327:, the exact origins and operations of the Yellow Sand Society are difficult to discern. Chinese secret societies occasionally changed names, and were highly decentralized, with several differently named branches operating as part of the same movement. Sometimes, completely unrelated groups also shared the same name. It is thus difficult to clearly differentiate between the secret societies. The Yellow Sands are known to have operated as "Yellow Way Society" for part of their existence and have also been equated with the "Yellow Gate Society", which was active in
54:
447:
418:; their insurgency against the government lasted three years and was finally suppressed by Republican militia and army forces. Thereafter the movement resumed calling itself the Yellow Sand Society and continued to organize rural communities to resist increasing taxation and government intrusion for the rest of the
505:(CCP)'s attention. In December 1942, CCP leader Li Ta-chang released a paper which detailed how Communist cadres should deal with rural secret societies, grouping them into three categories. The Yellow Sands were considered to be a "feudal organization" led by landlords, but also important potential allies in
550:
The Yellow Sands also aimed at the restoration of the Ming dynasty. This too was a common motive among
Chinese secret societies, often expressed in the slogan "Oppose the Qing; restore the Ming". This slogan remained popular in rural areas even after the Qing dynasty's fall and was still widely used
509:
against the
Japanese. Li argued that Communists should join the secret societies and covertly indoctrinate them, and only attack those groups that adamantly refused to adopt Communism. Over time, however, the Communists became increasingly frustrated with the secret societies' political conservatism
526:
of them, violently curtailing their activities. The Yellow Sand
Society was consequently suppressed as a seditious "sect". Nevertheless, remnants of the movement remained active as late as 1980, when three peasants were arrested as purported Yellow Sands. They were accused of having planned a
433:
1926–28, the power of the warlords in northern China weakened significantly. This prompted the Yellow Sands, alongside other rural groups like the Red Spears and
Heavenly Gates, to seize large areas for themselves. For example, these three secret societies captured
365:
In 1908, peasants in eastern Henan banded together and organized themselves as the "Yellow Way
Society" in opposition to the Qing government. Three years later, these peasants started an open rebellion in an attempt to support the
438:
in 1927 and proceeded to run the local government for several months. Although the secret societies were thus fighting the same enemies as the KMT, the latter regarded this development unfavorably. This was due to the KMT-led
346:, having possibly emerged as rural self-defense movement in reaction to the gradual decline of the Chinese government and the subsequent rise of banditry and chaos. By the late 19th century, they flourished in the isolated
466:, which increasingly occupied Chinese territory in the 1930s. One branch of the movement was reorganized by its leader Chang Yin-tang into the "People's Anti-Japanese National Salvation Self-Defence Corps", based at
551:
in the 1940s. The rule of the Ming dynasty represented an idealized time, and it was widely believed that a Ming restoration would result in a "reign of happiness and justice for all" under a "good sovereign".
543:, spiritual and romanticised monarchist ideas. Its members believed that they could become immune to gunfire through "magic and incantations", a belief that was widely shared among secret societies. Historian
609:. For example, just two years after the defeat of "Chu the Ninth", a man calling himself "Wang the Sixth" proclaimed himself Ming emperor and managed to gather three hundred adherents before being captured.
531:, and reportedly resisted arrest. In the ensuing altercation, eight policemen were injured before the purported Yellow Sands were taken into custody. All were sentenced to unknown terms of imprisonment.
335:. Consequently, the Yellow Sands have been characterized both as offshoot and predecessor of the Red Spear Society. It has also been theorized that the Yellow Sand Society was connected to the
547:
noted that this conviction of invulnerability was "a powerful weapon for bolstering the resolve of people who possessed few alternative resources with which to defend their meager holdings".
386:. This was unusual, for most secret societies chose to cooperate with the new regime until the mid-1920s. Around 1919, a man calling himself "Chu the Ninth" appeared in
498:
mobilized to crush the uprising. By
September, the Yellow Sand forces in Miyun had been defeated by the Japanese, with about 300 rebels killed or wounded in battle.
