1838:
2043:
the star, the core gradually gets compressed. This brings hydrogen-rich material into a shell around the helium-rich core at a depth where the pressure is sufficient for fusion to occur. The high power output from this shell pushes the higher layers of the star further out. This causes a gradual increase in the radius and consequently luminosity of the star over time. For example, the luminosity of the early Sun was only about 70% of its current value. As a star ages it thus changes its position on the HR diagram. This evolution is reflected in a broadening of the main sequence band which contains stars at various evolutionary stages.
733:
2007:) the rate of energy generation by the CNO cycle is very sensitive to temperature, so the fusion is highly concentrated at the core. Consequently, there is a high temperature gradient in the core region, which results in a convection zone for more efficient energy transport. This mixing of material around the core removes the helium ash from the hydrogen-burning region, allowing more of the hydrogen in the star to be consumed during the main-sequence lifetime. The outer regions of a massive star transport energy by radiation, with little or no convection.
947:
1922:, the upper main sequence consists of stars above this mass. Thus, roughly speaking, stars of spectral class F or cooler belong to the lower main sequence, while A-type stars or hotter are upper main-sequence stars. The transition in primary energy production from one form to the other spans a range difference of less than a single solar mass. In the Sun, a one solar-mass star, only 1.5% of the energy is generated by the CNO cycle. By contrast, stars with 1.8
2559:
1857:
1969:
2547:
6934:
2031:
6848:
228:
2115:
527:. The MK classification assigned each star a spectral typeābased on the Harvard classificationāand a luminosity class. The Harvard classification had been developed by assigning a different letter to each star based on the strength of the hydrogen spectral line before the relationship between spectra and temperature was known. When ordered by temperature and when duplicate classes were removed, the
6898:
6922:
6886:
6910:
786:(or HR diagram) called the standard main sequence. Astronomers will sometimes refer to this stage as "zero-age main sequence", or ZAMS. The ZAMS curve can be calculated using computer models of stellar properties at the point when stars begin hydrogen fusion. From this point, the brightness and surface temperature of stars typically increase with age.
38:
6859:
575:
2149:. The energy output of the helium fusion process per unit mass is only about a tenth the energy output of the hydrogen process, and the luminosity of the star increases. This results in a much shorter length of time in this stage compared to the main-sequence lifetime. (For example, the Sun is predicted to spend
1939:. The theoretical explanation for this limit is that stars above this mass can not radiate energy fast enough to remain stable, so any additional mass will be ejected in a series of pulsations until the star reaches a stable limit. The lower limit for sustained proton-proton nuclear fusion is about 0.08
2042:
As non-fusing helium accumulates in the core of a main-sequence star, the reduction in the abundance of hydrogen per unit mass results in a gradual lowering of the fusion rate within that mass. Since it is fusion-supplied power that maintains the pressure of the core and supports the higher layers of
789:
A star remains near its initial position on the main sequence until a significant amount of hydrogen in the core has been consumed, then begins to evolve into a more luminous star. (On the HR diagram, the evolving star moves up and to the right of the main sequence.) Thus the main sequence represents
503:
As evolutionary models of stars were developed during the 1930s, it was shown that, for stars with the same composition, the star's mass determines its luminosity and radius. Conversely, when a star's chemical composition and its position on the main sequence are known, the star's mass and radius can
2641:
is formed at about the same time, the main-sequence lifespan of these stars will depend on their individual masses. The most massive stars will leave the main sequence first, followed in sequence by stars of ever lower masses. The position where stars in the cluster are leaving the main sequence is
2490:
Although more massive stars have more fuel to burn and might intuitively be expected to last longer, they also radiate a proportionately greater amount with increased mass. This is required by the stellar equation of state; for a massive star to maintain equilibrium, the outward pressure of radiated
760:, the initial composition is homogeneous throughout, consisting of about 70% hydrogen, 28% helium, and trace amounts of other elements, by mass. The initial mass of the star depends on the local conditions within the cloud. (The mass distribution of newly formed stars is described empirically by the
1879:
All main-sequence stars have a core region where energy is generated by nuclear fusion. The temperature and density of this core are at the levels necessary to sustain the energy production that will support the remainder of the star. A reduction of energy production would cause the overlaying mass
491:
Of the red stars observed by
Hertzsprung, the dwarf stars also followed the spectra-luminosity relationship discovered by Russell. However, giant stars are much brighter than dwarfs and so do not follow the same relationship. Russell proposed that "giant stars must have low density or great surface
2122:
The total amount of energy that a star can generate through nuclear fusion of hydrogen is limited by the amount of hydrogen fuel that can be consumed at the core. For a star in equilibrium, the thermal energy generated at the core must be at least equal to the energy radiated at the surface. Since
1887:
Main-sequence stars employ two types of hydrogen fusion processes, and the rate of energy generation from each type depends on the temperature in the core region. Astronomers divide the main sequence into upper and lower parts, based on which of the two is the dominant fusion process. In the lower
191:
that produces helium from hydrogen atoms. Main-sequence stars with more than two solar masses undergo convection in their core regions, which acts to stir up the newly created helium and maintain the proportion of fuel needed for fusion to occur. Below this mass, stars have cores that are entirely
2014:
may transport energy primarily by radiation, with a small core convection region. Medium-sized, low-mass stars like the Sun have a core region that is stable against convection, with a convection zone near the surface that mixes the outer layers. This results in a steady buildup of a helium-rich
921:
are indeed much smaller and dimmer than other stars of those colors. However, for hotter blue and white stars, the difference in size and brightness between so-called "dwarf" stars that are on the main sequence and so-called "giant" stars that are not, becomes smaller. For the hottest stars the
459:
noticed that the reddest starsāclassified as K and M in the
Harvard schemeācould be divided into two distinct groups. These stars are either much brighter than the Sun or much fainter. To distinguish these groups, he called them "giant" and "dwarf" stars. The following year he began studying
487:
and many of which had been categorized at
Harvard. When he plotted the spectral types of these stars against their absolute magnitude, he found that dwarf stars followed a distinct relationship. This allowed the real brightness of a dwarf star to be predicted with reasonable accuracy.
2532:, the luminosity of the star varies as the mass to the power of 2.3, producing a flattening of the slope on a graph of mass versus luminosity. Even these refinements are only an approximation, however, and the mass-luminosity relation can vary depending on a star's composition.
2050:
that can alter the observed stellar parameters. However, even perfect observation would show a fuzzy main sequence because mass is not the only parameter that affects a star's color and luminosity. Variations in chemical composition caused by the initial abundances, the star's
2599:, the hydrogen surrounding the helium core reaches sufficient temperature and pressure to undergo fusion, forming a hydrogen-burning shell and causing the outer layers of the star to expand and cool. The stage as these stars move away from the main sequence is known as the
2554:
When a main-sequence star has consumed the hydrogen at its core, the loss of energy generation causes its gravitational collapse to resume and the star evolves off the main sequence. The path which the star follows across the HR diagram is called an evolutionary track.
1996:
the energy is transported by bulk movement of plasma, with hotter material rising and cooler material descending. Convection is a more efficient mode for carrying energy than radiation, but it will only occur under conditions that create a steep temperature gradient.
1880:
to compress the core, resulting in an increase in the fusion rate because of higher temperature and pressure. Likewise, an increase in energy production would cause the star to expand, lowering the pressure at the core. Thus the star forms a self-regulating system in
1112:, and its extremely slow increase reflects the fact that the rate of energy generation in the core strongly depends on this temperature, whereas it has to fit the mass-luminosity relation. Thus, a too-high or too-low temperature will result in stellar instability.
2622:. They follow approximately horizontal evolutionary tracks from the main sequence across the top of the HāR diagram. Supergiants are relatively rare and do not show prominently on most HāR diagrams. Their cores will eventually collapse, usually leading to a
2610:
When the helium core of low-mass stars becomes degenerate, or the outer layers of intermediate-mass stars cool sufficiently to become opaque, their hydrogen shells increase in temperature and the stars start to become more luminous. This is known as the
2495:
rise to match the titanic inward gravitational pressure of its envelope. Thus, the most massive stars may remain on the main sequence for only a few million years, while stars with less than a tenth of a solar mass may last for over a trillion years.
2385:
2588:
when energy generation by nuclear fusion of hydrogen at their core comes to a halt, but stars in this mass range have main-sequence lifetimes longer than the current age of the universe, so no stars are old enough for this to have occurred.
926:
which indicate whether a star is on or off the main sequence. Nevertheless, very hot main-sequence stars are still sometimes called dwarfs, even though they have roughly the same size and brightness as the "giant" stars of that temperature.
2525:, the opacity becomes dependent on temperature, resulting in the luminosity varying approximately as the fourth power of the star's mass. For very low-mass stars, molecules in the atmosphere also contribute to the opacity. Below about 0.5
97:, and positions of stars on and off the band are believed to indicate their physical properties, as well as their progress through several types of star life-cycles. These are the most numerous true stars in the universe and include the
144:
from the overlying layers. The strong dependence of the rate of energy generation on temperature and pressure helps to sustain this balance. Energy generated at the core makes its way to the surface and is radiated away at the
535:
for memorizing this sequence of stellar classes is "Oh Be A Fine Girl/Guy, Kiss Me".) The luminosity class ranged from I to V, in order of decreasing luminosity. Stars of luminosity class V belonged to the main sequence.
136:. During this stage of the star's lifetime, it is located on the main sequence at a position determined primarily by its mass but also based on its chemical composition and age. The cores of main-sequence stars are in
499:
introduced the term
HertzsprungāRussell diagram to denote a luminosity-spectral class diagram. This name reflected the parallel development of this technique by both Hertzsprung and Russell earlier in the century.
1875:
fusion processes at different temperatures (T). The dashed line shows the combined energy generation of the PP and CNO processes within a star. At the Sun's core temperature, the PP process is more efficient.
2231:
The amount of fuel available for nuclear fusion is proportional to the mass of the star. Thus, the lifetime of a star on the main sequence can be estimated by comparing it to solar evolutionary models. The
1054:
The mass, radius, and luminosity of a star are closely interlinked, and their respective values can be approximated by three relations. First is the StefanāBoltzmann law, which relates the luminosity
160:
The main sequence is sometimes divided into upper and lower parts, based on the dominant process that a star uses to generate energy. The Sun, along with main sequence stars below about 1.5 times the
1038:
192:
radiative with convective zones near the surface. With decreasing stellar mass, the proportion of the star forming a convective envelope steadily increases. The Main-sequence stars below 0.4
2022:) are convective throughout. Thus the helium produced at the core is distributed across the star, producing a relatively uniform atmosphere and a proportionately longer main-sequence lifespan.
2507:. By contrast, a lower opacity means energy escapes more rapidly and the star must burn more fuel to remain in equilibrium. A sufficiently high opacity can result in energy transport via
479:
was following a similar course of research. He was studying the relationship between the spectral classification of stars and their actual brightness as corrected for distanceātheir
2216:
1892:, which directly fuses hydrogen together in a series of stages to produce helium. Stars in the upper main sequence have sufficiently high core temperatures to efficiently use the
3338:
2485:
2242:
778:
When nuclear fusion of hydrogen becomes the dominant energy production process and the excess energy gained from gravitational contraction has been lost, the star lies along a
2102:. Main-sequence stars in this region experience only small changes in magnitude, so this variation is difficult to detect. Other classes of unstable main-sequence stars, like
2236:
has been a main-sequence star for about 4.5 billion years and it will become a red giant in 6.5 billion years, for a total main-sequence lifetime of roughly 10 years. Hence:
2454:
2423:
2090:. These stars vary in magnitude at regular intervals, giving them a pulsating appearance. The strip intersects the upper part of the main sequence in the region of class
1915:, the PP process and CNO cycle are equally efficient, and each type generates half of the star's net luminosity. As this is the core temperature of a star with about 1.5
877:. A star's energy emission as a function of wavelength is influenced by both its temperature and composition. A key indicator of this energy distribution is given by the
4174:
4691:
1191:) are relative to the Sunāa dwarf star with a spectral classification of G2 V. The actual values for a star may vary by as much as 20ā30% from the values listed below.
2618:
The most massive stars do not become red giants; instead, their cores quickly become hot enough to fuse helium and eventually heavier elements and they are known as
2098:
stars, which are between one and two solar masses. Pulsating stars in this part of the instability strip intersecting the upper part of the main sequence are called
6699:
3719:
Bahcall, John N.; Pinsonneault, M. H.; Basu, Sarbani (2003). "Solar Models: Current Epoch and Time
Dependences, Neutrinos, and Helioseismological Properties".
