947:
12-month period. The
Zimbabwe government disputes that there were legitimate grounds for its suspension. Zimbabwe considers that the CHOGM statement only permitted the Troika to go beyond an expression of collective disapproval if something adverse was reported on in the Commonwealth Observer Group Report pertaining to the period after the CHOGM statement issued and ending at the time when the voting in the election ended (7 days in total). The Zimbabwe government considers that although adverse findings were contained in the Report, none of them related to that period and therefore the Troika did not have competence to suspend it from the Commonwealth.
347:) was asked to evaluate the future of cooperation and combination of the colonies of central Africa. The government required him to take into account the 'interests of the inhabitants, irrespective of race'. Taking four years to report, and acquiring the nickname 'Viscount Bloody-slow' for this, Bledisloe concluded that there was a single barrier to political integration: Southern Rhodesia's racist legislation. Under the doctrine of non-interference that had been established, this was seen as insurmountable, putting off any political integration, yet allowing for the economic integration that Bledisloe recommended as feasible.
827:(CMF). This included 1,097 Britons, as well as representatives of Australia, Canada, Fiji, Kenya, and New Zealand, totalling 1,548 service personnel. They organised ceasefire assembly places, at which guerillas could disarm and reintegrate into their communities in time for the election. Observers expected the operation to fail, as the composition and swiftness of deployment seemed to fly in the face of convention wisdom. Nonetheless, it succeeded in maintaining peace, demilitarising the militia and guerillas, and presiding over a peaceful election that election observers deemed free and fair.
412:
22:
317:, a convention emerged that Parliament would not legislate for Southern Rhodesia, nor the Governor withhold Assent, without the Legislative Assembly's permission. The threat of intervention may have achieved some successes, such as when the Rhodesian government attempted to ban native Africans from voting outright in 1934, but these were few and far between. The result is that, even though self-government had been tailored to avoid the creation of a system that subjugated the native population, it happened anyway: directly against the
375:, it had no power to declare war itself). It is often reported that a greater proportion of the population of Southern Rhodesia served in the war than of any other part of the Empire. Even though this has become a part of nationalist folklore, this is to include only the White population (of whom, 15% served), and not the population as a whole (of whom, 2% served). Nonetheless, there developed a nationalist perception that the UK and its empire owed the Southern Rhodesians a debt: which continued right up until the late 1970s.
463:– very loyal, but very determined to have their own way'. This, it was feared, would lead to a cataclysmic war between settler-dominated south and east Africa and native-dominated west Africa: ripping apart the nascent Commonwealth. Coupled with the Baxter report from a conference of officials, the report to the cabinet stated unequivocally: " urgently desirable in the interests of the territories (including those of the African inhabitants) and of the Commonwealth."
675:) on 10 January 1966 to address the crisis. At this meeting, Wilson pledged that sanctions imposed by the Commonwealth would bring the crisis to an end 'within a matter of weeks, not months'. However, on 14 January, Wilson stated that military intervention could not be ruled out, and, on 25 January, also stated that there would be no negotiations with the Rhodesian administration except on how to bring about an orderly return to direct rule.
2587:
961:
were not. Indeed, the
Zimbabwean Government points to the letter dated 10 February 2003 from the President of Nigeria to the Prime Minister of Australia in which he stated “that the time is now auspicious to lift sanctions on Zimbabwe with regard to her suspension from the Commonwealth Councils.” According to the Zimbabwe Government, the President of South Africa also contacted the Prime Minister of Australia to convey the same message.
965:
other members of the Troika and
Zimbabwe for the reasons described above. Moreover, the Southern African Development Community formally confirmed its position that Zimbabwe's one-year suspension had lapsed on 19 March 2003. This was reaffirmed at a meeting of the troika of the SADC Organ for Politics, Defence and Security — namely Lesotho (chair), Mozambique and South Africa, with Zimbabwe invited — in Pretoria in late November 2003.
