492:) is the earliest possible evidence for Jews in South Arabia. Surprisingly little evidence exists for the actual character and customs of these religions, far distant from their centres. Nor do the artefacts confirm a picture of the actual practices of Judaism and Christianity as we know them today. The vast majority of the sculpture suggests polytheistic belief was dominant in the population. One assumes in terms of religions a mixture of Christians, Jews and polytheists in late pre-Islamic times. An excavated 1.70 m tall image of a crowned figure represents a Christian king that wears an Aksumite-looking crown – the only image of that early religion to survive. At its apex Zafar had a flourishing sculptural industry attested to by a large number of relief fragments. But for a single example, the Heidelberg archaeologists were unable to positively identify churches or chapels on the site which no doubt existed
496:
54:
447:
The date of this relief and its inscription difficult, both perhaps to the mid 5th century. The occurrence in Zafar of ribbed amphorae manufactured in Aqaba/Ayla evidently in order to transport wine, shows the area just north of Aqaba to have been a fruitful agricultural area. On the other hand, D. Fleitmann has studied speleothems from al-Hootha cave in central Oman and has gathered information for megadroughts especially around 530. These may have afflicted the entire
Peninsula.
47:
1345:
529:
439:
34:
1092:
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of cattle bones which it contained. It is located immediately north of a subterranean chambers and tombs. Immediately to the north are a row of storage chambers. The Husn Raydan and al-Gusr (standard Arabic: al-Qasr) 300 m to the north were once one fortification inside the city walls. Raydan South also was fortified and the ruined fortifications are best preserved here.
508:, Jordan as we know from excavations there. Aqaba was a center where goods were loaded, re-packed and re-exported. About 500 such sherds and vessels came to light in Zafar, the number rivalling that at Adulis and Aqaba. While wine is often mention as an import, livestock, textiles, meat, fish and fish sauce were also imported.
394:
455:
mentions the names of city gates, most of which are named after the town to which they face. The main architectural ruins at Zafar include tombs and on the south-western flank of the Husn Raydan a 30 x 30 m square stone court, as preserved, originally probably a temple, to judge from the accumulation
410:
inscriptions have survived at the site. Few finds can be securely dated to the late/post-empire period. After this there is little to suggest occupation until recent times. The excavated finds are important as texts shed little light on the material culture and art of this age. Moreover, recently the
503:
From the 3rd to mid-6th centuries Zafar was a bustling international centre with a booming local and international trade. Yule estimated a 4th-century population of some 25,000, based partly on the surface area and population density. Evidence of trade comes in the form of Late Roman period amphorae
446:
There is evidence that Zafar and settlement in general in the
Yemenite highlands declined drastically in the 5th and 6th centuries. Ideally, the viability of the city correlates declines drastically just after a relief of a crowned man was erected in what the excavator terms the Stone Building Site.
450:
A rectangular mapped surface area comprises 120 hectares. But the settlement is of uneven density and smaller than this. Zafar is the second largest mapped archaeological site in Arabia after Marib. Ancient settlement occurs inside and outside the ancient city defences. These have been estimated at
563:
discovered a
Sabaean inscription on a column in Bayt al-Ašwāl near Zafar , whereon is engraved a later writing in Assyrian (Hebrew) script which reads: "The writing of Judah, of blessed memory, Amen shalom amen." The script is believed to date to the 4th-century CE. The inscription attests to the
541:
The contemporary environment is vastly inferior to that which provided the resource base for the early
Himyarite tribal confederation. Despite some 500 mm precipitation per year, Water is scarce, upland soils are chronically eroded; the tree cover was eliminated perhaps in the empire period.