930:
The common use of "dwarf" to mean the main sequence is confusing in another way because there are dwarf stars that are not main-sequence stars. For example, a
4912:
Bahcall, John N.; Pinsonneault, M.H.; Basu, Sarbani (2001). "Solar Models: Current Epoch and Time
Dependences, Neutrinos, and Helioseismological Properties".
2118:
This plot gives an example of the mass-luminosity relationship for zero-age main-sequence stars. The mass and luminosity are relative to the present-day Sun.
2075:. These stars are fusing hydrogen in their cores and so they mark the lower edge of the main sequence fuzziness caused by variance in chemical composition.
909:
Main-sequence stars are called dwarf stars, but this terminology is partly historical and can be somewhat confusing. For the cooler stars, dwarfs such as
768:
generates energy through gravitational contraction. Once sufficiently dense, stars begin converting hydrogen into helium and giving off energy through an
57:(represented as BāV). The main sequence is visible as a prominent diagonal band from upper left to lower right. This plot shows 22,000 stars from the
4716:
Girardi, L.; Bressan, A.; Bertelli, G.; Chiosi, C. (2000). "Evolutionary tracks and isochrones for low- and intermediate-mass stars: From 0.15 to 7 M
740:
in star-forming regions. These are all regions of star formation that contain many hot young stars including several bright stars of spectral type O.
199:
undergo convection throughout their mass. When core convection does not occur, a helium-rich core develops surrounded by an outer layer of hydrogen.
701:
464:; large groupings of stars that are co-located at approximately the same distance. For these stars, he published the first plots of color versus
4774:
2046:
Other factors that broaden the main sequence band on the HR diagram include uncertainty in the distance to stars and the presence of unresolved
3529:. At metallicity Z=0.01 the luminosity is 1.34 times solar luminosity. At metallicity Z=0.04 the luminosity is 0.89 times the solar luminosity.
2674:
By measuring the difference between these values, eliminates the need to correct the magnitudes for distance. However, this can be affected by
2615:; it is a relatively long-lived stage and it appears prominently in HāR diagrams. These stars will eventually end their lives as white dwarfs.
512:
and Henry Norris
Russell. It was subsequently discovered that this relationship breaks down somewhat for stars of the non-uniform composition.
2518:, which is nearly constant with increasing temperature. Thus the luminosity only increases as the cube of the star's mass. For stars below 10
1837:
6731:
5072:
4986:
4902:
4621:
4526:
4452:
4424:
4389:
4305:
4255:
4152:
4064:
3943:
3789:
3703:
3550:
3415:
3279:
3244:
2924:
2870:
2772:
2724:
531:
of stars followed, in order of decreasing temperature with colors ranging from blue to red, the sequence O, B, A, F, G, K, and M. (A popular
202:
The more massive a star is, the shorter its lifespan on the main sequence. After the hydrogen fuel at the core has been consumed, the star
3987:
3477:
1992:, where energy is transported by radiation, is stable against convection and there is very little mixing of the plasma. By contrast, in a
2940:
Kelly, Patrick L.; et al. (2 April 2018). "Extreme magnification of an individual star at redshift 1.5 by a galaxy-cluster lens".
6706:
6025:
3334:
2071:(with a very low abundance of elements with higher atomic numbers than helium) that lie just below the main sequence and are known as
934:
is the dead core left over after a star has shed its outer layers, and is much smaller than a main-sequence star, roughly the size of
5169:
Harris, Michael J.; Fowler, William A.; Caughlan, Georgeanne R.; Zimmerman, Barbara A. (1983). "Thermonuclear
Reaction Rates, III".
3525:āCompare, for example, the model isochrones generated for a ZAMS of 1.1 solar masses. This is listed in the table as 1.26 times the
3513:
2499:
The exact mass-luminosity relationship depends on how efficiently energy can be transported from the core to the surface. A higher
1051:. As the position of a star on the HR diagram shows its approximate luminosity, this relation can be used to estimate its radius.
4584:
62:
6418:
2562:
2503:
has an insulating effect that retains more energy at the core, so the star does not need to produce as much energy to remain in
783:
232:
102:
42:
4637:
Adams, Fred C.; Laughlin, Gregory (April 1997). "A Dying
Universe: The Long Term Fate and Evolution of Astrophysical Objects".
3635:
6332:
4799:
Krauss, Lawrence M.; Chaboyer, Brian (2003). "Age
Estimates of Globular Clusters in the Milky Way: Constraints on Cosmology".
665:
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6711:
6348:
5367:
4695:
1048:
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brightness, and the reverse is true of dwarf stars". The same curve also showed that there were very few faint white stars.
986:
862:, as long as it is fusing hydrogen at its coreāand that is what almost all stars spend most of their "active" lives doing.
732:
6758:
6625:
2764:
2655:
850:
The majority of stars on a typical HR diagram lie along the main-sequence curve. This line is pronounced because both the
3048:
Gloeckler, George; Geiss, Johannes (2004). "Composition of the local interstellar medium as diagnosed with pickup ions".
2573:(yellow). The dots outside the two sequences are mostly foreground and background stars with no relation to the clusters.
2161:
2067:
can all slightly change a main-sequence star's HR diagram position, to name just a few factors. As an example, there are
1070:
6956:
6741:
6692:
6667:
5960:
2646:. By knowing the main-sequence lifespan of stars at this point, it becomes possible to estimate the age of the cluster.
694:
6045:
4413:
For a detailed historical reconstruction of the theoretical derivation of this relationship by Eddington in 1924, see:
6682:
6662:
2153:
burning helium, compared to about 12 billion years burning hydrogen.) Thus, about 90% of the observed stars above 0.5
437:
6971:
6876:
6746:
6677:
6647:
4894:
4877:
509:
2996:
6753:
6630:
6607:
6189:
5638:
5633:
5628:
5623:
5618:
5613:
5043:
922:
difference is not directly observable and for these stars, the terms "dwarf" and "giant" refer to differences in
832:
827:
822:
817:
812:
807:
802:
737:
977:
505:
5896:
5770:
5405:
5131:
Fowler, William A.; Caughlan, Georgeanne R.; Zimmerman, Barbara A. (1975). "Thermonuclear Reaction Rates, II".
650:
548:
433:
6423:
6092:
1889:
1864:
172:
6672:
6222:
6132:
6074:
6000:
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5497:
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2504:
1881:
1851:
687:
137:
5447:
4382:
Supernovae and Nucleosynthesis: An Investigation of the History of Matter, from the Big Bang to the Present
2123:
the luminosity gives the amount of energy radiated per unit time, the total life span can be estimated, to
946:
634:
6833:
6813:
6585:
6580:
6373:
6322:
6127:
6117:
5790:
5588:
5556:
5430:
5099:
2675:
2380:{\displaystyle \tau _{\text{MS}}\approx 10^{10}{\text{years}}\left\left=10^{10}{\text{years}}\left^{-2.5}}
2182:
2124:
2064:
1410:
1200:
859:
851:
765:
723:
619:
516:
441:
239:
141:
6687:
6657:
6652:
6642:
6570:
6358:
5524:
967:
761:
753:
655:
520:
31:
5805:
4272:
3668:
2463:
1829:
539:
In April 2018, astronomers reported the detection of the most distant "ordinary" (i.e., main sequence)
901:) light by means of filters. This difference in magnitude provides a measure of a star's temperature.
171:), primarily fuse hydrogen atoms together in a series of stages to form helium, a sequence called the
6828:
6726:
6716:
6565:
6533:
6327:
6122:
6107:
5420:
5325:
5278:
5236:
5207:
5178:
5140:
5111:
5015:
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4808:
4778:
4739:
4656:
4555:
4481:
4344:
4222:
4183:
4103:
4021:
3968:
3906:
3867:
3824:
3738:
3606:
3308:
3111:
3057:
2961:
2835:
2808:
2760:
2103:
2099:
1872:
1546:
609:
524:
476:
472:
468:. These plots showed a prominent and continuous sequence of stars, which he named the Main Sequence.
110:
5667:
2015:
core, surrounded by a hydrogen-rich outer region. By contrast, cool, very low-mass stars (below 0.4
157:, with the latter occurring in regions with steeper temperature gradients, higher opacity, or both.
6966:
6926:
6428:
6288:
6271:
5942:
5844:
2515:
2432:
2401:
1147:
is the core temperature. This is suitable for stars at least as massive as the Sun, exhibiting the
1098:
757:
675:
589:
6914:
6902:
6823:
6784:
6736:
6721:
6635:
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6408:
6378:
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6312:
6234:
5925:
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5031:
5005:
4947:
4921:
4832:
4755:
4729:
4672:
4646:
4362:
4334:
4119:
4093:
4037:
3840:
3814:
3754:
3728:
3190:
3135:
3101:
2977:
2951:
890:
670:
480:
402:
86:
50:
3959:
Bressan, A. G.; Chiosi, C.; Bertelli, G. (1981). "Mass loss and overshooting in massive stars".
3781:
3208:
2887:
496:
4996:
Chabrier, Gilles; Baraffe, Isabelle (2000). "Theory of Low-Mass Stars and Substellar Objects".
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3991:
3484:
2716:
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will be on the main sequence. On average, main-sequence stars are known to follow an empirical
175:. Above this mass, in the upper main sequence, the nuclear fusion process mainly uses atoms of
6774:
6259:
6199:
6172:
6152:
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5736:
5724:
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3411:
3316:
3275:
3240:
3182:
3127:
2920:
2866:
2778:
2768:
2720:
2541:
2079:
2052:
1963:
1950:. Below this threshold are sub-stellar objects that can not sustain hydrogen fusion, known as
918:
749:
727:
660:
629:
456:
429:
203:
106:
58:
4518:
4511:
3234:
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5244:
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5211:
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4352:
4191:
4111:
4029:
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3914:
3875:
3832:
3805:
Oey, M. S.; Clarke, C. J. (2005). "Statistical Confirmation of a Stellar Upper Mass Limit".
3746:
3614:
3526:
3312:
3296:
3172:
3119:
3065:
2969:
2942:
2612:
2500:
2457:
2087:
2060:
1317:
1248:
870:
425:
1856:
6789:
6592:
6461:
6305:
6276:
6217:
6212:
6087:
5815:
5780:
5714:
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5410:
5261:
2604:
2600:
1993:
1968:
594:
381:
4212:
3239:, Astronomy and Astrophysics Library, Springer Science & Business Media, p. 39,
140:, where outward thermal pressure from the hot core is balanced by the inward pressure of
5329:
5290:
5240:
5219:
5190:
5152:
5123:
4935:
4812:
4660:
4559:
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4348:
4226:
4187:
4107:
4081:
4025:
3910:
3871:
3828:
3742:
3610:
3509:
3353:
3115:
3061:
2965:
2839:
2812:
838:
M-type (and, to a lesser extent, K-type) main-sequence stars are usually referred to as
428:
of stars were shown to have distinctive features, which allowed them to be categorized.
6938:
6851:
6617:
6456:
6283:
6254:
6229:
6162:
5851:
5719:
5605:
5507:
5397:
5387:
5057:
4887:
3774:
3268:
2709:
2030:
1989:
1478:
772:
715:
566:
388:
125:
117:
4588:
3089:
2546:
1972:
This diagram shows a cross-section of a Sun-like star, showing the internal structure.
1167:
The table below shows typical values for stars along the main sequence. The values of
17:
6950:
6803:
6597:
6560:
6528:
6403:
6112:
5935:
5906:
5884:
5502:
5452:
5353:
5087:
4357:
4322:
4219:
Proceedings of the 13th Cambridge Workshop on Cool Stars, Stellar Systems and the Sun
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3431:
3403:
2981:
2826:
Strƶmgren, Bengt (1933). "On the Interpretation of the Hertzsprung-Russell-Diagram".
2748:
2643:
2083:
1727:
1444:
1379:
923:
866:
544:
528:
5035:
4951:
4836:
4759:
4676:
4366:
3758:
3639:
3194:
3139:
2862:
2114:
420:
In the early part of the 20th century, information about the types and distances of
6933:
6863:
6538:
6488:
6483:
6383:
6266:
6249:
6207:
6167:
6102:
5985:
5930:
5911:
5891:
5869:
5861:
5704:
5697:
5536:
5457:
5440:
5027:
3844:
3456:
3360:. Center for Astrophysics & Space Sciences, University of California, San Diego
2744:
2638:
2627:
1625:
1348:
1216:
914:
624:
461:
374:
302:
295:
288:
281:
274:
267:
260:
253:
246:
121:
4468:
Sackmann, I.-Juliana; Boothroyd, Arnold I.; Kraemer, Kathleen E. (November 1993).