542:
503:
1206:, Minister of State for Africa & International Development, said: "As of today, the UK would not be able to support this application because we don’t believe that the kinds of human rights violations that we are seeing from security forces in Zimbabwe are the kind of behaviour that you would expect to see from a Commonwealth country." In retaliation, Mnangagwa mentioned in an interview with French TV news channel
843:. The end of the Rhodesian crisis was a victory for Commonwealth principles, and their application to the policies of a member: in this case, the United Kingdom itself. Shridath Ramphal played a vital role in the affair, whilst it was the 1979 Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting that played host to the deliberations and resolutions of the crisis, and a Commonwealth military force that kept the peace.
2523:
398:, were trained in Southern Rhodesia under the plan. The construction and operation of the bases (paid for mostly by the UK and Canada), as well as the location of thousands of service personnel in the colony, boosted the war-time economy of Southern Rhodesia dramatically. Higgins estimated that the training camps were as important to the war-time economy as the gold-mining industry.
937:
their deep concern", and called on all parties to work together "to create an atmosphere in which there could be a free and fair election". CHOGM also “noted that a
Commonwealth Observer Group would report to the Commonwealth Secretary-General immediately after the Zimbabwe presidential election of 9–10 March 2002” and confirmed their agreement to:
984:
suspension had already terminated. Instead, the CHOGM statement (tabled by Canada and Kenya) treated
Zimbabwe as a country that was still suspended and determined to continue its suspension for an indefinite period, appointing a six-member panel to advise on the way forward. The committee, composed of the Heads of Government of
724:, articulated the political principles of the Commonwealth, including the elimination of racial discrimination. With the incorporation of this implicit commitment to opposing Rhodesia into the Commonwealth's aims, and the increasing disparity of British economic interests in Africa, the UK chose the Commonwealth over Rhodesia.
1132:, ruled by six-to-one (South Africa being the one) against lifting Zimbabwe's suspension. In response, Robert Mugabe announced on 7 December that Zimbabwe was withdrawing from the Commonwealth: marking only the third occasion (after South Africa in 1961 and Pakistan in 1971) that a country had withdrawn voluntarily.
581:
But for the likely hostile reaction from the rest of the
Commonwealth, and hence a threat to its very existence, it is probable that the British government would have accepted an independent Southern Rhodesia upon the death of the Federation in 1963. However, the preservation of the Commonwealth was
946:
Shortly after the presidential election had concluded, the Report of the
Commonwealth Observer Group was submitted to the Troika. Even the Government of Zimbabwe concedes that its conclusions were “adverse”. On 19 March 2002 the Troika, being the competent Commonwealth body, suspended Zimbabwe for a
941:
mandate the CHOGM Chairman-in-Office as well as the former and next
Chairmen-in-Office in close consultation with the Secretary-General and taking into account the Commonwealth Observer Group Report, to determine appropriate Commonwealth action on Zimbabwe in the event the Report is adverse...which
936:
On 4 March 2002 the CHOGM statement issued at Coolum, Australia implicitly rejected calls by the United
Kingdom, Australia and New Zealand for punitive action to be taken against Zimbabwe for alleged violence and intimidation surrounding the Presidential Election Campaign. CHOGM, instead, "expressed
331:
Discussions returned on the further integration of
Southern Rhodesia with surrounding colonies. Plans to amalgamate with Northern Rhodesia had been rejected by the settler population in 1916 on the grounds that merger with its less developed neighbour would delay self-government. However, when the
1042:
In an official letter to the Commonwealth Secretariat dated 11 December 2003, Zimbabwe formally terminated with effect from 7 December 2003 its membership in the Commonwealth. This confirmed President Mugabe's decision to leave the organisation following the CHOGM statement issued in Nigeria, which
960:
contend that this therefore meant that in the absence of a renewal or extension, Zimbabwe's suspension by the Troika would automatically lapse on 19 March 2003. A split emerged in the Troika. Australia was in favour of a further suspension. South Africa and Nigeria (i.e. the majority of the Troika)
955:
Unlike all other previous Commonwealth country suspensions, Zimbabwe's was for a definite period of 12 months. In the case of a suspension for a finite period there is no need for such a suspension to be lifted. It automatically lapses unless it is renewed or extended. The Zimbabwean Government and
964:
Notwithstanding that there had been no Troika decision, on 12 February 2003, the Prime Minister of Australia and the Secretary General of the Commonwealth announced that Zimbabwe would remain suspended until the next CHOGM in December 2003. This “purported” further suspension was disputed by the
1015:
Following the CHOGM, the SADC (supported by Uganda) issued a statement in which it expressed deep concern at what it called the ‘dismissive, intolerant and rigid attitude’ shown by some Commonwealth members toward Zimbabwe. SADC has consistently pleaded for greater patience and understanding of
983:
The rest of the CHOGM's deliberations on Zimbabwe were marked by the same African disunity, foiling Mbeki's repeated attempts to have Zimbabwe readmitted. Ultimately he CHOGM rejected the Mbeki led minority group and implicitly rejected the views of the majority of the Troika that Zimbabwe's
605:– Southern Rhodesia's former federal partner – was in attendance. Before federation, the Southern Rhodesian government had attended every meeting since 1932, and its official position was that it was already a member of the Commonwealth, hence entitled to attend as a matter of right.