857:
et al., Zafār, Capital of Himyar, Ibb
Province, Yemen First Preliminary Report: 1998 and 2000, Second Preliminary Report: 2002, Third Preliminary Report: 2003, Fourth Preliminary Report: 2004, Archäologische Berichte aus dem Yemen 11 (Mainz 2007 ) 479–547, pls. 1–47 + CD-ROM,
371:, not in Yemen. Zafar in Yemen is attested more than 1000 years earlier than the place of the same name in Oman. (Smith 2001: 380). Written sources regarding Zafar are numerous, but heterogeneous in informational value. The most important source is epigraphic
937:
Late
Antique Arabia Ẓafār, Capital of Ḥimyar, Rehabilitation of a ‘Decadent’ Society, Excavations of the Ruprecht-Karls-Universität Heidelberg 1998–2010 in the Highlands of the Yemen, Abhandlungen Deutsche Orient-Gesellschaft, vol. 29, Wiesbaden, 2013,
405:
Individual finds belong to the early
Himyarite period (110 BCE – 270 CE). Rare earlier finds were probably brought to the site from elsewhere. Most of the ruins and finds, however, appear to belong to the empire period (270 – 525). A few post-war
460:
texts mention five royal palaces at Zafar: Hargab, Kallanum, Kawkaban, Shawhatan and Raydan, the state palace. Smaller ones, such as Yakrub, also find mention. Nearby
Himyarite period settlements include Maṣna‘at Māriya (ancient Samiʻān) and the
422:
replaced Zafar as capital probably between 537 and 548. The textual basis for this topic is tenuous. At this time the archaeological record in Zafar and the surrounding region breaks off. No textual tradition articulates its destruction. Only an
721:(ed.), Ẓafār, Capital of Ḥimyar, Rehabilitation of a ‘Decadent’ Society, Excavations of the Ruprecht-Karls-Universität Heidelberg 1998–2010 in the Highlands of the Yemen, Abhandlungen Deutsche Orient-Gesellschaft, vol. 29, Wiesbaden 2013, 32,
571:
continued from 1998 to 2010. In 2002, the site museum was reinstalled. In 2010, the Stone
Building site was roofed and conservation measures carried out. Although the site is no longer accessible, there is a Zafar Virtual Museum.
542:
Given the exhaustion of natural resources, civil strife, epidemics and megadroughts the
Himyarite period population declined especially in the 6th century. Today, some 450 farmers inhabit the former capital.
367:(original 2nd century CE). At some point, presumably in medieval times, the coordinates of Ptolemy's map were incorrectly copied or emended so that subsequent maps placed the metropolis of "Sephar" in
1080:
386:
mentions a bishop who allegedly had his see in Zafar. Its use of language possibly indicates to a 12th-century CE composition. According to the Arab geographer and historian
668:
Albrecht Berger (ed.), Life and Works of Saint Gregentios, Archbishop of Taphar… Millennium Studies in the Culture and History of the First Millennium C.E. vol. 76 (2006)
1740:
760:, Archaeometric Study of the Aqaba Late Roman Period Pottery Complex and Distribution in the 1st Millennium CE, Zeitschrift für Orient-Archäologie, 6, 2013, 320–350,
1147:
549:
is the most important cereal. The Stone Building also yielded most of 6000 excavated animal bones. The Stone Building seems to have functioned as a slaughterhouse.
1029:
1073:
1745:
1584:
387:
545:
Excavations at Ẓafār yielded 19 cultivated species including eight cereals, four oil and fibre plants, three pulses, three fruits and one spice.
1735:
1730:
1058:
777:
Paul Yule, A Late Antique Christian king from Himyar, Southern Arabia, Old South Arabia, Antiquity, vol. 87, issue 338, December 2013, 1124–35
307:. Given mention in several ancient texts, there is little doubt about the pronunciation of the name. Despite the opinion of local patriots in
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951:
926:
871:
765:
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757:
693:, Non-destructive Chemical Analysis of Old South Arabian Coins, 4th Century BCE – 3rd century, Archeometry vol. 53, 2011, 930–949. URL:
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822:, A Late Antique Christian king from Himyar, Southern Arabia, Old South Arabia, Antiquity, vol. 87, issue 338, December 2013, 1124–35
843:
886:
89:
452:
690:
343:
From an archaeological perspective, the settlement's beginnings are little known. The main sources consist of Old South Arabian
46:
1673:
356:
1622:
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4000 metres long. The main fortress today is still referred to as the "Husn Raydan". A text by the medieval Yemenite author
1637:
435:
following the Himyarite conversion to Judaism. It was later restored after Aksum's successful invasion on Himyar in 524.