1209:
406:"Great Brightness" (Daming). In doing so, Chu was supported by a local Yellow Way teacher. The two jointly declared that China had to be reunified under the "
1317:
Thaxton, Ralph (1984). "The fate of the
Heavenly Gates: rebellion, religion and repression in Republican China". In János M. Bak; Gerhard Benecke (eds.).
510:
and refusal to adopt
Communist ideas, so that the CCP increasingly shifted from cooperating with the rural groups to undermining and dismantling them.
522:
and the People's
Republic of China's establishment in 1949, the secret societies were seen as a political threat. As result, the CCP started to purge
443:
fearing that the Yellow Sands and other rural groups would hinder their own tax collections just as they had resisted the warlords' taxation.
606:
383:
295:
151:
1466:
1461:
1456:
1193:
1418:
Xing, Hansan; Li, Guoqiang (1991). "YUDONG HUANGDAO HUI QIYI" [The uprising of the
Huangdao Hui in east Henan in 1911].
1451:
1446:
1343:
1248:
1157:
411:
280:
258:
236:
214:
30:
1259:
475:
159:
1090:
94:
1351:
The China Monthly Review Staff (20 August 1936). ""Yellow Sand" Society Suppressed by Japanese in Demilitarized Zone".
1326:
1103:
331:, Shandong. In turn, "Yellow Gate Society" served as an alternative name for the Yellow Spears, a sub-group of the
58:
The Yellow Sands are known to have used a yellow flag inscribed with their leaders' names during the insurgency in
1410:
1376:
1292:
1183:
1174:
1136:
1080:
1226:
528:
506:
181:
502:
307:
1283:
Novikov, Boris (1972). "The Anti-Manchu Propaganda of the Triads, ca. 1800–1860". In Jean Chesneaux (ed.).
1356:
1309:
495:
455:
440:
501:
As peasant organization, the Yellow Sand Society was among the secret societies that also attracted the
347:
112:
1406:
1393:
1372:
1339:
1288:
1170:
1153:
1132:
1127:
Chesneaux, Jean (1972). "Secret Societies in China's Historical Evolution". In Jean Chesneaux (ed.).
1076:
539:
The Yellow Sand Society, like many other Chinese secret societies, was inspired in its activities by
324:
276:
1441:
1305:
430:
1364:
1203:
1115:
544:
435:
1244:
1189:
519:
467:
367:
332:
171:
135:
1336:
Salt of the Earth: The Political Origins of Peasant Protest and Communist Revolution in China
1107:
1088:
Buck, David D. (August 1977). "Reviewed Work: The Red Spears, 1916-1949 by Tai Hsuan-chih".
403:
399:
53:
487:
463:
303:
155:
266:
244:
222:
38:
560:
540:
523:
491:
451:
371:
287:
120:
106:
1401:
Slawinski, Roman (1972). "The Red Spears in the Late 1920s". In Jean Chesneaux (ed.).
1435:
1146:
602:
407:
387:
59:
595:
479:
395:
391:
343:
299:
291:
147:
117:
102:
382:
Following the collapse of the Qing Empire, the Yellow Way Society opposed the new
1238:
354:. The Yellow Sand Society would continue to be most active in the border area of
1234:
446:
419:
374:. They were defeated thereafter, with about 1,000 Yellow Way insurgents killed.
336:
196:
176:
1322:
1222:
426:
415:
123:
1240:
Detained in China and Tibet: A Directory of Political and Religious Prisoners
462:
The Yellow Sand Society also took part in the Chinese resistance against the
1099:
598:
1386:
La Société des Piques Rouges et le mouvement paysan en Chine en 1926-1927
1267:
1119:
1389:
929:
927:
483:
1111:
471:
445:
359:
355:
351:
328:
86:
82:
1185:
Supplements to the historical materials of the Republic of China
290:
ideas, the movement launched several uprisings against the late
18:
19th and 20th century secret society and religious sect in China
795:
793:
474:. Another Yellow Sand faction launched an uprising against the
945:
664:
662:
851:
849:
847:
1403:
Popular Movements and Secret Societies in China 1840-1950
1285:
Popular Movements and Secret Societies in China 1840–1950
1129:
Popular Movements and Secret Societies in China 1840–1950
902:
900:
708:
706:
704:
834:
832:
691:
689:
634:
632:
630:
628:
626:
933:
306:. The Yellow Sands were eventually suppressed by the
283:
in northern China during the 19th and 20th century.