1050:
The withdrawal marked only the third occasion (after South Africa in 1961 and Pakistan in 1971) that a country had withdrawn voluntarily, although Ireland had voluntarily declared itself a republic in 1949 thereby ending its membership, but in Ireland's case, it was before the
838:
in March 1980 led to Southern Rhodesia's independence as the Republic of Zimbabwe later that year. Upon independence, Zimbabwe joined the Commonwealth: five decades after Southern Rhodesia's government had mistakenly believed that it had in the wake of its invitation to the
846:
For its part, Mozambique was recognised as a 'cousin state' of the Commonwealth, and was rewarded for its opposition to the Rhodesian regime with accession to the Commonwealth in 1995: becoming the only member without direct constitutional links to another.
237:
122:. In 2003, when the Commonwealth refused to lift the suspension, Zimbabwe withdrew from the Commonwealth. Since then, the Commonwealth has played a major part in trying to end the political impasse and return Zimbabwe to a state of normality.
277:
Indeed, the government of Southern Rhodesian itself was under the same misapprehension. Its official position, which it would hold until UDI, was that Southern Rhodesia was already a member of the Commonwealth, albeit not a Dominion. When
458:
to the region in early 1951 was the turning point for the United Kingdom. Startled by the strength of pro-South African support in Salisbury, Walker's report made it clear that, spurned, Southern Rhodesia could turn to outright revolt, as
1150:, opposition leader Morgan Tsvangirai, whose party won the vote, announced that, under his leadership, Zimbabwe would seek a return to the Commonwealth. It has been compared to South Africa's withdrawal in 1961, on the occasion of which
190:. However, when the charter came up for renewal in August of the same year, it was granted only on condition that further political rights were extended: pushing the territory towards self-government. Furthermore, in 1918, the
593:
was the first held after the collapse of the federation, and, even though federal Prime Ministers had attended during federation, and Southern Rhodesian Prime Ministers had before federation, this invitation was not extended to
2809:
713:(1968) that led to Rhodesia declining very favourable terms. Similarly favourable terms were proposed in 1971, but discarded when the British government determined that they were largely rejected by the African population.
582:
the predominant concern of the British government, and thus persevered with the gradual introduction of black majority rule to Rhodesia to avoid being forced to 'choose between Southern Rhodesia and the Commonwealth' (in
871:'s government was accused of abusing human rights, rigging elections, undermining the Zimbabwean economy. The matters his Government is accused of contravene the basic principles of the Commonwealth, as outlined in the
1085:, who was up for election but whom convention dictated should not be challenged. However, only seven (of eighteen) African Heads of Government voted for Mbeki's candidate (along with the four South Asian countries),
1026:, who was up for election but whom convention dictated should not be challenged. However, only seven (of eighteen) African Heads of Government voted for Mbeki's candidate (along with the four South Asian countries),
2346:
663:, even suspended diplomatic relations with the United Kingdom as a reaction to the United Kingdom's refusal to use military force to oust Smith. An emergency Meeting of Commonwealth Prime Ministers convened in
1157:
said that there would always be a 'candle in the window' until South Africa returned: the reentry of Zimbabwe would vindicate the Commonwealth's moral commitment to the Zimbabwean people and its principles.
