848:18th-century health disasters
2866:
2690:Powell, John Harvey (1993) .
2637:Jacobs Altman, Linda (1998).
938:Philadelphia: T. Dobson, 1792
834:Genetic resistance to malaria
494:served without compensation:
27:Epidemic in the United States
18:Yellow Fever Epidemic of 1793
3853:18th century in Philadelphia
2776:John Mitchell Mason (1793).
2059:, Harvard University Library
216:did not admit patients with
2299:William and Mary Quarterly,
460:
3894:
3651:2024 Latin American dengue
3431:Western African meningitis
3245:Pacific Northwest smallpox
2718:Great Disasters: Epidemics
1340:10.1093/jhmas/V.Spring.163
1288:American Daily Advertiser,
1127:American Daily Advertiser,
992:. New Haven & London:
300:Controversy over treatment
264:Charleston, South Carolina
50:1793 yellow fever epidemic
3257:Buenos Aires yellow fever
3155:Philadelphia yellow fever
3125:Great Plague of Marseille
3119:Great Northern War plague
3113:Iceland smallpox epidemic
2833:
2620:Farrar, Straus and Giroux
2417:Whiteman, Maxwell (ed.).
2387:. Rhistoric publications.
2198:1855, pp. 65–93, 513–526.
1873:In a manuscript of 1744,
422:Reactions by other cities
3821:Mpox (clade Ib) epidemic
3815:Mpox (clade II) outbreak
3775:Seventh cholera pandemic
2586:Letters of Benjamin Rush
2501:J. B. Lippincott Company
2456:Currie, William (1793).
2258:volume 4, 1912, pp 83–89
1334:(Spring 1950): 163–177.
986:Smith, Billy G. (2013).
433:Havre de Grace, Maryland
3733:Fourth cholera pandemic
3715:Second cholera pandemic
3561:Équateur province Ebola
3149:North American smallpox
3064:Great Plague of Seville
1910:(John Mitchell) (1814)
1888:(John Mitchell) (1805)
779:History of yellow fever
447:Springfield, New Jersey
346:, after a character in
3863:1793 disease outbreaks
3843:18th-century epidemics
3751:Sixth cholera pandemic
3739:Fifth cholera pandemic
3721:Third cholera pandemic
3709:First cholera pandemic
3691:Second plague pandemic
3251:Barcelona yellow fever
3096:Great Plague of Vienna
3082:Great Plague of London
3052:Massachusetts smallpox
2559:Barnard, Bryn (2005).
2356:Carey, Mathew (1793).
2153:"Rev. Helmuth's Diary"
2080:November 19, 1793 and
1917:July 24, 2020, at the
1895:July 24, 2020, at the
1694:Dorsey, Bruce (2006).
1649:Allen & Jones 1794
1388:Allen & Jones 1794
1312:Allen & Jones 1794
768:Philadelphia Lazaretto
616:and ten grains of the
554:
519:
500:
491:
415:
293:
287:
254:
209:
122:left the city for his
45:
3727:Third plague pandemic
3685:First plague pandemic
3479:Western African Ebola
3389:Chikungunya outbreaks
3341:Malaysian Nipah virus
3209:Great Plains smallpox
2469:Devèze, Jean (1794).
2269:"Bring Out Your Dead"
2082:Philadelphia Gazette,
1366:, pp. 1213–1218.
994:Yale University Press
545:
451:Chester, Pennsylvania
313:University of Uppsala
214:Pennsylvania Hospital
196:
35:
3868:1793 in Pennsylvania
3787:Russian flu pandemic
3529:Angolan yellow fever
3280:San Francisco plague
3233:Broad Street cholera
3131:Great Plague of 1738
2715:Yount, Lisa (2000).
2254:Halsey, Francis W.,
503:Response of churches
383:Free African Society
65:Free African Society
3693:(1348–19th century)
3621:New Zealand measles
3449:Darfur yellow fever
3292:LA pneumonic plague
2909:Plague of Justinian
2771:American Experience
2594:10.2307/j.ctvh9w0fv
2518:on August 26, 2013.
2385:Philadelphia, 1793"
2383:which prevailed in
1947:(2) : 132–136.
1850:General Advertiser,
1828:, pp. 121–164.
1816:, pp. 205–232.
1735:, pp. 349–350.
1684:, pp. 104–105.
1029:Jim Murphy (2014).
814:on November 7, 2007
760:Philadelphia portal
733:Bring Out Your Dead
721:Medical Repository,
538:End of the epidemic
461:Carey's accusations
218:infectious diseases
189:Temporary hospitals
133:and the other from
3703:Influenza pandemic
3697:Influenza pandemic
3645:Bangsamoro measles
3627:Singaporean dengue
3591:Pacific NW measles
3585:Philippine measles
3573:Madagascar measles
3555:Kerala Nipah virus
3548:Saudi Arabian MERS
3461:Singaporean dengue
3407:Zimbabwean cholera
3377:Singaporean dengue
3221:Copenhagen cholera
3203:Groningen epidemic
2997:Influenza pandemic
2979:Influenza pandemic
2394:Banneker, Benjamin
2327:2004, 78: 539–574.