3177:
3160:
3090:"The Initial Mass Function of Stars: Evidence for Uniformity in Variable Systems"
27:
Continuous band of stars that appears on plots of stellar color versus brightness
6779:
6478:
6451:
6443:
6433:
6413:
6388:
6317:
6239:
5995:
5970:
5965:
5879:
5839:
5800:
5765:
5748:
5743:
5415:
5162:
Stellar Interiors: Physical Principles, Structure, and Evolution, Second Edition
3893:
Burrows, Adam; Hubbard, William B.; Saumon, Didier; Lunine, Jonathan I. (1993).
2585:
2068:
2056:
2047:
1980:, energy is transported outward. The two modes for transporting this energy are
1977:
1951:
1659:
1512:
931:
878:
874:
604:
599:
316:
309:
227:
215:
146:
82:
54:
2137:, when the hydrogen supply in its core is exhausted and it expands to become a
1976:
Because there is a temperature difference between the core and the surface, or
6363:
6060:
6033:
6010:
5990:
5975:
5827:
5731:
5709:
5687:
5682:
5546:
4668:
4214:
Spitzer Studies of Ultracool Subdwarfs: Metal-poor Late-type M, L and T Dwarfs
4196:
4169:
3540:
3069:
2973:
2631:
2619:
2570:
2508:
2426:
1985:
1761:
1232:
1168:
955:
855:
769:
465:
395:
367:
353:
207:
161:
154:
94:
46:
4211:
Burgasser, Adam J.; Kirkpatrick, J. Davy; LĆ©pine, SĆ©bastien (5ā9 July 2004).
3858:
Ziebarth, Kenneth (1970). "On the Upper Mass Limit for Main-Sequence Stars".
3320:
6550:
6398:
6182:
6147:
6142:
6137:
6097:
6050:
6040:
5834:
5810:
5785:
5692:
5643:
5576:
5566:
5541:
5514:
5490:
5425:
5198:
Iben, Icko Jr (1967). "Stellar Evolution Within and Off the Main Sequence".
4820:
3379:
3123:
3001:
2855:
2782:
2623:
2173:
2138:
1981:
1893:
1868:
1860:
1148:
938:. These represent the final evolutionary stage of many main-sequence stars.
910:
839:
745:
719:
614:
360:
323:
211:
188:
150:
70:
4828:
4012:
Gough, D. O. (1981). "Solar interior structure and luminosity variations".
3512:. Institut d'astronomie et d'astrophysique, UniversitƩ libre de Bruxelles.
3186:
3131:
3023:
1929:
or above generate almost their entire energy output through the CNO cycle.
5227:
Iglesias, Carlos A.; Rogers, Forrest J. (1996). "Updated Opal Opacities".
4751:
6543:
6244:
5918:
5677:
5650:
5010:
4926:
4734:
4651:
4401:
4098:
3819:
3733:
3106:
2072:
1901:
1693:
532:
484:
346:
330:
180:
129:
61:
together with 1,000 low-luminosity stars (red and white dwarfs) from the
1105:. This relation is roughly proportional to the star's inner temperature
6818:
6293:
6055:
5822:
5775:
5758:
5753:
5672:
5064:
4417:
How Dwarfs Became Giants. The Discovery of the Mass-Luminosity Relation
4033:
2889:
An atlas of stellar spectra, with an outline of spectral classification
2756:
2569:(blue) is older and shows a lower turn off from the main sequence than
2566:
1947:
452:
2607:
in the evolutionary track since few stars are observed at that point.
89:
as a continuous and distinctive band. Stars on this band are known as
37:
6808:
6796:
6015:
5901:
4221:. Hamburg, Germany: Dordrecht, D. Reidel Publishing Co. p. 237.
3572:
2221:
This relationship applies to main-sequence stars in the range 0.1ā50
2146:
2142:
2011:
1912:
1905:
1897:
1289:
1263:
1207:
1176:
184:
176:
133:
6858:
5248:
5102:; Zimmerman, Barbara A. (1967). "Thermonuclear Reaction Rates, I".
4943:
4568:
4543:
4494:
4469:
4115:
3919:
3894:
3879:
3836:
3750:
3619:
3594:
2956:
4397:
4339:
2557:
2545:
2113:
2029:
1967:
1888:
main sequence, energy is primarily generated as the result of the
1855:
1836:
1795:
945:
935:
779:
731:
552:
36:
5269:
Liebert, James; Probst, Ronald G. (1987). "Very Low Mass Stars".
3478:"A course on stars' physical properties, formation and evolution"
2127:, as the total energy produced divided by the star's luminosity.
1908:
as intermediaries in the process of fusing hydrogen into helium.
6177:
6157:
5376:
5322:
An Introduction to the Theory of Stellar Structure and Evolution
4513:
Stellar Interiors: Physical Principles, Structure, and Evolution
4298:
An Introduction to the Theory of Stellar Structure and Evolution
3236:
Stellar Interiors: Physical Principles, Structure, and Evolution
2511:, which changes the conditions needed to remain in equilibrium.
1184:
954:
By treating the star as an idealized energy radiator known as a
574:
540:
421:
78:
5349:
5160:
Hansen, Carl J.; Kawaler, Steven D.; Trimble, Virginia (2004).
3986:
Lochner, Jim; Gibb, Meredith; Newman, Phil (6 September 2006).
1841:
Representative lifetimes of stars as a function of their masses
6523:
4542:
Laughlin, Gregory; Bodenheimer, Peter; Adams, Fred C. (1997).
3895:"An expanded set of brown dwarf and very low mass star models"
2514:
In high-mass main-sequence stars, the opacity is dominated by
2233:
2035:
1884:
that is stable over the course of its main-sequence lifetime.
1590:
440:
developed a method of categorization that became known as the
98:
4246:
Green, S. F.; Jones, Mark Henry; Burnell, S. Jocelyn (2004).
1932:
The observed upper limit for a main-sequence star is 120ā200
483:. For this purpose, he used a set of stars that had reliable
4959:
Barnes, C. A.; Clayton, D. D.; Schramm, D. N., eds. (1982).
4694:. Australia Telescope Outreach and Education. Archived from
3595:"Stars within 15 Parsecs: Abundances for a Northern Sample"
2997:"Rare Cosmic Alignment Reveals Most Distant Star Ever Seen"
2711:
The Cosmic Century: A History of Astrophysics and Cosmology
798:
Main sequence stars are divided into the following types:
4419:. Bern Studies in the History and Philosophy of Science.
2168:) of the star is roughly proportional to the total mass (
2078:
A nearly vertical region of the HR diagram, known as the
790:
the primary hydrogen-burning stage of a star's lifetime.
5345:
950:
Comparison of main sequence stars of each spectral class
116:
After condensation and ignition of a star, it generates
2398:
are the mass and luminosity of the star, respectively,
206:
away from the main sequence on the HR diagram, into a
6874:
3638:. Research Consortium on Nearby Stars. Archived from
2466:
2435:
2404:
2245:
2185:
1033:{\displaystyle L=4\pi \sigma R^{2}T_{\text{eff}}^{4}}
989:
2892:. Chicago, Illinois: The University of Chicago press
2799:
Russell, H. N. (1913). ""Giant" and "dwarf" stars".
2038:
is the most familiar example of a main-sequence star
6767:
6616:
6514:
6442:
6341:
6198:
6073:
5951:
5860:
5587:
5466:
5396:
5059:
Principles of Stellar Evolution and Nucleosynthesis
4981:. San Francisco: Pearson Education Addison-Wesley.
3270:
Principles of Stellar Evolution and Nucleosynthesis
5056:
4977:Carroll, Bradley W. & Ostlie, Dale A. (2007).
4886:
4510:
4321:Schrƶder, K.-P.; Connon Smith, Robert (May 2008).
3773:
3636:"List of the Nearest Hundred Nearest Star Systems"
3267:
3083:
3081:
3079:
2886:Morgan, W. W.; Keenan, P. C.; Kellman, E. (1943).
2854:
2708:
2479:
2448:
2417:
2379:
2210:
1032:
5048:An Introduction to the study of stellar Structure
4438:
4436:
4327:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
4175:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
3297:"A spectroscopic survey of red dwarf flare stars"
5300:Introduction to Stellar Atmospheres and Interior
2853:Schatzman, Evry L.; Praderie, Francoise (1993).
2487:is the star's estimated main-sequence lifetime.
4323:"Distant future of the Sun and Earth revisited"
3575:. Centre de DonnƩes astronomiques de Strasbourg
2491:energy generated in the core not only must but
1129:, the energy generation rate per unit mass, as
4616:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1481ā.
3337:. Australia Telescope Outreach and Education.
3295:Pettersen, B. R.; Hawley, S. L. (1989-06-01).
5361:
4445:Cauldrons in the Cosmos: Nuclear Astrophysics
4291:
4289:
2919:. Springer-Verlag New York Inc. p. 268.
1097:increases by a factor of only three over 2.5
869:via its effect on the physical properties of
695:
8:
5256:Kippenhahn, Rudolf; Weigert, Alfred (1990).
4509:Hansen, Carl J.; Kawaler, Steven D. (1994).
4443:Rolfs, Claus E.; Rodney, William S. (1988).
4404:while helium fusion produces 8Ć10 J/kg.
3545:(2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press.
3542:Handbook of Space Astronomy and Astrophysics
3261:
3259:
3257:
3255:
3233:Hansen, Carl J.; Kawaler, Steven D. (1999),
1911:At a stellar core temperature of 18 million
5271:Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics
5200:Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics
5171:Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics
5133:Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics
5104:Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics
4998:Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics
4968:Bowers, Richard L.; Deeming, Terry (1984).
3667:Brainerd, Jerome James (16 February 2005).
3662:
3660:
3658:
3656:
3483:. University of St. Andrews. Archived from
3457:"Origin of the Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram"
2106:, are unrelated to this instability strip.
1258:
858:depends only on a star's mass, at least to
5593:
5368:
5354:
5346:
4777:. University of Cincinnati. Archived from
4082:"Do We Know of Any Maunder Minimum Stars?"
3776:Evolution of Stars and Stellar Populations
3772:Salaris, Maurizio; Cassisi, Santi (2005).
3161:"New Model Shows Sun Was a Hot Young Star"
2603:; it is relatively brief and appears as a
1195:Table of main-sequence stellar parameters
702:
688:
562:
5324:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
5009:
4925:
4733:
4650:
4567:
4493:
4356:
4338:
4271:Richmond, Michael W. (10 November 2004).
4195:
4097:
3918:
3818:
3732:
3618:
3176:
3105:
2955:
2550:Evolutionary track of a star like the sun
2471:
2465:
2440:
2434:
2409:
2403:
2368:
2356:
2347:
2337:
2331:
2309:
2303:
2287:
2278:
2269:
2263:
2250:
2244:
2202:
2184:
1024:
1019:
1009:
988:
865:The temperature of a star determines its
5315:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
4963:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
4273:"Stellar evolution on the main sequence"
4145:The Stars: Their Structure and Evolution
3689:
3687:
3685:
3436:COSMOSāThe SAO Encyclopedia of Astronomy
1896:(see chart). This process uses atoms of
1193:
6881:
3593:Luck, R. Earle; Heiter, Ulrike (2005).
2794:
2792:
2738:
2736:
2715:. Cambridge University Press. pp.
2699:
2667:
642:
581:
565:
4979:An Introduction to Modern Astrophysics
4587:. University of Oregon. Archived from
3024:"The Brightest Stars Don't Live Alone"
728:Stellar evolution Ā§ Main sequence
551:), at 9 billion light-years away from
4722:Astronomy and Astrophysics Supplement
4583:Imamura, James N. (7 February 1995).
2910:
2908:
2906:
2592:In stars more massive than 0.23
1863:of the relative energy output (Īµ) of
764:.) During the initial collapse, this
504:be deduced. This became known as the
101:. Color-magnitude plots are known as
7:
4396:āHydrogen fusion produces 8Ć10
4248:An Introduction to the Sun and Stars
4168:Sweet, I. P. A.; Roy, A. E. (1953).