591:
1499:
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An early 6th century relief statue has been identified as a king of Byzantine type, perhaps a representation of king
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709:, D’Aden à Zafar villes d’Arabie du sud préislamique, Orient & Mediterranée Archéologie no 6, Paris 2011
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Sabaean Inscription with Hebrew insignia found near Zafar (Bayt Al-Ashwal Inscription cropped)
372:
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church was recorded as being destroyed in 523. This church, likely built by missionary
419:
1724:
1683:
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606:
327:. For 250 years the tribal confederacy and allies' combined territory extended past
1708:
1668:
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1396:
1183:
477:
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398:
390:(c. 893–945), Zafar was also known by the name Ḥaql Yaḥḍib ("the field of Yaḥḍib").
211:
1002:
528:
993:
1234:
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33:
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Relief shows a Christian king from Himyar wearing a crown, c. 450 – c. 525 CE?
380:
360:
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838:(Selected Studies), editor: Menahem Ben-Sasson, Jerusalem 1983, pp. 334–339.
104:
91:
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963:
A Late Antique Christian king from Himyar, Southern Arabia, Old South Arabia
695:
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1475-4754.2011.00588.x/abstract
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300:
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640:, Ẓafār, Encyclopedia of Islam 11 fasc. 185-186 (2001) 380-381 s.v. Zafar
485:
407:
1632:
1142:
546:
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469:
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inscriptions dated as early as the 1st century BCE. It is mentioned by
1319:
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communities. Jews dominated politically until 525. The ring-stone of
328:
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1324:
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1173:
1132:
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1100:
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628:, Encyclopedia of Islam 11 fasc. 185-186 (2001) 379-380 s.v. Zafar
564:
multi-ethnic make-up of the peoples of South Arabia at that time.
505:
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77:
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Late Roman period amphora from Zafar originated at Aqaba, Jordan.
652:, Himyar-Spätantike im Jemen/Late Antique Yemen (Aichwald 2007)
368:
308:
1062:
375:. Christian texts shed light on the war between Himyar and the
836:
The Yemenites – History, Communal Organization, Spiritual Life
73:
679:
The Antiquities of South Arabia - The Eighth Book of Al-Iklīl
806:
Margarethe and Hans-Peter Uerpmann, Animal remains in Yule,
965:, Antiquity, vol. 87, issue 338, December 2013, 1124–35,
411:
chronology of the main coin series has been criticized.
323:(110 BCE – 525 CE), which at its peak ruled most of the
299:, some 130 km south-south-east of today's capital,
983:, Encyclopedia of Islam, vol. XI, Leiden, 2001, 379–80.
1646:
1603:
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1380:
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504:such as that depicted below. Many were produced in
442:
Plan of the archaeological site of Zafar, c. 500 CE
303:, and c. 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) south-east of
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758:M. Raith–R. Hoffbauer–H. Euler–P. Yule–K. Damgaard
919:Himyar–Die Spätantike im Jemen/Late Antique Yemen
1618:Dhamar Montane Plains Mahjur Traditional Reserve
1074:
319:at some 2800 m. Zafar was the capital of the
8:
480:bar Ḥanina (common Jewish names, written in
19:
1222:
1117:
1081:
1067:
1059:
691:Armin Kirfel/Winfried Kockelmann/Paul Yule
32:
18:
465:settlement, 25 air km to the south-east.
1741:Archaeological cultures of the Near East
1148:Landmarks of the Ancient Kingdom of Saba
359:(both 1st century CE) as well as in the
618:
311:, this site in Yemen is far older than
1623:Jabal Bura Valley Forest National Park
401:bar Ḥanina, 330 BCE – 200 CE or later.