1879:Cadwallader Colden
1290:September 2, 1793.
1031:An American Plague
603:Alexander Hamilton
555:
385:to the committee.
231:Panic and refugees
210:
46:
3830:
3829:
3671:
3670:
3667:
3666:
3603:Kuala Koh measles
3517:South Korean MERS
3505:Polio declaration
3493:Madagascar plague
3425:Gujarat hepatitis
3413:Madagascar plague
3365:Midwest monkeypox
3316:Yugoslav smallpox
3286:Manchurian plague
3227:Stockholm cholera
3164:
3163:
2951:Sweating sickness
2939:Japanese smallpox
2888:Plague of Cyprian
2827:disease outbreaks
2732:978-1-56006-441-1
2707:978-0-8122-1423-9
2682:978-0-395-77608-7
2654:978-0-89490-957-3
2645:Enslow Publishing
2643:. United States:
2629:978-0-14-025091-6
2576:978-0-375-82986-4
2553:Secondary sources
2301:1972, pp 559–586.
2273:www.goodreads.com
2229:978-0-8047-9740-5
1875:Dr. John Mitchell
1864:, pp. 127ff.
1783:November 1, 1793.
1771:October 25, 1793.
1707:978-0-8014-7288-6
1460:1993, p. to come.
1456:Allen and Jones,
1430:, pp. 216ff.
1314:, pp. 15–16.
1233:, pp. 129ff.
1218:, pp. 58–62.
1206:, pp. 19–20.
1040:978-0-547-53285-1
1003:978-0-300-19452-4
976:, pp. 29–30.
934:Currie, William,
628:, related to the
614:calomel (mercury)
574:Lists of the dead
547:President's House
524:Dolley Payne Todd
437:Susquehanna River
157:Epidemic declared
120:George Washington
16:(Redirected from
3885:
3810:
3597:New York measles
3551:
3511:Indian swine flu
3499:Odisha hepatitis
3489:
3443:Pakistani dengue
3395:Pakistani dengue
3344:
3310:Wrocław smallpox
3263:Hong Kong plague
3197:Caragea's plague
3175:
3092:
2985:Mexican smallpox
2969:
2921:Plague of Sheroe
2876:Plague of Athens
2871:
2868:
2851:
2812:
2805:
2798:
2789:
2748:
2736:
2711:
2686:
2658:
2633:
2605:
2588:. Vol. II.
2580:
2567:Crown Publishers
2548:
2543:. Philadelphia:
2530:
2519:
2504:
2474:
2465:
2460:. Philadelphia:
2452:
2446:
2444:
2412:
2388:
2373:Sept. 14th, 1793
2363:
2352:
2328:
2321:
2315:
2308:
2302:
2295:
2289:
2288:
2286:
2284:
2265:
2259:
2252:
2246:
2245:
2243:
2241:
2205:
2199:
2192:
2186:
2179:
2173:
2172:
2170:
2168:
2149:
2143:
2142:
2140:
2138:
2118:
2109:
2103:
2097:
2094:Butterfield 1951
2091:
2085:
2078:Federal Gazette,
2075:
2069:
2066:
2060:
2058:
2056:
2054:
2041:Rush, Benjamin.
2038:
2032:
2026:
2020:
2014:
2008:
2002:
1996:
1990:
1984:
1978:
1972:
1966:
1960:
1954:
1948:
1928: : 181–215.
1907:(1) : 1–20.
1871:
1865:
1859:
1853:
1847:
1841:
1835:
1829:
1823:
1817:
1811:
1805:
1799:
1793:
1790:
1784:
1781:Federal Gazette,
1778:
1772:
1769:Federal Gazette,
1766:
1760:
1759:October 16, 1793
1757:Federal Gazette,
1754:
1748:
1742:
1736:
1730:
1724:
1723:October 5, 1793.
1721:Federal Gazette,
1718:
1712:
1711:
1691:
1685:
1679:
1673:
1670:
1664:
1658:
1652:
1651:, pp. 9–11.
1646:
1640:
1634:
1628:
1627:
1625:
1623:
1602:
1593:
1587:
1581:
1575:
1569:
1568:, pp. 59ff.
1563:
1557:
1551:
1545:
1544:, pp. 47ff.
1539:
1533:
1527:
1521:
1515:
1509:
1503:
1497:
1491:
1485:
1479:
1473:
1467:
1461:
1454:
1448:
1442:
1431:
1425:
1416:
1410:
1404:
1399:Duffy, William,
1397:
1391:
1385:
1379:
1373:
1367:
1364:Butterfield 1951
1361:
1352:
1351:
1321:
1315:
1309:
1303:
1300:Butterfield 1951
1297:
1291:
1285:
1279:
1278:
1276:
1274:
1262:Allen, Richard.
1259:
1246:
1240:
1234:
1228:
1219:
1213:
1207:
1201:
1195:
1194:
1192:
1190:
1172:
1166:
1165:August 31, 1793.
1163:Federal Gazette,
1160:
1154:
1153:, pp. 21ff.
1148:
1142:
1141:, pp. 9–11.
1136:
1130:
1129:August 28, 1793.