2211:{\displaystyle L\ \propto \ M^{3.5}}
1081:. Finally, the relationship between
5339:The Tapestry of Modern Astrophysics
5291:10.1146/annurev.aa.25.090187.002353
5220:10.1146/annurev.aa.05.090167.003035
5191:10.1146/annurev.aa.21.090183.001121
5153:10.1146/annurev.aa.13.090175.000441
5124:10.1146/annurev.aa.05.090167.002521
4773:Sitko, Michael L. (24 March 2000).
4275:. Rochester Institute of Technology
2687:The Sun is a typical type G2V star.
424:became more readily available. The
4470:"Our Sun. III. Present and Future"
3352:Harding E. Smith (21 April 1999).
2995:Howell, Elizabeth (2 April 2018).
1115:A better approximation is to take
149:. The energy is carried by either
25:
5082:Cox, J. P.; Giuli, R. T. (1968).
4775:"Stellar Structure and Evolution"
4170:"The structure of rotating stars"
3380:"The Hertzsprung Russell Diagram"
3354:"The Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram"
3213:The SAO Encyclopedia of Astronomy
2584:are predicted to directly become
2480:{\displaystyle \tau _{\text{MS}}}
1089:is close to linear. The ratio of
81:which appear on plots of stellar
6932:
6920:
6908:
6896:
6884:
6857:
6847:
6846:
4358:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2008.13022.x
3341:from the original on 2021-11-25.
2010:Intermediate-mass stars such as
573:
226:
63:Gliese Catalogue of Nearby Stars
5341:. Hoboken: John Wiley and Sons.
5258:Stellar Structure and Evolution
5084:Principles of Stellar Structure
4447:. University of Chicago Press.
3780:. John Wiley and Sons. p.
3516:from the original on 2014-01-10
3358:Gene Smith's Astronomy Tutorial
3274:. University of Chicago Press.
2577:Stars with less than 0.23
1073:, which relates the luminosity
455:in 1906, the Danish astronomer
5028:10.1146/annurev.astro.38.1.337
4961:Essays in Nuclear Astrophysics
4874:Supernovae and Nucleosynthesis
4861:, Basic Books, New York, 1983.
4720:, and from Z=0.0004 to 0.03".
4610:Icko Iben (29 November 2012).
4585:"Mass-Luminosity Relationship"
4544:"The End of the Main Sequence"
4384:. Princeton University Press.
4300:. Cambridge University Press.
4250:. Cambridge University Press.
4147:. Cambridge University Press.
4059:. Cambridge University Press.
3938:. Cambridge University Press.
3573:"SIMBAD Astronomical Database"
1:
6759:Timeline of stellar astronomy
4972:. Boston: Jones and Bartlett.
3178:10.1126/science.293.5538.2188
2765:American Institute of Physics
2656:Lists of astronomical objects
2449:{\displaystyle L_{\bigodot }}
2418:{\displaystyle M_{\bigodot }}
2130:For a star with at least 0.5
756:of gas and dust in the local
442:Harvard Classification Scheme
5164:. New York: Springer-Verlag.
3671:. The Astrophysics Spectator
2707:Longair, Malcolm S. (2006).
2626:and leaving behind either a
2162:massāluminosity relationship
1062:and the surface temperature
889:, which measures the star's
103:HertzsprungāRussell diagrams
6419:HertzsprungāRussell diagram
5055:Clayton, Donald D. (1983).
4143:Tayler, Roger John (1994).
4055:Padmanabhan, Thanu (2001).
3934:Aller, Lawrence H. (1991).
3539:Zombeck, Martin V. (1990).
3510:"Computation of Isochrones"
3266:Clayton, Donald D. (1983).
2828:Zeitschrift fĆ¼r Astrophysik
2082:, is occupied by pulsating
2000:In massive stars (above 10
1151:, and gives the better fit
784:HertzsprungāRussell diagram
438:Harvard College Observatory
234:HertzsprungāRussell diagram
43:HertzsprungāRussell diagram
6988:
6333:KelvināHelmholtz mechanism
4895:Cambridge University Press
4878:Princeton University Press
4692:"Post-Main Sequence Stars"
4415:Lecchini, Stefano (2007).
3961:Astronomy and Astrophysics
3301:Astronomy and Astrophysics
3159:Schilling, Govert (2001).
3050:Advances in Space Research
2539:
2026:Luminosity-color variation
1961:
1849:
860:zeroth-order approximation
738:O-type main-sequence stars
713:
666:KelvināHelmholtz mechanism
29:
6842:
5596:
5383:
5337:Shore, Steven N. (2003).
5229:The Astrophysical Journal
5067:: University of Chicago.
4914:The Astrophysical Journal
4885:Bahcall, John N. (1989).
4690:Staff (12 October 2006).
4669:10.1103/RevModPhys.69.337
4639:Reviews of Modern Physics
4613:Stellar Evolution Physics
4548:The Astrophysical Journal
3936:Atoms, Stars, and Nebulae
3807:The Astrophysical Journal
3721:The Astrophysical Journal
3694:Karttunen, Hannu (2003).
3070:10.1016/j.asr.2003.02.054
2974:10.1038/s41550-018-0430-3
2915:Unsƶld, Albrecht (1969).
2753:Twentieth Century Physics
1049:StefanāBoltzmann constant
833:M-type main-sequence star
828:K-type main-sequence star
823:G-type main-sequence star
818:F-type main-sequence star
813:A-type main-sequence star
808:B-type main-sequence star
803:O-type main-sequence star
519:was published in 1943 by
225:
187:as intermediaries in the
6712:With multiple exoplanets
5313:Theoretical Astrophysics
5311:Padmanabhan, T. (2002).
4086:The Astronomical Journal
4057:Theoretical Astrophysics
3634:Staff (1 January 2008).
3599:The Astronomical Journal
3459:. University of Nebraska
3384:An Atlas of the Universe
3209:"Zero Age Main Sequence"
1946:or 80 times the mass of
1411:Alpha Coronae Borealis A
1071:massāluminosity relation
549:MACS J1149 Lensed Star 1
434:Edward Charles Pickering
53:) of a star against its
5498:Asymptotic giant branch
5320:Prialnik, Dina (2000).
5304:Oxford University Press
5283:1987ARA&A..25..473L
5212:1967ARA&A...5..571I
5183:1983ARA&A..21..165H
5145:1975ARA&A..13...69F
5116:1967ARA&A...5..525F
5100:Caughlan, Georgeanne R.
5020:2000ARA&A..38..337C
4821:10.1126/science.1075631
4744:2000A&AS..141..371G
4296:Prialnik, Dina (2000).
4197:10.1093/mnras/113.6.701
3973:1981A&A...102...25B
3378:Richard Powell (2006).
3313:1989A&A...217..187P
3124:10.1126/science.1067524
2676:interstellar extinction
2565:for two open clusters:
2505:hydrostatic equilibrium
2141:, it can start to fuse
1882:hydrostatic equilibrium
1852:Stellar nucleosynthesis
559:Formation and evolution
138:hydrostatic equilibrium
77:is a classification of
30:For the racehorse, see
6834:Tidal disruption event
6323:Circumstellar envelope
5557:Luminous blue variable
4872:Arnett, David (1996).
4517:. BirkhƤuser. p.
4380:Arnett, David (1996).
4080:Wright, J. T. (2004).
3990:. NASA. Archived from
3508:Siess, Lionel (2000).
3438:. Swinburne University
3408:The Amateur Astronomer
3215:. Swinburne University
3088:Kroupa, Pavel (2002).
2574:
2551:
2481:
2450:
2419:
2381:
2212:
2119:
2039:
1973:
1876:
1842:
1034:
966:can be related to the
951:
766:pre-main-sequence star
741:
724:Pre-main-sequence star
620:Pre-main-sequence star
517:stellar classification
142:gravitational collapse
66:
18:Zero-age main sequence
6962:Concepts in astronomy
6359:Effective temperature
5298:Novotny, Eva (1973).
4970:Astrophysics I: Stars
4889:Neutrino Astrophysics
4474:Astrophysical Journal
3899:Astrophysical Journal
3860:Astrophysical Journal
3696:Fundamental Astronomy
3669:"Main-Sequence Stars"
3335:"Main Sequence Stars"
2861:. Springer. pp.
2561:
2549:
2482:
2451:
2420:
2382:
2213:
2117:
2104:Beta Cephei variables
2100:Delta Scuti variables
2055:, interaction with a
2033:
1971:
1859:
1840:
1796:Van Biesbroeck's star
1035:
968:effective temperature
949:
762:initial mass function
754:giant molecular cloud
735:
656:Initial mass function
521:William Wilson Morgan
515:A refined scheme for
40:
32:Main Sequence (horse)
6829:Planet-hosting stars
6707:With resolved images
6678:Historical brightest
6608:Photometric-standard
6534:Solar radio emission
6328:Eddington luminosity
6108:Triple-alpha process
6046:ThorneāÅ»ytkow object
5421:Young stellar object
5090:: Gordon and Breach.
4857:Kippenhahn, Rudolf,
2761:Institute of Physics
2464:
2433:
2402:
2243:
2183:
1547:Beta Comae Berenices
987:
978:StefanāBoltzmann law
897:) and green-yellow (
643:Theoretical concepts
610:Young stellar object
525:Philip Childs Keenan
506:VogtāRussell theorem
477:Henry Norris Russell
473:Princeton University
111:Henry Norris Russell
6957:Main-sequence stars
6653:Highest temperature
6424:Colorācolor diagram
6289:Protoplanetary disk
6093:Protonāproton chain
5771:Chemically peculiar
5330:2000itss.book.....P
5241:1996ApJ...464..943I
4936:2001ApJ...555..990B
4813:2003Sci...299...65K
4752:10.1051/aas:2000126
4661:1997RvMP...69..337A
4591:on 14 December 2006
4560:1997ApJ...482..420L
4486:1993ApJ...418..457S
4349:2008MNRAS.386..155S
4227:2005ESASP.560..237B
4188:1953MNRAS.113..701S
4108:2004AJ....128.1273W
4026:1981SoPh...74...21G
3911:1993ApJ...406..158B
3872:1970ApJ...162..947Z
3829:2005ApJ...620L..43O
3743:2001ApJ...555..990B
3611:2005AJ....129.1063L
3171:(5538): 2188ā2189.
3116:2002Sci...295...82K
3062:2004AdSpR..34...53G
2966:2018NatAs...2..334K
2840:1933ZA......7..222S
2813:1913Obs....36..324R
2536:Evolutionary tracks
2516:electron scattering
2172:) as the following
2125:first approximation
2053:evolutionary status
1890:protonāproton chain
1196:
1133:is proportional to
1099:orders of magnitude
1029:
758:interstellar medium
748:is formed from the
676:Planetary migration
590:Interstellar medium
444:, published in the
214:, or directly to a
173:protonāproton chain
91:main-sequence stars
6658:Lowest temperature
6409:Photometric system
6379:Absolute magnitude
6313:Circumstellar dust
5926:Stellar black hole
5562:Stellar population
5448:HerbigāHaro object
5096:Fowler, William A.
5050:. New York: Dover.
4698:on 20 January 2013
4034:10.1007/BF00151270
2743:Brown, Laurie M.;
2575:
2552:
2477:
2446:
2415:
2377:
2208:
2164:. The luminosity (
2120:
2040:
1974:
1877:
1843:
1194:
1030:
1015:
952:
742:
736:Hot and brilliant
671:Nebular hypothesis
635:HerbigāHaro object
481:absolute magnitude
67:
51:absolute magnitude
6972:Stellar evolution
6872:
6871:
6775:Substellar object
6754:Planetary nebulae
6173:Luminous red nova
6083:Deuterium burning
6069:
6068:
5552:Instability strip
5532:Wolf-Rayet nebula
5486:Horizontal branch
5431:Pre-main-sequence
5302:. New York City:
5074:978-0-226-10952-7
5044:Chandrasekhar, S.