16:Himyarite archaeological site in Yemen
681:, Oxford University Press 1938, p. 20
7:
53:
567:Mapping and excavation through the
280:
1638:Zuqur Islands Marine National Park
1585:St. Mary Help of Christians Church
793:, Charred plant remains, in Yule,
748:(ed.), Ẓafār, Capital of Ḥimyar...
14:
468:The city was home to polytheist,
1746:Former populated places in Yemen
1701:
1343:
1090:
677:Al-Hamdāni, al-Ḥasan ibn Aḥmad,
527:
515:
414:Already a big established town,
52:
45:
1674:Sanaa Turkish Memorial Cemetery
808:Late Antique Arabia Ẓafār 2013
357:Periplus of the Erythraean Sea
1:
1736:Archaeological sites in Yemen
1731:Architecture of ancient Yemen
1633:Socotra Island Protected Area
1613:Bura Community Protected Area
559:In 1970, Italian orientalist
1580:St. Francis of Assisi Church
1164:Archaeological Site of Marib
1209:Sharma/Jethmun coastal area
1179:The Madrasa Amiriya of Rada
486:this exact name is attested
1762:
1184:Jibla and its surroundings
1174:The Historic City of Thula
597:Rulers of Sheba and Himyar
1696:
1565:Qubbat Bayt Az-Zum Mosque
1341:
1221:
1199:Balhaf/Burum coastal area
1138:Old Walled City of Shibam
795:Late Antique Arabia Ẓafār
40:
31:
24:
1367:National Museum of Yemen
998:University of Heidelberg
602:Ancient history of Yemen
569:University of Heidelberg
1545:Grand Synagogue of Aden
1169:Historic City of Saada
1128:Historic Town of Zabid
1003:link to HeidICON Zafar
592:Tub'a Abu Kariba As'ad
500:
443:
402:
266:presently inaccessible
1540:Great Mosque of Sanaa
1437:Qu'aiti Sultan Palace
1372:Yemen Military Museum
1045:14.21139°N 44.40333°E
707:Jérémie Schiettecatte
498:
441:
429:Theophilos the Indian
396:
331:to the north and the
223:Excavation dates
105:14.21139°N 44.40861°E
1432:Palace of Queen Arwa
994:Expeditions to Zafar
1628:Ras Isa Marine Park
1480:Al-Bakiriyya Mosque
1143:Socotra Archipelago
1097:Tourist attractions
1041: /
832:Shelomo Dov Goitein
431:, was destroyed by
365:Claudius Ptolemaeus
355:, in the anonymous
335:to the north-east.
101: /
21:
1255:Cisterns of Tawila
1050:14.21139; 44.40333
1016:2016-02-21 at the
921:, Aichwald, 2007,
874:digital version: *
501:
444:
403:
313:its namesake there
283:), also Romanized
263:Public access
110:14.21139; 44.40861
61:Shown within Yemen
1718:
1717:
1692:
1691:
1570:Queen Arwa Mosque
1510:Al Tawheed Mosque
1505:Al Shohada Mosque
1495:Al-Muhdhar Mosque
1475:Al-Asha'ir Mosque
1442:Citadel of Rada'a
1362:House of Folklore
1217:
1216:
1133:Old City of Sanaa
952:978-3-447-06935-9
927:978-3-929290-35-6
872:978-3-8053-3777-9
766:978-3-11-019704-4
735:978-3-447-06935-9
658:978-3-929290-35-6
582:Himyarite Kingdom
418:and its fortress
379:(523 – 525). The
373:Old South Arabian
325:Arabian Peninsula
315:. It lies in the
295:site situated in
270:
269:
1753:
1711:
1706:
1705:
1704:
1654:Al-Aidarous gate
1560:Mudhaffar Mosque
1530:Ashrafiya Mosque
1520:Albolaily Mosque
1392:Aljabowbi Castle
1347:
1223:
1118:
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561:Giovānnī Garbinī
554:Sumūyafaʿ Ashwaʿ
531:
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488:coevally in the
317:Yemeni highlands
291:, is an ancient
282:
185:2nd? century BCE
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1679:Shaharah Bridge
1659:Amiriya Madrasa
1642:
1605:
1599:
1595:Temple of Awwam