1124:
1118:
1112:
1106:
1105:
1103:
1101:
1080:
1069:
1066:Butterfield 1951
1063:
1057:
1051:
1045:
1044:
1026:
1020:
1019:
1017:
1015:
983:
977:
971:
965:
964:
962:
960:
945:
939:
932:
926:
925:
923:
921:
906:
900:
894:
888:
887:
881:
879:
849:
840:
830:
824:
823:
821:
819:
810:. Archived from
799:
762:
757:
756:
755:
526:, later married
487:Matthew Clarkson
455:Elkton, Maryland
366:Matthew Clarkson
104:slave revolution
21:
3893:
3892:
3888:
3887:
3886:
3884:
3883:
3882:
3833:
3832:
3831:
3826:
3663:
3546:
3484:
3467:Swansea measles
3419:Bolivian dengue
3347:
3339:
3328:Indian smallpox
3298:Croydon typhoid
3268:
3160:
3101:
3087:
3022:
2963:
2956:
2927:Plague of Amwas
2900:
2893:
2882:Antonine Plague
2869:
2842:
2829:
2816:
2785:
2766:The Great Fever
2755:
2739:
2733:
2714:
2708:
2689:
2683:
2661:
2655:
2636:
2630:
2610:Garrett, Laurie
2608:
2583:
2577:
2558:
2555:
2533:
2522:
2507:
2492:
2468:
2455:
2442:
2440:
2416:
2392:
2366:
2355:
2344:
2341:
2339:Primary sources
2336:
2331:
2322:
2318:
2309:
2305:
2296:
2292:
2282:
2280:
2267:
2266:
2262:
2253:
2249:
2239:
2237:
2230:
2207:
2206:
2202:
2193:
2189:
2181:Webster, Noah,
2180:
2176:
2166:
2164:
2157:bobarnebeck.com
2151:
2150:
2146:
2136:
2134:
2120:
2119:
2112:
2104:
2100:
2092:
2088:
2084:March 25, 1794.
2076:
2072:
2067:
2063:
2052:
2050:
2040:
2039:
2035:
2027:
2023:
2015:
2011:
2003:
1999:
1991:
1987:
1979:
1975:
1967:
1963:
1955:
1951:
1919:Wayback Machine
1897:Wayback Machine
1872:
1868:
1860:
1856:
1848:
1844:
1836:
1832:
1824:
1820:
1812:
1808:
1800:
1796:
1791:
1787:
1779:
1775:
1767:
1763:
1755:
1751:
1743:
1739:
1731:
1727:
1719:
1715:
1708:
1693:
1692:
1688:
1680:
1676:
1671:
1667:
1659:
1655:
1647:
1643:
1635:
1631:
1621:
1619:
1604:
1603:
1596:
1588:
1584:
1576:
1572:
1564:
1560:
1552:
1548:
1540:
1536:
1528:
1524:
1516:
1512:
1504:
1500:
1492:
1488:
1480:
1476:
1468:
1464:
1455:
1451:
1443:
1434:
1426:
1419:
1411:
1407:
1398:
1394:
1386:
1382:
1374:
1370:
1362:
1355:
1323:
1322:
1318:
1310:
1306:
1298:
1294:
1286:
1282:
1272:
1270:
1261:
1260:
1249:
1241:
1237:
1229:
1222:
1214:
1210:
1202:
1198:
1188:
1186:
1174:
1173:
1169:
1161:
1157:
1149:
1145:
1137:
1133:
1125:
1121:
1113:
1109:
1099:
1097:
1082:
1081:
1072:
1064:
1060:
1052:
1048:
1041:
1028:
1027:
1023:
1013:
1011:
1004:
985:
984:
980:
972:
968:
958:
956:
947:
946:
942:
933:
929:
919:
917:
908:
907:
903:
895:
891:
877:
875:
851:
850:
843:
831:
827:
817:
815:
801:
800:
796:
792:
774:Stubbins Ffirth
758:
753:
751:
748:
658:
594:
585:
576:
540:
505:
463:
424:
358:
340:William Cobbett
302:
268:Anthony Benezet
259:
233:
191:
159:
98:in present-day
88:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3891:
3889:
3881:
3880:
3875:
3870:
3865:
3860:
3855:
3850:
3845:
3835:
3834:
3828:
3827:
3825:
3824:
3818:
3812:
3802:
3796:
3795:(1981–present)
3790:
3784:
3778:
3772:
3766:
3760:
3754:
3748:
3742:
3736:
3730:
3724:
3718:
3712:
3706:
3700:
3694:
3688:
3681:
3679:
3673:
3672:
3669:
3668:
3665:
3664:
3662:
3661:
3660:
3659:
3648:
3647:(2023–present)
3642:
3639:Jamaica dengue
3636:
3630:
3624:
3618:
3612:
3606:
3600:
3594:
3588:
3582:
3576:
3570:
3564:
3558:
3552:
3544:
3538:
3535:Yemeni cholera
3532:
3526:
3520:
3514:
3508:
3502:
3496:
3490:
3486:DR Congo Ebola