163:) to join the union. This was one of three popular options, but actively discouraged by the BSAC, which preferred union with Northern Rhodesia. This was actively pursued by the BSAC administration, under
716:
However, this movement towards negotiation and appeasement of the Salisbury regime was turned on its head over the following two years, thanks in no small part to pressure from the Commonwealth. The
2802:
2767:
447:, he agreed a wide-ranging agreement that, far from loose federalism, seemed more a plot to amalgamate under white Rhodesian leadership. This would be a recurring theme, firstly in April 1950, as a
436:). This was the limit of the British wish for integration: fearful for the same reasons Bledisloe had been. However, the conversion in July 1948 of the Northern Rhodesian settler leadership, under
761:
and Mozambican governments, and, believing a stable majority-governed country to be in South Africa's interests, persuaded Ian Smith that white minority rule could not continue forever in Rhodesia.
695:
describing it 'by common consent, the worst ever held up to that time', the meeting passed without cataclysm, but led to a hiatus in PM meetings until 1969 (at the behest of Wilson, and opposed by
687:, held in September, saw the Commonwealth as a whole close to collapse, as African members suspected that the UK was on the verge of breaking its pledges not to negotiate over the issue of
3203:
2795:
3136:
2511:
1136:
652:, the British government was seen to have done everything possible to punish Rhodesia economically, except to impose an oil embargo, which was itself forthcoming on 17 December 1965.
421:
2086:
1096:
The rest of the CHOGM's deliberations on Zimbabwe were marked by the same African disunity, foiling Mbeki's repeated attempts to have Zimbabwe readmitted. To resolve the impasse,
835:
220:, ruled that the two options – union with South Africa and responsible government – be put to a referendum. Union was rejected by the Southern Rhodesian people, who voted in the
194:
ruled that the BSAC did not own any unalienated land. Now being unable to sell land, it decided against investing any further in the colony, but advocated incorporation into the
202:
179:
297:
Nonetheless, Southern Rhodesia did recognise that it had limits on its self-government. For example, foreign relations were not maintained, nor could the government change the
451:
of patently unacceptable Rhodesian proposals were made and flatly refused: potentially alienating the promise of resolution, hence pushing white settlers towards South Africa.
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indefinitely suspended Zimbabwe from the Commonwealth. On 19 November 2003, Minister of Foreign Affairs of Zimbabwe made a detailed statement on the whole affair to the
609:
291:
96:
890:, the situation deteriorated rapidly, as violence against opponents increased. To address these issues, in September 2001, Zimbabwe sent a delegation to meet with the
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Southern Rhodesia attempted to show its loyalty to, and independence of, the mother country by symbolically becoming the first colony to affirm the United Kingdom's
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and outgoing Secretary-General Don McKinnon both expressed their approval of Zimbabwe's return to the Commonwealth if the country resolved its infringements of the
111:
in 1980. However, differences of opinion of how to approach Rhodesia exposed structural and philosophical weaknesses that threatened to break-up the Commonwealth.
804:, reverted Rhodesia back into the British colony of Southern Rhodesia, with full control from London, and paved the way for an election in 1980. To implement the
50:, having withdrawn in 2003, and the issue of Zimbabwe has repeatedly taken centre stage in the Commonwealth, both since Zimbabwe's independence and as part of the
428:
In 1945, a Central African Council was formed as a consultative body for the three British central African territories: Southern Rhodesia, Northern Rhodesia, and
221:
922:
876:
773:
721:
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3193:
3162:
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2211:
1146:, especially under a new government. Mugabe has stated that Zimbabwe would never rejoin the Commonwealth, calling it an 'evil organisation'. Before the
336:
recommended in 1929 an even wider union, encompassing both central and eastern Africa, a Rhodesian union became the lesser of two evils, and jumped upon.
3038:
887:
490:
The Federation would be 'the most controversial large-scale imperial exercise in constructive state-building ever undertaken by the British government'.