1369:
Rebels and Revolutionaries in North China, 1845–1945
1167:
The Peasant Economy and Social Change in North China
649:
647:
165:
143:
131:
93:
77:
67:
23:
1145:
342:The Yellow Sands were already active in the late
1260:"Yellow Sand Cult to be suppressed by Japanese"
486:priest, the Yellow Sands managed to defeat an
310:(CCP) in the second half of the 20th century.
1420:Shixue Yuekan (Journal of Historical Science)
8:
993:
668:
1308:: Centre for Chinese Studies Publications,
867:
410:" and that only Yellow Way Society members
1208:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
20:
1005:
981:
724:
712:
527:rebellion and the reestablishment of the
799:
784:
1053:
1029:
906:
772:
622:
572:
490:unit that was sent to suppress them in
271:
249:
227:
43:
1258:Morning Tribune Staff (30 July 1936).
1201:
855:
838:
482:of Japan, in July 1936. Led by an old
458:(pictured: Japanese soldiers in 1937)
450:The 1936 rebellion of Yellow Sands in
390:of northern Henan. Claiming to be the
1219:The Ko-lao Hui in late imperial China
1041:
1017:
969:
957:
946:The China Monthly Review Staff (1936)
891:
879:
823:
736:
695:
638:
7:
760:
918:
811:
748:
680:
653:
1182:Ji, Xiaofeng; Shen, Youyi (1997).
514:Suppression by the Communist Party
14:
1148:The Origins of the Boxer Uprising
362:for the rest of its existence.
52:
1344:University of California Press
1158:University of California Press
518:With the CCP's victory in the
370:. They captured and plundered
262:
240:
218:
34:
1:
1266:. Vol. 1, no. 154.
476:East Hebei Autonomous Council
1144:Esherick, Joseph W. (1987).
1091:The Journal of Asian Studies
934:Morning Tribune Staff (1936)
579:Alternatively translated as
1327:Manchester University Press
1073:Bandits in Republican China
392:ninth-generation descendant
1483:
1334:Thaxton, Ralph A. (1997).
1237:; Spiegel, Mickey (1994).
1104:Cambridge University Press
1071:Billingsley, Phil (1988).
994:Munro & Spiegel (1994)
669:Munro & Spiegel (1994)
160:People's Republic of China
1411:Stanford University Press
1384:Slawinski, Roman (1975).
1377:Stanford University Press
1319:Religion and Rural Revolt
1302:The Red Spears, 1916-1949
1293:Stanford University Press
1175:Stanford University Press
1137:Stanford University Press
1081:Stanford University Press
325:secret societies in China
189:
51:
28:
1467:Self-proclaimed monarchy
1462:Chinese secret societies
1457:Second Sino-Japanese War
1353:The China Monthly Review
1300:Tai, Hsüan-chih (1985).
1227:University of Pittsburgh
601:were actually common in
529:Taiping Heavenly Kingdom
398:, he proclaimed himself
182:Second Sino-Japanese War
1342:; Los Angeles; London:
1217:Liu, Cheng-yun (1983).
1156:; Los Angeles; London:
503:Chinese Communist Party
308:Chinese Communist Party
1357:Custom House, Shanghai
1310:University of Michigan
1243:. Human Rights Watch.
1165:Huang, Philip (1985).
581:Yellow Pebbles Society
496:Imperial Japanese Army
459:
456:Imperial Japanese Army
441:Nationalist government
1452:20th century in China
1447:19th century in China
921:, pp. 14–16, 95.