3482:
3476:
3470:
3464:
3458:
3452:
3446:
3440:
3434:
3428:
3422:
3416:
3410:
3404:
3398:
3392:
3386:
3380:
3374:
3368:
3362:
3355:
3353:
3349:
3348:
3346:
3345:
3337:
3331:
3325:
3319:
3313:
3307:
3301:
3295:
3289:
3283:
3276:
3274:
3270:
3269:
3267:
3266:
3260:
3254:
3248:
3242:
3236:
3230:
3224:
3218:
3212:
3206:
3200:
3194:
3191:Maltese plague
3188:
3185:Ottoman plague
3181:
3179:
3172:
3166:
3165:
3162:
3161:
3159:
3158:
3152:
3146:
3143:Persian Plague
3140:
3137:Russian plague
3134:
3128:
3122:
3116:
3109:
3107:
3103:
3102:
3100:
3099:
3093:
3089:Maltese plague
3085:
3079:
3073:
3070:Maltese plague
3067:
3061:
3055:
3049:
3046:Italian plague
3043:
3040:Maltese plague
3037:
3030:
3028:
3024:
3023:
3021:
3020:
3018:
3012:
3009:Maltese plague
3006:
3000:
2994:
2988:
2982:
2975:
2973:
2966:
2958:
2957:
2955:
2954:
2948:
2942:
2936:
2930:
2924:
2918:
2912:
2905:
2903:
2895:
2894:
2892:
2891:
2885:
2879:
2873:
2863:Hittite plague
2859:
2857:
2848:
2844:
2843:
2841:
2840:
2834:
2831:
2830:
2817:
2815:
2814:
2807:
2800:
2792:
2783:
2782:
2774:
2761:
2754:
2753:External links
2751:
2750:
2749:
2737:
2731:
2712:
2706:
2687:
2681:
2659:
2653:
2634:
2628:
2606:
2581:
2575:
2554:
2551:
2550:
2549:
2535:Rush, Benjamin
2531:
2520:
2505:
2499:Philadelphia:
2490:
2466:
2453:
2371:Philadelphia,
2364:
2353:
2340:
2337:
2335:
2332:
2330:
2329:
2316:
2303:
2290:
2260:
2247:
2228:
2200:
2187:
2174:
2144:
2110:
2108:, p. 108.
2098:
2096:, p. 803.
2086:
2070:
2061:
2033:
2021:
2009:
1997:
1985:
1973:
1971:, p. 211.
1961:
1949:
1930:
1929:
1908:
1866:
1854:
1842:
1830:
1818:
1806:
1804:, p. 120.
1794:
1785:
1773:
1761:
1749:
1737:
1725:
1713:
1706:
1686:
1674:
1665:
1653:
1641:
1629:
1594:
1582:
1570:
1558:
1546:
1534:
1532:, p. 320.
1522:
1510:
1498:
1486:
1474:
1462:
1449:
1432:
1417:
1405:
1403:1993, pp 68–71
1392:
1380:
1368:
1353:
1316:
1304:
1302:, p. 654.
1292:
1280:
1247:
1235:
1220:
1208:
1196:
1167:
1155:
1143:
1131:
1119:
1107:
1070:
1068:, p. 641.
1058:
1046:
1039:
1021:
1002:
978:
966:
940:
927:
901:
889:
841:
825:
793:
791:
788:
787:
786:
781:
776:
771:
764:
763:
747:
744:
696:The reverends
657:
654:
652:very helpful.
593:
590:
584:
581:
575:
572:
539:
536:
504:
501:
462:
459:
423:
420:
406:Saint-Domingue
391:Stephen Girard
357:
354:
301:
298:
258:
255:
239:The publisher
232:
229:
206:James Hamilton
190:
187:
171:Thomas Mifflin
158:
155:
135:Saint-Domingue
96:Saint-Domingue
87:
84:
38:Delaware River
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3890:
3879:
3876:
3874:
3871:
3869:
3866:
3864:
3861:
3859:
3856:
3854:
3851:
3849:
3846:
3844:
3841:
3840:
3838:
3822:
3819:
3816:
3813:
3807:(2019–present
3806:
3803:
3800:
3797:
3794:
3791:
3788:
3785:
3782:
3781:Hong Kong flu
3779:
3776:
3773:
3770:
3767:
3764:
3761:
3758:
3755:
3752:
3749:
3746:
3743:
3740:
3737:
3734:
3731:
3728:
3725:
3722:
3719:
3716:
3713:
3710:
3707:
3704:
3701:
3698:
3695:
3692:
3689:
3686:
3683:
3682:
3680:
3678:
3674:
3657:
3654:
3653:
3652:
3649:
3646:
3643:
3640:
3637:
3634:
3631:
3628:
3625:
3622:
3619:
3616:
3613:
3610:
3609:Tonga measles
3607:
3604:
3601:
3598:
3595:
3592:
3589:
3586:
3583:
3580:
3579:Samoa measles
3577:
3574:
3571:
3568:
3565:
3562:
3559:
3556:
3553:
3549:
3545:
3542:
3539:
3536:
3533:
3530:
3527:
3524:
3521:
3518:
3515:
3512:
3509:
3506:
3503:
3500:
3497:
3494:
3491:
3487:
3483:
3480:
3477:
3474:
3471:
3468:
3465:
3462:
3459:
3456:
3453:
3450:
3447:
3444:
3441:
3438:
3437:Haiti cholera
3435:
3432:
3429:
3426:
3423:
3420:
3417:
3414:
3411:
3408:
3405:
3402:
3401:Iraqi cholera
3399:
3396:
3393:
3390:
3387:
3384:
3383:Indian dengue
3381:
3378:
3375:
3372:
3369:
3366:
3363:
3360:
3357:
3356:
3354:
3350:
3342:
3338:
3335:
3332:
3329:
3326:
3323:
3320:
3317:
3314:
3311:
3308:
3305:
3302:
3299:
3296:
3293:
3290:
3287:
3284:
3281:
3278:
3277:
3275:
3271:
3264:
3261:
3258:
3255:
3252:
3249:
3246:
3243:
3240:
3239:Guam smallpox
3237:
3234:
3231:
3228:
3225:
3222:
3219:
3216:
3213:
3210:
3207:
3204:
3201:
3198:
3195:
3192:
3189:
3186:
3183:
3182:
3180:
3176:
3173:
3171:
3167:
3156:
3153:
3150:
3147:
3144:
3141:
3138:
3135:
3132:
3129:
3126:
3123:
3120:
3117:
3114:
3111:
3110:
3108:
3104:
3097:
3094:
3090:
3086:
3083:
3080:
3077:
3076:Naples Plague
3074:
3071:
3068:
3065:
3062:
3059:
3056:
3053:
3050:
3047:
3044:
3041:
3038:
3035:
3034:London plague
3032:
3031:
3029:
3025:
3019:
3016:
3015:London plague
3013:
3010:
3007:
3004:
3003:London plague
3001:
2998:
2995:
2992:
2989:
2986:
2983:
2980:
2977:
2976:
2974:
2970:
2967:
2965:
2959:
2952:
2949:
2946:
2943:
2940:
2937:
2934:
2933:Plague of 664
2931:
2928:
2925:
2922:
2919:
2916:
2913:
2910:
2907:
2906:
2904:
2902:
2896:
2889:
2886:
2883:
2880:
2877:
2874:
2864:
2861:
2860:
2858:
2856:
2852:
2849:
2845:
2839:
2836:
2835:
2832:
2828:
2824:
2820:
2813:
2808:
2806:
2801:
2799:
2794:
2793:
2790:
2786:
2781:
2780:
2775:
2772:
2768:
2767:
2762:
2760:
2757:
2756:
2752:
2746:
2742:
2738:
2734:
2728:
2724:
2721:. San Diego:
2720:
2719:
2713:
2709:
2703:
2699:
2695:
2694:
2688:
2684:
2678:
2674:
2673:Clarion Books
2670:
2669:
2664:
2660:
2656:
2650:
2646:
2642:
2641:
2635:
2631:
2625:
2621:
2617:
2616:
2611:
2607:
2603:
2599:
2595:
2591:
2587:
2582:
2578:
2572:
2568:
2564:
2563:
2557:
2556:
2552:
2546:
2545:Thomas Dobson
2542:
2541:
2536:
2532:
2528:
2527:
2521:
2517:
2513:
2512:
2506:
2502:
2498:
2497:
2491:
2489:
2486:
2483:
2480:
2477:
2472:
2467:
2463:
2462:Thomas Dobson
2459:
2454:
2450:
2438:
2434:
2430:
2426:
2422:
2421:
2415:
2410:
2406:
2402:
2401:
2395:
2391:
2386:
2384:
2380:
2374:
2370:
2365:
2361:
2360:
2354:
2350:
2349:
2343:
2342:
2338:
2333:
2326:
2320:
2317:
2313:
2307:
2304:
2300:
2294:
2291:
2278:
2274:
2270:
2264:
2261:
2257:
2251:
2248:
2235:
2231:
2225:
2221:
2217:
2213:
2212:
2204:
2201:
2197:
2191:
2188:
2184:
2178:
2175:
2162:
2158:
2154:
2148:
2145:
2132:
2128:
2127:
2123:
2117:
2115:
2111:
2107:
2102:
2099:
2095:
2090:
2087:
2083:
2079:
2074:
2071:
2065:
2062:
2048:
2044:
2037:
2034:
2030:
2025:
2022:
2018:
2013:
2010:
2007:, p. 60.
2006:
2001:
1998:
1995:, p. 76.
1994:
1989:
1986:
1982:
1977:
1974:
1970:
1965:
1962:
1959:, p. 61.
1958:
1953:
1950:
1946:
1942:
1938:
1934:
1927:
1923:
1920:
1916:
1913:
1909:
1906:
1902:
1898:
1894:
1891:
1887:
1886:
1884:
1883:Benjamin Rush
1880:
1876:
1870:
1867:
1863:
1858:
1855:
1851:
1846:
1843:
1840:, p. 12.
1839:
1834:
1831:
1827:
1822:
1819:
1815:
1810:
1807:
1803:
1798:
1795:
1789:
1786:
1782:
1777:
1774:
1770:
1765:
1762:
1758:
1753:
1750:
1747:, p. 51.