4988:978-0-8053-0402-2
4904:978-0-521-37975-5
4623:978-1-107-01657-6
4528:978-0-387-94138-7
4454:978-0-226-72457-7
4426:978-3-9522882-6-9
4391:978-0-691-01147-9
4307:978-0-521-65937-6
4257:978-0-521-54622-5
4154:978-0-521-45885-6
4066:978-0-521-56241-6
3945:978-0-521-31040-6
3791:978-0-470-09220-0
3705:978-3-540-00179-9
3552:978-0-521-34787-7
3417:978-1-85233-878-7
3281:978-0-226-10953-4
3246:978-0-387-94138-7
3028:ESO Press Release
2926:978-0-387-90886-1
2872:978-3-540-54196-7
2774:978-0-7503-0310-1
2726:978-0-521-47436-8
2542:Stellar evolution
2474:
2362:
2340:
2318:
2293:
2272:
2253:
2197:
2191:
2151:130 million years
2088:Cepheid variables
2080:instability strip
1964:Stellar structure
1846:Energy generation
1835:
1834:
1163:Sample parameters
1022:
958:, the luminosity
905:Dwarf terminology
712:
711:
661:Jeans instability
630:Herbig Ae/Be star
457:Ejnar Hertzsprung
430:Annie Jump Cannon
107:Ejnar Hertzsprung
59:Hipparcos Catalog
16:(Redirected from
6979:
6937:
6936:
6925:
6924:
6923:
6913:
6912:
6911:
6901:
6900:
6899:
6889:
6888:
6887:
6880:
6864:Stars portal
6862:
6861:
6850:
6849:
6506:Planetary system
6429:Strƶmgren sphere
6301:Asteroseismology
6022:Black hole star
5594:
5520:Planetary nebula
5481:Red-giant branch
5370:
5363:
5356:
5347:
5342:
5333:
5316:
5307:
5294:
5265:
5252:
5223:
5194:
5165:
5156:
5127:
5091:
5078:
5062:
5051:
5039:
5013:
5011:astro-ph/0006383
4992:
4973:
4964:
4955:
4929:
4927:astro-ph/0010346
4908:
4892:
4881:
4859:100 Billion Suns
4841:
4840:
4796:
4790:
4789:
4787:
4786:
4781:on 26 March 2005
4770:
4764:
4763:
4737:
4735:astro-ph/9910164
4713:
4707:
4706:
4704:
4703:
4687:
4681:
4680:
4654:
4652:astro-ph/9701131
4634:
4628:
4627:
4607:
4601:
4600:
4598:
4596:
4580:
4574:
4573:
4571:
4539:
4533:
4532:
4516:
4506:
4500:
4499:
4497:
4465:
4459:
4458:
4440:
4431:
4430:
4411:
4405:
4395:
4377:
4371:
4370:
4360:
4342:
4318:
4312:
4311:
4293:
4284:
4283:
4281:
4280:
4268:
4262:
4261:
4243:
4237:
4236:
4234:
4233:
4208:
4202:
4201:
4199:
4165:
4159:
4158:
4140:
4134:
4133:
4131:
4130:
4101:
4099:astro-ph/0406338
4092:(3): 1273ā1278.
4077:
4071:
4070:
4052:
4046:
4045:
4009:
4003:
4002:
4000:
3999:
3983:
3977:
3976:
3956:
3950:
3949:
3931:
3925:
3924:
3922:
3890:
3884:
3883:
3855:
3849:
3848:
3822:
3820:astro-ph/0501135
3802:
3796:
3795:
3779:
3769:
3763:
3762:
3736:
3734:astro-ph/0212331
3716:
3710:
3709:
3691:
3680:
3679:
3677:
3676:
3664:
3651:
3650:
3648:
3647:
3631:
3625:
3624:
3622:
3605:(2): 1063ā1083.
3590:
3584:
3583:
3581:
3580:
3569:
3563:
3562:
3560:
3559:
3536:
3530:
3527:solar luminosity
3524:
3522:
3521:
3505:
3499:
3498:
3496:
3495:
3489:
3482:
3474:
3468:
3467:
3465:
3464:
3453:
3447:
3446:
3444:
3443:
3428:
3422:
3421:
3400:
3394:
3393:
3391:
3390:
3375:
3369:
3368:
3366:
3365:
3349:
3343:
3342:
3331:
3325:
3324:
3292:
3286:
3285:
3273:
3263:
3250:
3249:
3230:
3224:
3223:
3221:
3220:
3205:
3199:
3198:
3180:
3156:
3150:
3149:
3147:
3146:
3109:
3107:astro-ph/0201098
3085:
3074:
3073:
3045:
3039:
3038:
3036:
3034:
3020:
3014:
3013:
3011:
3009:
2992:
2986:
2985:
2959:
2937:
2931:
2930:
2912:
2901:
2900:
2898:
2897:
2883:
2877:
2876:
2860:
2850:
2844:
2843:
2823:
2817:
2816:
2796:
2787:
2786:
2767:. p. 1696.
2740:
2731:
2730:
2714:
2704:
2688:
2685:
2679:
2672:
2639:cluster of stars
2613:red-giant branch
2486:
2484:
2483:
2478:
2476:
2475:
2472:
2458:solar luminosity
2455:
2453:
2452:
2447:
2445:
2444:
2424:
2422:
2421:
2416:
2414:
2413:
2386:
2384:
2383:
2378:
2376:
2375:
2367:
2363:
2361:
2360:
2348:
2341:
2338:
2336:
2335:
2323:
2319:
2314:
2313:
2304:
2298:
2294:
2292:
2291:
2279:
2273:
2270:
2268:
2267:
2255:
2254:
2251:
2217:
2215:
2214:
2209:
2207:
2206:
2195:
2189:
2152:
2069:metal-poor stars
1830:2MASS J0523ā1403
1825:
1819:
1813:
1807:
1791:
1785:
1779:
1773:
1757:
1751:
1745:
1739:
1723:
1717:
1711:
1705:
1689:
1683:
1677:
1671:
1655:
1649:
1643:
1637:
1621:
1615:
1609:
1603:
1585:
1580:
1576:
1571:
1567:
1562:
1558:
1542:
1536:
1530:
1524:
1508:
1502:
1496:
1490:
1474:
1468:
1462:
1456:
1440:
1434:
1428:
1422:
1403:
1397:
1391:
1372:
1366:
1360:
1341:
1335:
1329:
1307:
1301:
1260:
1197:
1128:
1069:. Second is the
1039:
1037:
1036:
1031:
1028:
1023:
1020:
1014:
1013:
704:
697:
690:
577:
563:
415:
398:
391:
384:
377:
370:
363:
356:
349:
342:
333:
326:
319:
312:
305:
298:
291:
284:
277:
270:
263:
256:
249:
242:
235:
230:
21:
6987:
6986:
6982:
6981:
6980:
6978:
6977:
6976:
6947:
6946:
6943:
6931:
6921:
6919:
6909:
6907:
6897:
6895:
6885:
6883:
6875:
6873:
6868:
6856:
6838:
6763:
6732:Milky Way novae
6668:Smallest volume
6612:
6593:Radial velocity
6516:
6510:
6462:Common envelope
6438:
6337:
6306:Helioseismology
6277:Bipolar outflow
6218:Microturbulence
6213:Convection zone
6194:
6088:Lithium burning
6075:Nucleosynthesis
6065:
5947:
5856:
5583:
5462:
5411:Molecular cloud
5392:
5379:
5374:
5336:
5319:
5310:
5297:
5268:
5262:Springer-Verlag
5255:
5226:
5197:
5168:
5159:
5130:
5094:
5081:
5075:
5054:
5042:
4995:
4989:
4976:
4967:
4958:
4920:(2): 990ā1012.
4911:
4905:
4884:
4871:
4868:
4854:
4849:
4847:Further reading
4844:
4807:(5603): 65ā69.
4798:
4797:
4793:
4784:
4782:
4772:
4771:
4767:
4719:
4715:
4714:
4710:
4701:
4699:
4689:
4688:
4684:
4636:
4635:
4631:
4624:
4609:
4608:
4604:
4594:
4592:
4582:
4581:
4577:
4541:
4540:
4536:
4529:
4508:
4507:
4503:
4467:
4466:
4462:
4455:
4442:
4441:
4434:
4427:
4414:
4412:
4408:
4392:
4379:
4378:
4374:
4320:
4319:
4315:
4308:
4295:
4294:
4287:
4278:
4276:
4270:
4269:
4265:
4258:
4245:
4244:
4240:
4231:
4229:
4210:
4209:
4205:
4167:
4166:
4162:
4155:
4142:
4141:
4137:
4128:
4126:
4079:
4078:
4074:
4067:
4054:
4053:
4049:
4011:
4010:
4006:
3997:
3995:
3985:
3984:
3980:
3958:
3957:
3953:
3946:
3933:
3932:
3928:
3892:
3891:
3887:
3857:
3856:
3852:
3804:
3803:
3799:
3792:
3771:
3770:
3766:
3727:(2): 990ā1012.
3718:
3717:
3713:
3706:
3693:
3692:
3683:
3674:
3672:
3666:
3665:
3654:
3645:
3643:
3633:
3632:
3628:
3592:
3591:
3587:
3578:
3576:
3571:
3570:
3566:
3557:
3555:
3553:
3538:
3537:
3533:
3519:
3517:
3507:
3506:
3502:
3493:
3491:
3487:
3480:
3476:
3475:
3471:
3462:
3460:
3455:
3454:
3450:
3441:
3439:
3430:
3429:
3425:
3418:
3402:
3401:
3397:
3388:
3386:
3377:
3376:
3372:
3363:
3361:
3351:
3350:
3346:
3333:
3332:
3328:
3294:
3293:
3289:
3282:
3265:
3264:
3253:
3247:
3232:
3231:
3227:
3218:
3216:
3207:
3206:
3202:
3158:
3157:
3153:
3144:
3142:
3100:(5552): 82ā91.
3087:
3086:
3077:
3047:
3046:
3042:
3032:
3030:
3022:
3021:
3017:
3007:
3005:
2994:
2993:
2989:
2939:
2938:
2934:
2927:
2914:
2913:
2904:
2895:
2893:
2885:
2884:
2880:
2873:
2852:
2851:
2847:
2825:
2824:
2820:
2801:The Observatory
2798:
2797:
2790:
2775:
2751:, eds. (1995).