449:
384:Republican government
348:Guan County, Shandong
139:Heavenly Gate Society
1407:Stanford, California
1394:University of Warsaw
1373:Stanford, California
1340:Berkeley, California
1289:Stanford, California
1171:Stanford, California
1154:Berkeley, California
1133:Stanford, California
1077:Stanford, California
960:, pp. 321, 232.
882:, pp. 159, 270.
856:Xing & Li (1991)
839:Ji & Shen (1997)
802:, pp. 141, 142.
277:rural secret society
1413:. pp. 201–211.
1365:Perry, Elizabeth J.
1329:. pp. 373–389.
1306:Ann Arbor, Michigan
972:, pp. 208–247.
826:, pp. 152–159.
454:was crushed by the
431:Northern Expedition
350:, at the border to
281:folk religious sect
255:Yellow Gate Society
211:Yellow Sand Society
78:Active regions
24:Yellow Sand Society
1056:, pp. 62, 63.
984:, pp. 15, 16.
868:Billingsley (1988)
751:, pp. 59, 60.
545:Elizabeth J. Perry
460:
298:, and the Chinese
233:Yellow Way Society
69:Dates of operation
1295:. pp. 49–63.
1032:, pp. 61–63.
858:, pp. 64–69.
607:Republic of China
605:during the early
520:Chinese Civil War
425:In course of the
368:Xinhai Revolution
333:Red Spear Society
323:Similar to other
296:Republic of China
231:), also known as
207:
206:
172:Xinhai Revolution
152:Republic of China
136:Red Spear Society
73:19th–20th century
1474:
1427:
1414:
1397:
1380:
1360:
1355:. Vol. 77.
1347:
1330:
1313:
1296:
1279:
1277:
1275:
1254:
1230:
1213:
1207:
1199:
1178:
1161:
1151:
1140:
1139:. pp. 1–21.
1123:
1084:
1057:
1051:
1045:
1039:
1033:
1027:
1021:
1015:
1009:
1008:, pp. 5, 6.
1006:Chesneaux (1972)
1003:
997:
991:
985:
982:Chesneaux (1972)
979:
973:
967:
961:
955:
949:
943:
937:
931:
922:
916:
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904:
895:
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836:
827:
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815:
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803:
797:
788:
782:
776:
770:
764:
758:
752:
746:
740:
734:
728:
725:Slawinski (1972)
722:
716:
713:Slawinski (1975)
710:
699:
693:
684:
678:
672:
666:
657:
651:
642:
636:
610:
593:
587:
585:Yellow Sand Sect
577:
494:, whereupon the
400:Emperor of China
378:Republican China
358:, Shandong, and
273:
264:
251:
242:
229:
220:
201:
193:Preceded by
166:Battles and wars
81:Northern China (
70:
56:
47:
45:
36:
21:
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1481:
1477:
1476:
1475:
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1417:
1400:
1383:
1363:
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1333:
1316:
1299:
1282:
1273:
1271:
1264:Morning Tribune
1257:
1251:
1233:
1216:
1200:
1196:
1181:
1164:
1143:
1126:
1112:10.2307/2054450
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800:Esherick (1987)
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785:Esherick (1987)
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488:East Hebei Army
464:Empire of Japan
436:Cheng'an County
412:would be spared
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321:
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203:
202:
199:
195:
158:
156:Empire of Japan
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29:
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1434:
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1422:(in Chinese).
1415:
1398:
1381:
1361:
1359:. p. 473.
1348:
1331:
1314:
1297:
1280:
1255:
1249:
1231:
1214:
1194:
1179:
1162:
1141:
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1085:
1067:
1065:
1062:
1059:
1058:
1054:Novikov (1972)
1046:
1044:, p. 232.
1034:
1030:Novikov (1972)
1022:
1020:, p. 195.
1010:
998:
996:, p. 349.
986:
974:
962:
950:
948:, p. 473.
938:
923:
911:
909:, p. 381.
907:Thaxton (1984)
896:
894:, p. 290.
884:
872:
860:
843:
828:
816:
804:
789:
787:, p. 142.