1746:
1741:
1738:
1734:
1729:
1726:
1722:
1717:
1714:
1709:
1703:
1699:
1698:
1690:
1687:
1683:
1678:
1675:
1669:
1666:
1662:
1657:
1654:
1650:
1645:
1642:
1639:, p. 63.
1638:
1633:
1630:
1617:
1613:
1612:
1607:
1601:
1599:
1595:
1592:, p. 75.
1591:
1586:
1583:
1580:, p. 79.
1579:
1574:
1571:
1567:
1562:
1559:
1556:, p. 36.
1555:
1550:
1547:
1543:
1538:
1535:
1531:
1526:
1523:
1520:, p. 26.
1519:
1514:
1511:
1508:, p. 17.
1507:
1502:
1499:
1496:, p. 18.
1495:
1490:
1487:
1484:, p. 32.
1483:
1478:
1475:
1472:, p. 12.
1471:
1466:
1463:
1459:
1453:
1450:
1446:
1441:
1439:
1437:
1433:
1429:
1424:
1422:
1418:
1415:, p. 12.
1414:
1409:
1406:
1402:
1396:
1393:
1389:
1384:
1381:
1378:, p. 15.
1377:
1372:
1369:
1365:
1360:
1358:
1354:
1349:
1345:
1341:
1337:
1333:
1329:
1328:
1320:
1317:
1313:
1308:
1305:
1301:
1296:
1293:
1289:
1284:
1281:
1268:
1265:
1258:
1256:
1254:
1252:
1248:
1245:, p. 22.
1244:
1239:
1236:
1232:
1227:
1225:
1221:
1217:
1212:
1209:
1205:
1200:
1197:
1184:
1180:
1179:
1171:
1168:
1164:
1159:
1156:
1152:
1147:
1144:
1140:
1135:
1132:
1128:
1123:
1120:
1117:, p. 17.
1116:
1111:
1108:
1095:
1091:
1090:
1085:
1079:
1077:
1075:
1071:
1067:
1062:
1059:
1056:, p. 13.
1055:
1050:
1047:
1042:
1036:
1032:
1025:
1022:
1009:
1005:
999:
995:
991:
990:
982:
979:
975:
970:
967:
954:
950:
944:
941:
937:
931:
928:
915:
911:
905:
902:
898:
893:
890:
885:
873:
869:
865:
861:
860:
855:
848:
846:
842:
839:
835:
829:
826:
813:
809:
805:
798:
795:
789:
785:
782:
780:
777:
775:
772:
769:
766:
765:
761:
750:
745:
743:
741:
736:
734:
730:
725:
722:
718:
714:
710:
706:
703:
702:Absalom Jones
699:
698:Richard Allen
694:
690:
688:
687:Carlos Finlay
683:
679:
676:
672:
666:
662:
655:
653:
651:
647:
646:Peruvian bark
641:
637:
633:
631:
630:morning glory
627:
626:Ipomoea purga
623:
619:
615:
610:
606:
604:
599:
591:
589:
582:
580:
573:
571:
567:
563:
559:
552:
548:
544:
537:
535:
533:
529:
528:James Madison
525:
518:
513:
510:
502:
499:
495:
490:
488:
482:
478:
476:
475:Absalom Jones
472:
471:Richard Allen
467:
458:
456:
452:
448:
444:
440:
438:
434:
431:many cities.
429:
421:
419:
414:
409:
407:
403:
398:
394:
392:
386:
384:
380:
379:Absalom Jones
376:
375:Richard Allen
370:
367:
362:
355:
353:
351:
350:
345:
341:
335:
332:
328:
323:
321:
316:
314:
309:
308:
307:Aedes aegypti
299:
297:
292:
286:
281:
279:
278:Absalom Jones
275:
274:Richard Allen
271:
269:
265:
256:
253:
250:
244:
242:
237:
230:
228:
226:
221:
219:
215:
207:
203:
199:
195:
188:
186:
182:
178:
174:
172:
166:
164:
163:Benjamin Rush
156:
154:
152:
151:Guinea-Bissau
148:
144:
138:
136:
132:
127:
125:
121:
117:
112:
109:
105:
101:
97:
93:
85:
83:
81:
80:New York City
77:
72:
70:
66:
61:
59:
55:
51:
43:
39:
34:
30:
19:
3878:Yellow fever
3633:Uganda Ebola
3352:21st century
3334:Surat plague
3304:NYC smallpox
3273:20th century
3178:19th century
3154:
3106:18th century
3027:17th century
2993:(1545, 1576)
2972:16th century
2915:Roman Plague
2884:(165–180 AD)
2878:(429–426 BC)
2825:and notable
2784:
2778:
2770:
2765:
2744:
2723:Lucent Books
2717:
2692:
2671:. New York:
2667:
2639:
2618:. New York:
2614:
2585:
2565:. New York:
2561:
2539:
2525:
2516:the original
2510:
2495:
2470:
2447:– via
2441:. Retrieved
2419:
2413:
2398:
2389:
2382:
2378:
2372:
2368:
2358:
2347:
2334:Bibliography
2324:
2319:
2311:
2306:
2298:
2293:
2281:. Retrieved
2272:
2263:
2255:
2250:
2238:. Retrieved
2210:
2203:
2195:
2190:
2182:
2177:
2165:. Retrieved
2156:
2147:
2135:. Retrieved
2124:
2101:
2089:
2081:
2077:
2073:
2064:
2051:. Retrieved
2036:
2024:
2019:, p. 6.