2742:
2741:
2734:
2727:
2706:
2705:
2701:
2697:
2692:
2691:
2686:
2682:
2673:
2669:
2664:
2652:
2601:subgiant branch
2598:
2595:
2583:
2580:
2544:
2538:
2531:
2528:
2524:
2521:
2467:
2462:
2461:
2436:
2431:
2430:
2405:
2400:
2399:
2352:
2343:
2342:
2327:
2305:
2299:
2283:
2274:
2259:
2246:
2241:
2240:
2227:
2224:
2198:
2181:
2180:
2159:
2156:
2150:
2136:
2133:
2112:
2057:close companion
2028:
2021:
2018:
2006:
2003:
1994:convection zone
1966:
1960:
1945:
1942:
1938:
1935:
1928:
1925:
1921:
1918:
1854:
1848:
1823:
1817:
1811:
1805:
1789:
1783:
1777:
1771:
1755:
1749:
1743:
1737:
1721:
1715:
1709:
1703:
1687:
1681:
1675:
1669:
1653:
1647:
1641:
1635:
1619:
1613:
1607:
1601:
1583:
1578:
1574:
1569:
1565:
1560:
1556:
1540:
1534:
1528:
1522:
1506:
1500:
1494:
1488:
1472:
1466:
1460:
1454:
1438:
1432:
1426:
1420:
1401:
1395:
1389:
1380:Pi Andromedae A
1370:
1364:
1358:
1339:
1333:
1327:
1318:Theta Orionis C
1305:
1299:
1261:
1254:
1251:
1243:
1238:
1235:
1227:
1222:
1219:
1211:
1202:
1165:
1145:
1138:
1116:
1110:
1068:
1005:
985:
984:
975:
944:
907:
848:
796:
730:
714:Main articles:
708:
595:Molecular cloud
561:
497:Bengt Strƶmgren
418:
417:
413:
409:
407:
405:
403:
400:
396:
393:
389:
386:
382:
379:
375:
372:
368:
365:
361:
358:
354:
351:
347:
344:
340:
338:
335:
331:
328:
324:
321:
317:
314:
310:
307:
303:
300:
296:
293:
289:
286:
282:
279:
275:
272:
268:
265:
261:
258:
254:
251:
247:
244:
240:
237:
233:
224:
198:
195:
170:
167:
162:mass of the Sun
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
6985:
6983:
6975:
6974:
6969:
6964:
6959:
6949:
6948:
6942:
6941:
6929:
6917:
6905:
6893:
6870:
6869:
6867:
6866:
6854:
6843:
6840:
6839:
6837:
6836:
6831:
6826:
6821:
6816:
6811:
6806:
6801:
6800:
6799:
6794:
6793:
6792:
6787:
6771:
6769:
6765:
6764:
6762:
6761:
6756:
6751:
6750:
6749:
6744:
6734:
6729:
6724:
6719:
6714:
6709:
6704:
6703:
6702:
6697:
6696:
6695:
6685:
6680:
6675:
6670:
6665:
6663:Largest volume
6660:
6655:
6650:
6640:
6639:
6638:
6633:
6622:
6620:
6614:
6613:
6611:
6610:
6605:
6600:
6595:
6590:
6589:
6588:
6583:
6578:
6568:
6563:
6558:
6553:
6548:
6547:
6546:
6541:
6536:
6531:
6520:
6518:
6512:
6511:
6509:
6508:
6503:
6502:
6501:
6496:
6491:
6481:
6476:
6475:
6474:
6469:
6464:
6459:
6448:
6446:
6440:
6439:
6437:
6436:
6431:
6426:
6421:
6416:
6411:
6406:
6401:
6396:
6391:
6386:
6381:
6376:
6374:Magnetic field
6371:
6366:
6361:
6356:
6351:
6345:
6343:
6339:
6338:
6336:
6335:
6330:
6325:
6320:
6315:
6310:
6309:
6308:
6298:
6297:
6296:
6291:
6284:Accretion disk
6281:
6280:
6279:
6274:
6264:
6263:
6262:
6260:AlfvƩn surface
6257:
6255:Stellar corona
6252:
6247:
6242:
6232:
6230:Radiation zone
6227:
6226:
6225:
6220:
6210:
6204:
6202:
6196:
6195:
6193:
6192:
6187:
6186:
6185:
6180:
6175:
6170:
6165:
6155:
6150:
6145:
6140:
6135:
6130:
6125:
6120:
6115:
6110:
6105:
6100:
6095:
6090:
6085:
6079:
6077:
6071:
6070:
6067:
6066:
6064:
6063:
6058:
6053:
6048:
6043:
6038:
6037:
6036:
6031:
6028:
6020:
6019:
6018:
6013:
6008:
6003:
5998:
5993:
5988:
5983:
5978:
5968:
5963:
5957:
5955:
5949:
5948:
5946:
5945:
5940:
5939:
5938:
5928:
5923:
5922:
5921:
5916:
5915:
5914:
5909:
5899:
5889:
5888:
5887:
5877:
5872:
5866:
5864:
5858:
5857:
5855:
5854:
5852:Blue straggler
5849:
5848:
5847:
5837:
5832:
5831:
5830:
5820:
5819:
5818:
5813:
5808:
5803:
5798:
5793:
5788:
5783:
5778:
5768:
5763:
5762:
5761:
5756:
5751:
5741:
5740:
5739:
5729:
5728:
5727:
5722:
5717:
5707:
5702:
5701:
5700:
5695:
5690:
5680:
5675:
5670:
5665:
5664:
5663:
5658:
5648:
5647:
5646:
5641:
5636:
5631:
5626:
5621:
5616:
5610:Main sequence
5608:
5603:
5597:
5591:
5589:Classification
5585:
5584:
5582:
5581:
5580:
5579:
5574:
5564:
5559:
5554:
5549:
5544:
5539:
5534:
5529:
5528:
5527:
5525:Protoplanetary
5517:
5512:
5511:
5510:
5505:
5495:
5494:
5493:
5483:
5478:
5472:
5470:
5464:
5463:
5461:
5460:
5455:
5450:
5445:
5444:
5443:
5438:
5433:
5428:
5418:
5413:
5408:
5402:
5400:
5394:
5393:
5391:
5390:
5384:
5381:
5380:
5375:
5373:
5372:
5365:
5358:
5350:
5344:
5343:
5334:
5317:
5308:
5295:
5266:
5253:
5249:10.1086/177381
5224:
5195:
5166:
5157:
5128:
5092:
5079:
5073:
5052:
5040:
4993:
4987:
4974:
4965:
4956:
4944:10.1086/321493
4909:
4903:
4882:
4867:
4864:
4863:
4862:
4853:
4850:
4848:
4845:
4843:
4842:
4791:
4765:
4728:(3): 371ā383.
4717:
4708:
4682:
4645:(2): 337ā372.
4629:
4622:
4602:
4575:
4569:10.1086/304125
4554:(1): 420ā432.
4534:
4527:
4501:
4495:10.1086/173407
4460:
4453:
4432:
4425:
4406:
4390:
4372:
4333:(1): 155ā163.
4313:
4306:
4285:
4263:
4256:
4238:
4203:
4182:(6): 701ā715.
4160:
4153:
4135:
4116:10.1086/423221
4072:
4065:
4047:
4004:
3978:
3951:
3944:
3926:
3920:10.1086/172427
3885:
3880:10.1086/150726
3850:
3837:10.1086/428396
3813:(1): L43āL46.
3797:
3790:
3764:
3751:10.1086/321493
3711:
3704:
3681:
3652:
3642:on 13 May 2012
3626:
3620:10.1086/427250
3585:
3564:
3551:
3531:
3500:
3469:
3448:
3423:
3416:
3404:Moore, Patrick
3395:
3370:
3344:
3326:
3287:
3280:
3251:
3245:
3225:
3200:
3151:
3075:
3040:
3015:
2987:
2950:(4): 334ā342.
2932:
2925:
2917:The New Cosmos
2902:
2878:
2871:
2845:
2818:
2788:
2773:
2749:Pippard, A. B.
2732:
2725:
2698:
2696:
2693:
2690:
2689:
2680:
2666:
2665:
2663:
2660:
2659:
2658:
2651:
2648:
2596:
2593:
2581:
2578:
2540:Main article:
2537:
2534:
2529:
2526:
2522:
2519:
2470:
2443:
2439:
2412:
2408:
2388:
2387:
2374:
2371:
2366:
2359:
2355:
2351:
2346:
2334:
2330:
2326:
2322:
2317:
2312:
2308:
2302:
2297:
2290:
2286:
2282:
2277:
2266:
2262:
2258:
2249:
2225:
2222:
2219:
2218:
2205:
2201:
2194:
2188:
2157:
2154:
2145:atoms to form
2134:
2131:
2111:
2108:
2084:variable stars
2065:magnetic field
2061:rapid rotation
2027:
2024:
2019:
2016:
2004:
2001:
1990:radiation zone
1962:Main article:
1959:
1956:
1943:
1940:
1936:
1933:
1926:
1923:
1919:
1916:
1847:
1844:
1833:
1832:
1827:
1821:
1815:
1809:
1803:
1799:
1798:
1793:
1787:
1781:
1775:
1769:
1765:
1764:
1759:
1753:
1747:
1741:
1735:
1731:
1730:
1725:
1719:
1713:
1707:
1701:
1697:
1696:
1691:
1685:
1679:
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1667:
1663:
1662:
1657:
1651:
1645:
1639:
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1629:
1628:
1623:
1617:
1611:
1605:
1599:
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1594:
1587:
1581:
1572:
1563:
1554:
1550:
1549:
1544:
1538:
1532:
1526:
1520:
1516:
1515:
1510:
1504:
1498:
1492:
1486:
1482:
1481:
1479:Gamma Virginis
1476:
1470:
1464:
1458:
1452:
1448:
1447:
1442:
1436:
1430:
1424:
1418:
1414:
1413:
1408:
1405:
1399:
1393:
1387:
1383:
1382:
1377:
1374:
1368:
1362:
1356:
1352:
1351:
1346:
1343:
1337:
1331:
1325:
1321:
1320:
1315:
1312:
1309:
1303:
1297:
1293:
1292:
1287:
1284:
1281:
1278:
1275:
1271:
1270:
1267:
1256:
1252:
1249:
1240:
1236:
1233:
1224:
1220:
1217:
1205:
1164:
1161:
1143:
1136:
1108:
1066:
1041:
1040:
1027:
1018:
1012:
1008:
1004:
1001:
998:
995:
992:
973:
943:
940:
924:spectral lines
906:
903:
847:
844:
836:
835:
830:
825:
820:
815:
810:
805:
795:
794:Classification
792:
773:nuclear fusion
716:Star formation
710:
709:
707:
706:
699:
692:
684:
681:
680:
679:
678:
673:
668:
663:
658:
653:
645:
644:
640:
639:
638:
637:
632:
627:
622:
617:
612:
607:
602:
597:
592:
584:
583:
582:Object classes
579:
578:
570:
569:
567:Star formation
560:
557:
529:spectral types
508:; named after
446:Harvard Annals
411:
401:
394:
390:Red supergiant
387:
380:
373:
366:
359:
352:
345:
336:
329:
322:
315:
308:
301:
294:
287:
280:
273:
266:
259:
252:
245:
238:
231:
223:
220:
196:
193:
168:
165:
126:nuclear fusion
118:thermal energy
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
6984:
6973:
6970:
6968:
6965:
6963:
6960:
6958:
6955:
6954:
6952:
6945:
6940:
6935:
6930:
6928:
6918:
6916:
6906:
6904:
6894:
6892:
6882:
6878:
6865:
6860:
6855:
6853:
6845:
6844:
6841:
6835:
6832:
6830:
6827:
6825:
6824:Intergalactic
6822:
6820:
6817:
6815:
6812:
6810:
6807:
6805:
6804:Galactic year
6802:
6798:
6795:
6791:
6788:
6786:
6783:
6782:
6781:
6778:
6777:
6776:
6773:
6772:
6770:
6766:
6760:
6757:
6755:
6752:
6748:
6745:
6743:
6740:
6739:
6738:
6735:
6733:
6730:
6728:
6725:
6723:
6720:
6718:
6715:
6713:
6710:
6708:
6705:
6701:
6698:
6694:
6691:
6690:
6689:
6686:
6684:
6683:Most luminous
6681:
6679:
6676:
6674:
6671:
6669:
6666:
6664:
6661:
6659:
6656:
6654:
6651:
6649:
6646:
6645:
6644:
6641:
6637:
6634:
6632:
6629:
6628:
6627:
6624:
6623:
6621:
6619:
6615:
6609:
6606:
6604:
6601:
6599:
6598:Proper motion
6596:
6594:
6591:
6587:
6584:
6582:
6579:
6577:
6574:
6573:
6572:
6569:
6567:
6564:
6562:
6561:Constellation
6559:
6557:
6554:
6552:
6549:
6545:
6542:
6540:
6537:
6535:
6532:
6530:
6529:Solar eclipse
6527:
6526:
6525:
6522:
6521:
6519:
6515:Earth-centric
6513:
6507:
6504:
6500:
6497:
6495:
6492:
6490:
6487:
6486:
6485:
6482:
6480:
6477:
6473:
6470:
6468:
6465:
6463:
6460:
6458:
6455:
6454:
6453:
6450:
6449:
6447:
6445:
6441:
6435:
6432:
6430:
6427:
6425:
6422:
6420:
6417:
6415:
6412:
6410:
6407:
6405:
6402:
6400:
6397:
6395:
6392:
6390:
6387:
6385:
6382:
6380:
6377:
6375:
6372:
6370:
6367:
6365:
6362:
6360:
6357:
6355:
6352:
6350:
6347:
6346:
6344:
6340:
6334:
6331:
6329:
6326:
6324:
6321:
6319:
6316:
6314:
6311:
6307:
6304:
6303:
6302:
6299:
6295:
6292:
6290:
6287:
6286:
6285:
6282:
6278:
6275:
6273:
6270:
6269:
6268:
6265:
6261:
6258:
6256:
6253:
6251:
6248:
6246:
6243:
6241:
6238:
6237:
6236:
6233:
6231:
6228:
6224:
6221:
6219:
6216:
6215:
6214:
6211:
6209:
6206:
6205:
6203:
6201:
6197:
6191:
6188:
6184:
6181:
6179:
6176:
6174:
6171:
6169:
6166:
6164:
6161:
6160:
6159:
6156:
6154:
6151:
6149:
6146:
6144:
6141:
6139:
6136:
6134:
6131:
6129:
6126:
6124:
6121:
6119:
6116:
6114:
6113:Alpha process
6111:
6109:
6106:
6104:
6101:
6099:
6096:
6094:
6091:
6089:
6086:
6084:
6081:
6080:
6078:
6076:
6072:
6062:
6059:
6057:
6054:
6052:
6049:
6047:
6044:
6042:
6039:
6035:
6032:
6029:
6027:
6024:
6023:
6021:
6017:
6014:
6012:
6009:
6007:
6004:
6002:
5999:
5997:
5994:
5992:
5989:
5987:
5984:
5982:
5979:
5977:
5974:
5973:
5972:
5969:
5967:
5964:
5962:
5959:
5958:
5956:
5954:
5950:
5944:
5941:
5937:
5934:
5933:
5932:
5929:
5927:
5924:
5920:
5917:
5913:
5910:
5908:
5905:
5904:
5903:
5900:
5898:
5895:
5894:
5893:
5890:
5886:
5885:Helium planet
5883:
5882:
5881:
5878:
5876:
5875:Parker's star
5873:
5871:
5868:
5867:
5865:
5863:
5859:
5853:
5850:
5846:
5843:
5842:
5841:
5838:
5836:
5833:
5829:
5826:
5825:
5824:
5821:
5817:
5814:
5812:
5809:
5807:
5806:Lambda Boƶtis
5804:
5802:
5799:
5797:
5794:
5792:
5789:
5787:
5784:
5782:
5779:
5777:
5774:
5773:
5772:
5769:
5767:
5764:
5760:
5757:
5755:
5752:
5750:
5747:
5746:
5745:
5742:
5738:
5735:
5734:
5733:
5730:
5726:
5723:
5721:
5718:
5716:
5713:
5712:
5711:
5708:
5706:
5703:
5699:
5696:
5694:
5691:
5689:
5686:
5685:
5684:
5681:
5679:
5676:
5674:
5671:
5669:
5666:
5662:
5659:
5657:
5654:
5653:
5652:
5649:
5645:
5642:
5640:
5637:
5635:
5632:
5630:
5627:
5625:
5622:
5620:
5617:
5615:
5612:
5611:
5609:
5607:
5604:
5602:
5599:
5598:
5595:
5592:
5590:
5586:
5578:
5575:
5573:
5572:Superluminous
5570:
5569:
5568:
5565:
5563:
5560:
5558:
5555:
5553:
5550:
5548:
5545:
5543:
5540:
5538:
5535:
5533:
5530:
5526:
5523:
5522:
5521:
5518:
5516:
5513:
5509:
5506:
5504:
5501:
5500:
5499:
5496:
5492:
5489:
5488:
5487:
5484:
5482:
5479:
5477:
5476:Main sequence
5474:
5473:
5471:
5469:
5465:
5459:
5456:
5454:
5453:Hayashi track
5451:
5449:
5446:
5442:
5439:
5437:
5434:
5432:
5429:
5427:
5424:
5423:
5422:
5419:
5417:
5414:
5412:
5409:
5407:
5404:
5403:
5401:
5399:
5395:
5389:
5386:
5385:
5382:
5378:
5371:
5366:
5364:
5359:
5357:
5352:
5351:
5348:
5340:
5335:
5331:
5327:
5323:
5318:
5314:
5309:
5305:
5301:
5296:
5292:
5288:
5284:
5280:
5276:
5272:
5267:
5263:
5259:
5254:
5250:
5246:
5242:
5238:
5234:
5230:
5225:
5221:
5217:
5213:
5209:
5205:
5201:
5196:
5192:
5188:
5184:
5180:
5176:
5172:
5167:
5163:
5158:
5154:
5150:
5146:
5142:
5138:
5134:
5129:
5125:
5121:
5117:
5113:
5109:
5105:
5101:
5097:
5093:
5089:
5088:New York City
5085:
5080:
5076:
5070:
5066:
5061:
5060:
5053:
5049:
5045:
5041:
5037:
5033:
5029:
5025:
5021:
5017:
5012:
5007:
5003:
4999:
4994:
4990:
4984:
4980:
4975:
4971:
4966:
4962:
4957:
4953:
4949:
4945:
4941:
4937:
4933:
4928:
4923:
4919:
4915:
4910:
4906:
4900:
4896:
4893:. Cambridge:
4891:
4890:
4883:
4879:
4876:. Princeton:
4875:
4870:
4869:
4865:
4860:
4856:
4855:
4851:
4846:
4838:
4834:
4830:
4826:
4822:
4818:
4814:
4810:
4806:
4802:
4795:
4792:
4780:
4776:
4769:
4766:
4761:
4757:
4753:
4749:
4745:
4741:
4736:
4731:
4727:
4723:
4712:
4709:
4697:
4693:
4686:
4683:
4678:
4674:
4670:
4666:
4662:
4658:
4653:
4648:
4644:
4640:
4633:
4630:
4625:
4619:
4615:
4614:
4606:
4603:
4590:
4586:
4579:
4576:
4570:
4565:
4561:
4557:
4553:
4549:
4545:
4538:
4535:
4530:
4524:
4520:
4515:
4514:
4505:
4502:
4496:
4491:
4487:
4483:
4479:
4475:
4471:
4464:
4461:
4456:
4450:
4446:
4439:
4437:
4433:
4428:
4422:
4418:
4410:
4407:
4403:
4399:
4393:
4387:
4383:
4376:
4373:
4368:
4364:
4359:
4354:
4350:
4346:
4341:
4336:
4332:
4328:
4324:
4317:
4314:
4309:
4303:
4299:
4292:
4290:
4286:
4274:
4267:
4264:
4259:
4253:
4249:
4242:
4239:
4228:
4224:
4220:
4216:
4215:
4207:
4204:
4198:
4193:
4189:
4185:
4181:
4177:
4176:
4171:
4164:
4161:
4156:
4150:
4146:
4139:
4136:
4125:
4121:
4117:
4113:
4109:
4105:
4100:
4095:
4091:
4087:
4083:
4076:
4073:
4068:
4062:
4058:
4051:
4048:
4043:
4039:
4035:
4031:
4027:
4023:
4019:
4015:
4014:Solar Physics
4008:
4005:
3994:on 2014-11-19
3993:
3989:
3982:
3979:
3974:
3970:
3966:
3962:
3955:
3952:
3947:
3941:
3937:
3930:
3927:
3921:
3916:
3912:
3908:
3905:(1): 158ā71.
3904:
3900:
3896:
3889:
3886:
3881:
3877:
3873:
3869:
3865:
3861:
3854:
3851:
3846:
3842:
3838:
3834:
3830:
3826:
3821:
3816:
3812:
3808:
3801:
3798:
3793:
3787:
3783:
3778:
3777:
3768:
3765:
3760:
3756:
3752:
3748:
3744:
3740:
3735:
3730:
3726:
3722:
3715:
3712:
3707:
3701:
3697:
3690:
3688:
3686:
3682:
3670:
3663:
3661:
3659:
3657:
3653:
3641:
3637:
3630:
3627:
3621:
3616:
3612:
3608:
3604:
3600:
3596:
3589:
3586:
3574:
3568:
3565:
3554:
3548:
3544:
3543:
3535:
3532:
3528:
3515:
3511:
3504:
3501:
3490:on 2020-12-02
3486:
3479:
3473:
3470:
3458:
3452:
3449:
3437:
3433:
3432:"White Dwarf"
3427:
3424:
3419:
3413:
3409:
3405:
3399:
3396:
3385:
3381:
3374:
3371:
3359:
3355:
3348:
3345:
3340:
3336:
3330:
3327:
3322:
3318:
3314:
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3306:
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3298:
3291:
3288:
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3277:
3272:
3271:
3262:
3260:
3258:
3256:
3252:
3248:
3242:
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3229:
3226:
3214:
3210:
3204:
3201:
3196:
3192:
3188:
3184:
3179:
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3170:
3166:
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3155:
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3141:
3137:
3133:
3129:
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3117:
3113:
3108:
3103:
3099:
3095:
3091:
3084:
3082:
3080:
3076:
3071:
3067:
3063:
3059:
3055:
3051:
3044:
3041:
3029:
3025:
3019:
3016:
3004:
3003:
2998:
2991:
2988:
2983:
2979:
2975:
2971:
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2907:
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2891:
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2882:
2879:
2874:
2868:
2864:
2859:
2858:
2849:
2846:
2841:
2837:
2833:
2829:
2822:
2819:
2814:
2810:
2806:
2802:
2795:
2793:
2789:
2784:
2780:
2776:
2770:
2766:
2762:
2758:
2754:
2750:
2746:
2745:Pais, Abraham
2739:
2737:
2733:
2728:
2722:
2718:
2713:
2712:
2703:
2700:
2694:
2684:
2681:
2677:
2671:
2668:
2661:
2657:
2654:
2653:
2649:
2647:
2645:
2644:turnoff point
2642:known as the
2640:
2635:
2633:
2629:
2625:
2621:
2616:
2614:
2608:
2606:
2602:
2590:
2587:
2572:
2568:
2564:
2560:
2556:
2548:
2543:
2535:
2533:
2517:
2512:
2510:
2506:
2502:
2497:
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2459:
2441:
2437:
2428:
2410:
2406:
2397:
2393:
2372:
2369:
2364:
2357:
2353:
2349:
2344:
2332:
2328:
2324:
2320:
2315:
2310:
2306:
2300:
2295:
2288:
2284:
2280:
2275:
2264:
2260:
2256:
2247:
2239:
2238:
2237:
2235:
2229:
2203:
2199:
2192:
2186:
2179:
2178:
2177:
2175:
2171:
2167:
2163:
2148:
2144:
2140:
2128:
2126:
2116:
2109:
2107:
2105:
2101:
2097:
2093:
2089:
2085:
2081:
2076:
2074:
2070:
2066:
2062:
2058:
2054:
2049:
2044:
2037:
2032:
2025:
2023:
2013:
2008:
1998:
1995:
1991:
1987:
1983:
1979:
1970:
1965:
1957:
1955:
1953:
1949:
1930:
1914:
1909:
1907:
1903:
1899:
1895:
1891:
1885:
1883:
1874:
1870:
1866:
1865:protonāproton
1862:
1858:
1853:
1845:
1839:
1831:
1828:
1822:
1816:
1810:
1804:
1801:
1800:
1797:
1794:
1788:
1782:
1776:
1770:
1767:
1766:
1763:
1760:
1754:
1748:
1742:
1736:
1733:
1732:
1729:
1728:Lacaille 8760
1726:
1720:
1714:
1708:
1702:
1699:
1698:
1695:
1692:
1686:
1680:
1674:
1668:
1665:
1664:
1661:
1660:70 Ophiuchi A
1658:
1652:
1646:
1640:
1634:
1631:
1630:
1627:
1624:
1618:
1612:
1606:
1600:
1597:
1596:
1593:
1592:
1588:
1582:
1573:
1564:
1555:
1552:
1551:
1548:
1545:
1539:
1533:
1527:
1521:
1518:
1517:
1514:
1511:
1505:
1499:
1493:
1487:
1484:
1483:
1480:
1477:
1471:
1465:
1459:
1453:
1450:
1449:
1446:
1445:Beta Pictoris
1443:
1437:
1431:
1425:
1419:
1416:
1415:
1412:
1409:
1406:
1400:
1394:
1388:
1385:
1384:
1381:
1378:
1375:
1369:
1363:
1357:
1354:
1353:
1350:
1347:
1344:
1338:
1332:
1326:
1323:
1322:
1319:
1316:
1313:
1310:
1304:
1298:
1295:
1294:
1291:
1288:
1285:
1282:
1279:
1276:
1273:
1272:
1268:
1265:
1257:
1255:
1246:
1241:
1239:
1230:
1225:
1223:
1214:
1209:
1206:
1204:
1199:
1198:
1192:
1190:
1186:
1182:
1178:
1174:
1170:
1162:
1160:
1158:
1154:
1150:
1146:
1139:
1132:
1127:
1123:
1119:
1113:
1111:
1104:
1100:
1096:
1092:
1088:
1084:
1080:
1077:and the mass
1076:
1072:
1065:
1061:
1058:, the radius
1057:
1052:
1050:
1046:
1025:
1016:
1010:
1006:
1002:
999:
996:
993:
990:
983:
982:
981:
979:
972:
969:
965:
961:
957:
948:
941:
939:
937:
933:
928:
925:
920:
919:yellow dwarfs
916:
915:orange dwarfs
912:
904:
902:
900:
896:
892:
888:
885: ā
884:
880:
876:
872:
868:
867:spectral type
863:
861:
857:
853:
852:spectral type
845:
843:
841:
834:
831:
829:
826:
824:
821:
819:
816:
814:
811:
809:
806:
804:
801:
800:
799:
793:
791:
787:
785:
781:
776:
774:
771:
767:
763:
759:
755:
751:
747:
739:
734:
729:
725:
721:
717:
705:
700:
698:
693:
691:
686:
685:
683:
682:
677:
674:
672:
669:
667:
664:
662:
659:
657:
654:
652:
649:
648:
647:
646:
641:
636:
633:
631:
628:
626:
623:
621:
618:
616:
613:
611:
608:
606:
603:
601:
598:
596:
593:
591:
588:
587:
586:
585:
580:
576:
572:
571:
568:
564:
558:
556:
554:
550:
546:
542:
537:
534:
530:
526:
522:
518:
513:
511:
510:Heinrich Vogt
507:
501:
498:
493:
489:
486:
482:
478:
474:
469:
467:
463:
462:star clusters
458:
454:
449:
447:
443:
439:
435:
431:
427:
423:
416:
399:
392:
385:
378:
376:Bright giants
371:
364:
357:
350:
343:
339:Main sequence
334:
327:
320:
313:
306:
299:
292:
285:
278:
271:
264:
257:
250:
243:
241:Spectral type
236:
229:
221:
219:
217:
213:
209:
205:
200:
190:
186:
182:
178:
174:
163:
158:
156:
152:
148:
143:
139:
135:
131:
127:
123:
120:in its dense
119:
114:
112:
108:
104:
100:
96:
92:
88:
84:
80:
76:
75:main sequence
72:
64:
60:
56:
52:
48:
44:
39:
33:
19:
6944:
6927:Solar System
6727:White dwarfs
6717:Brown dwarfs
6700:Most distant
6648:Most massive
6626:Proper names
6586:Photographic
6539:Solar System
6517:observations
6444:Star systems
6267:Stellar wind
6250:Chromosphere
6223:Oscillations
6103:Helium flash
5953:Hypothetical
5931:X-ray binary
5870:Compact star
5705:Bright giant
5475:
5458:Henyey track
5436:Herbig Ae/Be
5338:
5321:
5312:
5299:
5274:
5270:
5257:
5232:
5228:
5203:
5199:
5174:
5170:
5161:
5136:
5132:
5107:
5103:
5083:
5058:
5047:
5001:
4997:
4978:
4969:
4960:
4917:
4913:
4888:
4873:
4858:
4804:
4800:
4794:
4783:. Retrieved
4779:the original
4768:
4725:
4721:
4711:
4700:. Retrieved
4696:the original
4685:
4642:
4638:
4632:
4612:
4605:
4593:. Retrieved
4589:the original
4578:
4551:
4547:
4537:
4512:
4504:
4477:
4473:
4463:
4444:
4416:
4409:
4381:
4375:
4330:
4326:
4316:
4297:
4277:. Retrieved
4266:
4247:
4241:
4230:. Retrieved
4218:
4213:
4206:
4179:
4173:
4163:
4144:
4138:
4127:. Retrieved
4089:
4085:
4075:
4056:
4050:
4020:(1): 21ā34.