1500:Al-Qalis Church
1490:Al-Mahdi Mosque
1462:
1456:
1422:Fort Al-Ghwayzi
1382:
1376:
1348:
1339:
1280:Maṣna'at Māriya
1227:
1226:Archaeological
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1550:Hanthel Mosque
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1525:Alemaan Mosque
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1515:Alansar Mosque
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1485:Al-Hadi Mosque
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1427:Ghumdan Palace
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1402:Dar al-Bashair
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463:Ǧabal al-‘Awd
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1709:Yemen portal
1669:Big Ben Aden
1590:Talha Mosque
1575:Saleh Mosque
1452:Sheba Palace
1412:Dar al-Shukr
1407:Dar al-Hajar
1397:Cairo Castle
1334:
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895:. Retrieved
891:the original
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797:2013, 187-94
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212:South Arabia
1417:Dar as-Sa'd
1235:Al Hajjarah
1189:Jabal Haraz
1048: /
108: /
84:Coordinates
1725:Categories
1664:Yemen Gate
1604:Protected
1461:Places of
1194:Jabal Bura
1036:44°24′12″E
1033:14°12′41″N
897:2013-11-02
613:References
453:al-Hamdani
388:Al-Hamdani
361:Geographia
321:Himyarites
255:Management
218:Site notes
124:settlement
96:44°24′31″E
93:14°12′41″N
1275:Marib Dam
971:0003-598X
959:Paul Yule
944:0417-2442
933:Paul Yule
915:Paul Yule
864:0722-9844
855:Paul Yule
820:Paul Yule
810:, 194-219
746:Paul Yule
727:0417-2442
719:Paul Yule
650:Paul Yule
474:Christian
433:Dhu Nawas
377:Aksumites
333:Euphrates
293:Himyarite
247:Ownership
239:Condition
234:Paul Yule
226:1998–2009
202:Himyarite
190:Abandoned
169:Himyarite
1310:Shaharah
1265:Kaminahu
1245:Baraqish
1111:Heritage
1014:Archived
887:"Browse"
576:See also
425:Aksumite
208:Cultures
174:Material
70:Location
1463:worship
1384:Castles
1381:Palaces
1354:Museums
996:by the
909:Sources
547:Hordeum
482:Aramaic
420:Ghumdan
351:in his
339:History
198:Periods
182:Founded
166:Builder
161:History
1647:Others
1320:Sirwah
1315:Shibam
1305:Shabwa
1295:Nashaq
1290:Nashan
1270:Ma'rib
1250:Baynun
1121:Listed
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950:
942:
925:
870:
862:
842:
789:&
764:
733:
725:
656:
490:Talmud
478:Yiṣḥaq
470:Jewish
458:Musnad
416:Sana'a
399:Yiṣḥaq
345:Musnad
329:Riyadh
301:Sana'a
289:Dhofar
285:Dhafar
277:Arabic
250:public
156:2800 m
153:Height
148:110 ha
140:1000 m
132:1200 m
129:Length
1335:Zafar
1330:Zabid
1325:Timna
1300:Sanaa
1285:Nahom
1260:Haram
1240:Awwam
1228:sites
1113:Sites
1109:World
1101:Yemen
981:Ẓafār
506:Aqaba
408:Ge'ez
349:Pliny
305:Yarim
297:Yemen
273:Ẓafār
177:stone
137:Width
78:Yemen
26:ظفار
20:Ẓafār
1606:area
967:ISSN
948:ISBN
940:ISSN
923:ISBN
868:ISBN
860:ISSN
840:ISBN
762:ISBN
731:ISBN
723:ISSN
705:cf.
654:ISBN
472:and
382:Vita
369:Oman
309:Oman
281:ظفار
258:GOAM
145:Area
121:Type
1099:in
363:of
287:or
74:Ibb
1727::
979:,
961:,
946:,
935:,
917:,
866:,
834:,
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556:.
484:;
279::
76:,
1082:e
1075:t
1068:v
973:.
954:.
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768:.
275:(
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