2012:
2000:
1988:
1976:
1964:
1952:
1944:
1940:
1925:
1921:
1904:
1900:
1869:
1857:
1849:
1845:
1833:
1821:
1809:
1797:
1788:
1780:
1776:
1768:
1764:
1756:
1752:
1740:
1728:
1720:
1716:
1696:
1689:
1677:
1668:
1661:Helmuth 1794
1656:
1644:
1632:
1620:. Retrieved
1609:
1585:
1573:
1561:
1549:
1537:
1525:
1513:
1501:
1489:
1477:
1465:
1457:
1452:
1408:
1400:
1395:
1390:, p. 5.
1383:
1371:
1331:
1325:
1319:
1307:
1295:
1287:
1283:
1271:. Retrieved
1238:
1211:
1199:
1187:. Retrieved
1177:
1170:
1162:
1158:
1146:
1134:
1126:
1122:
1110:
1098:. Retrieved
1087:
1061:
1049:
1030:
1024:
1012:. Retrieved
988:
981:
969:
957:. Retrieved
943:
935:
930:
918:. Retrieved
904:
899:, p. 6.
892:
882:– via
876:. Retrieved
863:
857:
837:
828:
816:. Retrieved
812:the original
807:
797:
739:
737:
732:
728:
726:
720:
717:Noah Webster
715:
711:
707:
695:
691:
684:
680:
667:
663:
659:
642:
638:
634:
625:
611:
607:
595:
586:
577:
568:
564:
560:
556:
551:Philadelphia
532:Anne Parrish
520:
515:
508:
506:
497:
492:
484:
479:
468:
464:
441:
425:
416:
411:
399:
395:
387:
371:
363:
359:
347:
343:
336:
324:
320:bloodletting
317:
305:
303:
294:
289:
283:
272:
260:
257:Black nurses
246:
241:Mathew Carey
238:
234:
222:
211:
197:
183:
179:
175:
167:
160:
142:
139:
128:
124:Mount Vernon
113:
92:Cap Français
89:
73:
62:
58:yellow fever
54:Philadelphia
49:
47:
42:Philadelphia
29:
3823:(2023–2024)
3817:(2022–2023)
3801:(2009–2010)
3789:(1977–1979)
3783:(1968–1970)
3777:(1961–1975)
3771:(1957–1958)
3765:(1919–1930)
3759:(1918–1920)
3757:Spanish flu
3753:(1899–1923)
3747:(1889–1890)
3745:Russian flu
3741:(1881–1896)
3735:(1863–1879)
3729:(1855–1860)
3723:(1852–1860)
3717:(1829–1851)
3711:(1816–1826)
3705:(1557–1559)
3635:(2022–2023)
3623:(2019–2020)
3617:(2019–2020)
3615:DRC measles
3569:(2018–2020)
3537:(2016–2022)
3525:(2015–2016)
3481:(2013–2016)
3475:(2013–2014)
3473:Chikungunya
3439:(2010–2019)
3433:(2009–2010)
3415:(2008–2017)
3409:(2008–2009)
3373:(2003–2005)
3361:(2002–2004)
3343:(1998–1999)
3324:(1972–1973)
3288:(1910–1911)
3282:(1900–1904)
3247:(1862–1863)
3217:(1847–1848)
3211:(1837–1838)
3193:(1813–1814)
3187:(1812–1819)
3157:(1793–1798)
3151:(1780–1782)
3139:(1770–1772)
3127:(1720–1722)
3121:(1710–1712)
3115:(1707–1708)
3091:(1675–1676)
3084:(1665–1666)
3066:(1647–1652)
3060:(1633–1644)
3048:(1629–1631)
3017:(1592–1593)
3011:(1592–1593)
3005:(1563–1564)
2999:(1557–1559)
2953:(1485–1551)
2947:(1346–1353)
2945:Black Death
2870: 1330
2663:Murphy, Jim
2240:February 1,
2029:Devèze 1794
2017:Devèze 1794
2005:Devèze 1794
1993:Devèze 1794
1957:Murphy 2003
1937:Saul Jarcho
1838:Devèze 1794
1682:Murphy 2003
1518:Devèze 1794
1428:Powell 1993
1273:January 31,
1216:Powell 1993
1014:October 24,
974:Currie 1793
878:October 24,
870:: 321–342.