4017:
4013:
4007:
3996:. Retrieved
3992:the original
3981:
3967:(1): 25ā30.
3964:
3960:
3954:
3935:
3929:
3902:
3898:
3888:
3863:
3859:
3853:
3810:
3806:
3800:
3775:
3767:
3724:
3720:
3714:
3698:. Springer.
3695:
3673:. Retrieved
3644:. Retrieved
3640:the original
3629:
3602:
3598:
3588:
3577:. Retrieved
3567:
3556:. Retrieved
3541:
3534:
3518:. Retrieved
3503:
3492:. Retrieved
3485:the original
3472:
3461:. Retrieved
3451:
3440:. Retrieved
3435:
3426:
3410:. Springer.
3407:
3398:
3387:. Retrieved
3383:
3373:
3362:. Retrieved
3357:
3347:
3329:
3304:
3300:
3290:
3269:
3235:
3228:
3217:. Retrieved
3212:
3203:
3168:
3164:
3154:
3143:. Retrieved
3097:
3093:
3056:(1): 53ā60.
3053:
3049:
3043:
3031:. Retrieved
3027:
3018:
3006:. Retrieved
3000:
2990:
2947:
2941:
2935:
2916:
2894:. Retrieved
2888:
2881:
2856:
2848:
2831:
2827:
2821:
2804:
2800:
2759:; New York:
2752:
2710:
2702:
2683:
2670:
2636:
2628:neutron star
2617:
2609:
2591:
2586:white dwarfs
2576:
2553:
2513:
2498:
2492:
2489:
2395:
2391:
2389:
2230:
2220:
2169:
2165:
2129:
2121:
2095:
2091:
2077:
2048:binary stars
2045:
2041:
2009:
1999:
1975:
1952:brown dwarfs
1931:
1910:
1886:
1878:
1762:EZ Aquarii A
1626:Alpha Mensae
1589:
1244:
1242:Luminosity,
1228:
1212:
1188:
1180:
1172:
1166:
1156:
1152:
1141:
1134:
1130:
1125:
1121:
1117:
1114:
1106:
1102:
1094:
1090:
1086:
1082:
1078:
1074:
1063:
1059:
1055:
1053:
1044:
1042:
970:
963:
959:
953:
929:
908:
898:
894:
886:
882:
864:
849:
837:
797:
788:
777:
743:
625:T Tauri star
538:
514:
502:
494:
490:
470:
450:
445:
419:
337:
318:White dwarfs
311:Brown dwarfs
201:
159:
115:
90:
74:
68:
6915:Outer space
6903:Spaceflight
6780:Brown dwarf
6556:Circumpolar
6434:Kraft break
6414:Color index
6389:Metallicity
6349:Designation
6318:Cosmic dust
6240:Photosphere
6006:Dark-energy
5981:Electroweak
5966:Black dwarf
5897:Radio-quiet
5880:White dwarf
5766:White dwarf
5416:Bok globule
5004:: 337ā377.
4480:: 457ā468.
3866:: 947ā962.
3307:: 187ā200.
2834:: 222ā248.
2807:: 324ā329.
2620:supergiants
2563:HāR diagram
1978:photosphere
1513:Eta Arietis
1349:Phi Orionis
962:and radius
932:white dwarf
879:color index
875:photosphere
605:Dark nebula
600:Bok globule
547:(formally,
397:Hypergiants
383:Supergiants
369:Blue giants
216:white dwarf
147:photosphere
122:core region
95:dwarf stars
55:color index
6967:Star types
6951:Categories
6742:Candidates
6737:Supernovae
6722:Red dwarfs
6581:Extinction
6369:Kinematics
6364:Luminosity
6342:Properties
6235:Atmosphere
6133:Si burning
6123:Ne burning
6061:White hole
6034:Quasi-star
5961:Blue dwarf
5816:Technetium
5732:Hypergiant
5710:Supergiant
5260:. Berlin:
4785:2007-12-05
4702:2008-01-08
4279:2007-12-03
4232:2007-12-06
4129:2007-12-06
3998:2007-12-05
3675:2007-12-04
3646:2008-08-12
3579:2008-11-21
3558:2007-12-06
3520:2007-12-06
3494:2010-05-18
3463:2007-12-06
3442:2007-12-04
3389:2009-10-29
3364:2009-10-29
3219:2007-12-09
3145:2007-12-03
2957:1706.10279
2896:2008-08-12
2695:References
2632:black hole
2509:convection
2427:solar mass
1986:convection
1850:See also:
1694:61 Cygni A
1169:luminosity
956:black body
942:Parameters
911:red dwarfs
856:luminosity
846:Properties
840:red dwarfs
770:exothermic
485:parallaxes
466:luminosity
362:Red giants
341:("dwarfs")
325:Red dwarfs
208:supergiant
164:(1.5
155:convection
87:brightness
47:luminosity
45:plots the
6891:Astronomy
6673:Brightest
6571:Magnitude
6551:Pole star
6472:Symbiotic
6467:Eclipsing
6399:Starlight
6200:Structure
6190:Supernova
6183:Micronova
6178:Recurrent
6163:Symbiotic
6148:p-process
6143:r-process
6138:s-process
6128:O burning
6118:C burning
6098:CNO cycle
6041:Gravastar
5577:Hypernova
5567:Supernova
5542:Dredge-up
5515:Blue loop
5508:super-AGB
5491:Red clump
5468:Evolution
5426:Protostar
5406:Accretion
5398:Formation
4866:Technical
4595:8 January
4340:0801.4031
4124:118975831
4042:120541081
3321:0004-6361
3002:Space.com
2982:125826925
2857:The Stars
2624:supernova
2469:τ
2442:⨀
2411:⨀
2370:−
2358:⨀
2311:⨀
2289:⨀
2257:≈
2248:τ
2193:∝
2174:power law
2139:red giant
2086:known as
2073:subdwarfs
1982:radiation
1958:Structure
1894:CNO cycle
1861:Logarithm
1269:Examples
1149:CNO cycle
1003:σ
1000:π
893:in blue (
891:magnitude
775:process.
746:protostar
720:Protostar
651:Accretion
615:Protostar
495:In 1933,
448:in 1901.
348:Subgiants
332:Subdwarfs
212:red giant
189:CNO cycle
151:radiation
71:astronomy
6852:Category
6747:Remnants
6643:Extremes
6603:Parallax
6576:Apparent
6566:Asterism
6544:Sunlight
6494:Globular
6479:Multiple
6404:Variable
6394:Rotation
6354:Dynamics
6245:Starspot
5919:Magnetar
5862:Remnants
5678:Subgiant
5651:Subdwarf
5503:post-AGB
5046:(1967).
5036:59325115
4952:13798091
4837:10814581
4829:12511641
4760:14566232
4677:12173790
4367:10073988
3759:13798091
3514:Archived
3406:(2006).
3339:Archived
3195:33059330
3187:11567116
3140:14084249
3132:11778039
2783:33102501
2650:See also
2597:☉
2582:☉
2530:☉
2523:☉
2226:☉
2158:☉
2135:☉
2110:Lifetime
2020:☉
2005:☉
1944:☉
1937:☉
1927:☉
1920:☉
1902:nitrogen
1873:triple-Ī±
1253:☉
1237:☉
1221:☉
1201:Stellar
1140:, where
854:and the
750:collapse
543:, named
533:mnemonic
404:absolute
197:☉
181:nitrogen
169:☉
130:hydrogen
124:through
6939:Science
6877:Portals
6819:Gravity
6768:Related
6688:Nearest
6636:Chinese
6484:Cluster
6457:Contact
6294:Proplyd
6168:Remnant
6056:Blitzar
6030:Hawking
5986:Strange
5936:Burster
5892:Neutron
5845:Extreme
5796:He-weak
5441:T Tauri
5326:Bibcode
5279:Bibcode
5277:: 437.
5237:Bibcode
5235:: 943.
5208:Bibcode
5206:: 571.
5179:Bibcode
5177:: 165.
5141:Bibcode
5112:Bibcode
5110:: 525.
5065:Chicago
5016:Bibcode
4932:Bibcode
4852:General
4809:Bibcode
4801:Science
4740:Bibcode
4657:Bibcode
4556:Bibcode
4482:Bibcode
4345:Bibcode
4223:Bibcode
4184:Bibcode
4104:Bibcode
4022:Bibcode
3988:"Stars"
3969:Bibcode
3907:Bibcode
3868:Bibcode
3845:7280299
3825:Bibcode
3739:Bibcode
3607:Bibcode
3309:Bibcode
3165:Science
3112:Bibcode
3094:Science
3058:Bibcode
3033:27 July
3008:2 April
2962:Bibcode
2836:Bibcode
2809:Bibcode
2757:Bristol
2637:When a
2567:NGC 188
2501:opacity
2456:is the
2063:, or a
1948:Jupiter
1820:0.00017
1407:10,800
1376:16,400
1345:30,000
1314:38,000
1311:180,000
1286:50,000
1283:800,000
1183:), and
1047:is the
976:by the
873:in its
782:on the
744:When a
453:Potsdam
426:spectra
222:History
204:evolves
85:versus
6809:Galaxy
6797:Planet
6785:Desert
6693:bright
6631:Arabic
6452:Binary
6272:Bubble
5996:Planck
5971:Exotic
5907:Binary
5902:Pulsar
5840:Helium
5801:Barium
5744:Carbon
5737:Yellow
5725:Yellow
5698:Yellow
5537:PG1159
5139:: 69.
5071:
5034:
4985:
4950:
4901:
4835:
4827:
4758:
4675:
4620:
4525:
4451:
4423:
4388:
4365:
4304:
4254:
4151:
4122:
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