777:
773:Thaxton (1997)
765:
763:, p. 729.
753:
741:
739:, p. 269.
729:
727:, p. 210.
717:
700:
698:, p. 270.
685:
683:, p. 141.
673:
671:, p. 270.
658:
643:
641:, p. 159.
621:
620:
618:
615:
612:
611:
588:
571:
570:
568:
565:
564:
563:
561:Secret society
556:
553:
536:
533:
524:Mainland China
515:
512:
492:Miyun District
452:Miyun District
414:in the coming
379:
376:
320:
317:
315:
312:
205:
204:
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107:tax resistance
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1388:(in French).
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870:, p. 49.
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844:
841:, p. 12.
840:
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833:
829:
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820:
817:
814:, p. 14.
813:
808:
805:
801:
796:
794:
790:
786:
781:
778:
775:, p. 22.
774:
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762:
757:
754:
750:
745:
742:
738:
733:
730:
726:
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718:
715:, p. 75.
714:
709:
707:
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682:
677:
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656:, p. 16.
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603:Anyang County
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388:Anyang County
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300:puppet states
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278:
274:
272:Huang Men Hui
268:
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250:Huang Tao Hui
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228:Huang Sha Hui
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72:
66:
61:
60:Anyang County
55:
50:
46:
44:Huang Sha Hui
40:
32:
27:
22:
16:
1423:
1419:
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1385:
1368:
1352:
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1284:
1272:. Retrieved
1263:
1239:
1235:Munro, Robin
1218:
1184:
1166:
1147:
1128:
1095:
1089:
1072:
1064:Bibliography
1049:
1042:Perry (1980)
1037:
1025:
1018:Perry (1980)
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1001:
989:
977:
970:Perry (1980)
965:
958:Perry (1980)
953:
941:
936:, p. 9.
914:
892:Huang (1985)
887:
880:Perry (1980)
875:
863:
824:Perry (1980)
819:
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744:
737:Perry (1980)
732:
720:
696:Perry (1980)
676:
639:Perry (1980)
591:
584:
580:
575:
549:
538:
517:
500:
480:puppet state
470:in southern
461:
424:
396:Ming dynasty
381:
364:
341:
322:
286:Inspired by
285:
270:
254:
248:
232:
226:
210:
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192:
148:Qing dynasty
103:self-defense
85:, Shandong,
42:
15:
1270:. p. 9
1188:. Beijing.
1106:: 729–731.
761:Buck (1977)
541:millenarian
420:Warlord Era
408:true dragon
344:Qing Empire
337:White Lotus
292:Qing Empire
288:millenarian
197:White Lotus
177:Warlord Era
121:millenarian
1442:Vigilantes
1436:Categories
1323:Manchester
1250:1564321053
1223:Pittsburgh
919:Tai (1985)
812:Liu (1983)
749:Tai (1985)
681:Tai (1985)
654:Tai (1985)
617:References
599:pretenders
427:Kuomintang
416:armageddon
339:movement.
267:Wade–Giles
245:Wade–Giles
223:Wade–Giles
200:(possibly)
124:monarchism
111:Heterodox
39:Wade–Giles
1204:cite book
1100:Cambridge
402:with the
275:), was a
144:Opponents
101:Militant
1426:: 64–69.
1367:(1980).
555:See also
468:Taocheng
429:(KMT)'s
404:era name
95:Ideology
62:1919–22.
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1120:2054450
535:Beliefs
507:the war
394:of the
372:Taikang
319:Origins
314:History
259:Chinese
253:), and
237:Chinese
215:Chinese
31:Chinese
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1192:
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294:, the
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239::
225::
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132:Allies
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1274:3 May
1116:JSTOR
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567:Notes
472:Hebei
360:Hebei
356:Henan
352:Henan
329:Jinan
304:Japan
87:Hebei
83:Henan
1276:2018
1245:ISBN
1210:link
1190:ISBN
596:Ming
478:, a
279:and
209:The
118:Ming
105:and
1108:doi
583:or
302:of
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241:黃道會
219:黃沙會
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