818:December 4,
402:Jean Devèze
208:at the time
202:county seat
48:During the
3837:Categories
3567:Kivu Ebola
3322:London flu
2449:HathiTrust
2367:Committee
2194:La Roche,
1826:Carey 1793
1637:Carey 1793
1590:Carey 1793
1578:Carey 1793
1566:Carey 1793
1542:Carey 1793
1482:Carey 1793
1413:Carey 1793
1376:Carey 1793
1243:Carey 1793
1204:Carey 1793
959:January 8,
920:January 8,
790:References
671:Wilmington
364:The mayor
225:John Adams
86:Beginnings
3799:Swine flu
3769:Asian flu
3687:(541–767)
3656:Argentina
2941:(735–737)
2935:(664–689)
2929:(638–639)
2923:(627–628)
2911:(541–542)
2901:classical
2890:(250–266)
2823:epidemics
2819:Pandemics
2602:242123763
2437:907004619
2283:March 18,
2167:March 18,
2137:March 26,
2106:Rush 1794
2053:March 22,
1981:Rush 1794
1969:Rush 1794
1933:hepatitis
1862:Rush 1794
1733:Rush 1794
1622:March 28,
1530:Rush 1794
1231:Rush 1794
1189:March 28,
1151:Rush 1794
1139:Rush 1794
1115:Rush 1794
1100:March 28,
1054:Rush 1794
897:Rush 1794
656:Aftermath
618:cathartic
428:Baltimore
116:northeast
76:Baltimore
3805:COVID-19
3793:HIV/AIDS
3371:Bird flu
2665:(2003).
2612:(1994).
2537:(1794).
2443:June 14,
2429:72077039
2409:62824552
2396:(1794).
2277:Archived
2234:Archived
2161:Archived
2131:Archived
2129:. 1998.
2047:Archived
1915:Archived
1893:Archived
1616:Archived
1614:. 1998.
1348:15412232
1267:Archived
1183:Archived
1094:Archived
1092:. 1998.
1008:Archived
953:Archived
914:Archived
872:Archived
746:See also
443:Woodbury
349:Gil Blas
344:Sangrado
126:estate.
2855:Ancient
1935:. See:
598:Madeira
331:mercury
327:calomel
249:camphor
131:Ireland
69:malaria
3699:(1510)
3677:Global
3658:(2024)
3641:(2023)
3629:(2020)
3611:(2019)
3605:(2019)
3599:(2019)
3593:(2019)
3587:(2019)
3581:(2019)
3575:(2018)
3563:(2018)
3557:(2018)
3550:(2018)
3543:(2017)
3531:(2016)
3519:(2015)
3513:(2015)
3507:(2014)
3501:(2014)
3495:(2014)
3488:(2014)
3469:(2013)
3463:(2013)
3457:(2012)
3451:(2012)
3445:(2011)
3427:(2009)
3421:(2009)
3403:(2007)
3397:(2006)
3391:(2006)
3385:(2006)
3379:(2005)
3367:(2003)
3336:(1994)
3330:(1974)
3318:(1972)
3312:(1963)
3306:(1947)
3300:(1937)
3294:(1924)
3265:(1894)
3259:(1871)
3253:(1870)
3241:(1856)
3235:(1854)
3229:(1853)
3223:(1853)
3215:Typhus
3205:(1829)
3199:(1813)
3170:Modern
3145:(1772)
3133:(1738)
3098:(1679)
3078:(1656)
3072:(1655)
3054:(1633)
3042:(1623)
3036:(1603)
2987:(1520)
2981:(1510)
2964:modern
2769:, PBS
2764:Film:
2729:
2704:
2679:
2651:
2626:
2600:
2573:
2435:
2427:
2407:
2226:
1704:
1346:
1037:
1000:
675:Boston
147:Bolama
143:Hankey
2962:Early
2917:(590)
2899:Post-
2847:Local
2598:S2CID
2488:p. 76
2485:p. 60
2482:p. 26
2479:p. 12
2185:1798.
866:(4).
832:From
650:opium
622:jalap
620:drug
583:Cause
108:virus
100:Haiti
3523:Zika
3455:MERS
3359:SARS
2727:ISBN
2702:ISBN
2677:ISBN
2649:ISBN
2624:ISBN
2571:ISBN
2476:p. 6
2445:2017
2433:OCLC
2425:LCCN
2405:OCLC
2400:1793
2285:2019
2242:2022
2224:ISBN
2169:2019
2139:2012
2055:2012
1702:ISBN
1624:2012
1344:PMID
1275:2012
1191:2012
1102:2012
1035:ISBN
1016:2019
998:ISBN
961:2021
922:2021
880:2019
820:2008
700:and
673:and
473:and
453:and
445:and
377:and
276:and
78:and
2872:BC)
2590:doi
2216:doi
2126:PBS
1611:PBS
1336:doi
1089:PBS
864:120
329:(a
204:of
52:in
40:in
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2867:c.
2821:,
2743:.
2725:.
2700:.
2675:.
2647:.
2622:.
2596:.
2569:.
2431:.
2414:In
2390:In
2379:An
2375:.
2275:.
2271:.
2232:.
2222:.
2159:.
2155:.
2113:^
2045:.
1945:31
1943:,
1924:,
1903:,
1899:,
1608:.
1597:^
1435:^
1420:^
1356:^
1342:.
1330:.
1250:^
1223:^
1086:.
1073:^
1006:.
996:.
951:.
912:.
862:.
856:.
844:^
836::
806:.
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2287:.
2244:.
2218::
2171:.
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2057:.
2031:.
1983:.
1926:4
1905:1
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1626:.
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1350:.
1338::
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963:.
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20:)
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