780:, once again committing itself to ending racial discrimination. The official communiqué of the meeting invited Rhodesia-Zimbabwe's new Prime Minister
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3028:
2489:
1210:
that: "The Commonwealth has never told us that they are not considering our application. The view of one member is not the view of the Commonwealth".
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Louis, William Roger; Brown, Judith Margaret; Low, Alaine M.; Canny, Nicholas P.; Porter, Andrew; Marshall, Peter James; Winks, Robin W. (1999).
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On the day of UDI, the United Kingdom imposed the most stringent financial and economic constraints it had imposed upon any country (including
379:
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Southern Rhodesia had been granted a great deal of autonomy, including powers over defence and constitutional amendment, but falling short of
118:, Zimbabwe dominated Commonwealth affairs, creating acrimonious splits in the organisation. Zimbabwe was suspended in 2002 for breaching the
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thought that Southern Rhodesia 'is and always has been a member of the Commonwealth', this caused a diplomatic spat that contributed to the
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proposed a committee to resolve the issue of whether to lift Zimbabwe's suspension. The committee, composed of the Heads of Government of
74:
2571:
2177:
3083:
2833:
1893:
Verrier, Anthony (Winter 1994). "Peacekeeping or peacemaking? The Commonwealth Monitoring Force, Southern Rhodesia-Zimbabwe, 1979-1980".
466:
It has been suggested that the main impetus for the British fear of South African domination of central Africa was to avoid South Africa
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1802:
1679:
Butler, L. J. (October 2008). "The Central African Federation and Britain's Post-War Nuclear Programme: Reconsidering the Connections".
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99:(UDI) in 1965. The United Kingdom refused to recognise this, and the Commonwealth was at the forefront of rejecting the UDI, imposing
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840:
448:
213:
206:
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The Commonwealth at the Summit – Communiques of Commonwealth Heads of Government Meetings 1997 – 2005, Commonwealth Secretariat 2007
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684:
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2647:
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Chan, Stephen; Mudhai, Okoth F. (November 2001). "Commonwealth Residualism and the Machinations of Power in a Turbulent Zimbabwe".
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status. However, observers would be forgiven for thinking that Rhodesia had just become the eighth dominion (as, indeed, reported
69:
in 1923. Southern Rhodesia became one of the most prosperous, and heavily settled, of the UK's African colonies, with a system of
3043:
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3108:
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2843:
2293:
744:, and, in its place, put an independent Mozambique with a left-wing government, which was eager to aid guerillas from Rhodesia.
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was created in 1925, Rhodesia was the only non-Dominion to fall under its remit, in recognition of its quasi-independent status.
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344:
314:
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2873:
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1617:
Hyam, Ronald (March 1987). "The Geopolitical Origins of the Central African Federation: Britain, Rhodesia, and South Africa".
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to train as many pilots and air crew as Southern Rhodesia could manage. In total, 10,107 service personnel, including 7,730
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1071:, in December 2003, was once more dominated by the Zimbabwean crisis. Failing to get Mugabe to meet with the opposition
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The Central African Federation – incorporating Southern Rhodesia, Northern Rhodesia, and Nyasaland – was designed as a
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633:
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894:(CMAG), which is responsible for upholding the Harare Declaration. Zimbabwe promised to end the violence and defend
382:. Even though there were no established training facilities before the war, shortly after outbreak, Prime Minister
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1743:
1475:
Watts, Carl P. (July 2007). "Dilemmas of Intra-Commonwealth Representation during the Rhodesian Problem, 1964–65".
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Comparative Constitutionalism and Good Governance in the Commonwealth: an Eastern and Southern African Perspective
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903:
805:
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440:, to supporting federalism (from long-held support for amalgamation) promoted London to reconsider its position.
378:
During the war, Southern Rhodesia benefited from the 'lucrativeness of loyalty', by hosting several bases of the
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Alexander, Philip (September 2006). "A Tale of Two Smiths: the Transformation of Commonwealth Policy, 1964–70".
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1806:
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that the Commonwealth demanded, and the Southern Rhodesian government, now styling itself 'Rhodesia', issued a
21:
1923:
Griffin, Stuart (November 2001). "Peacekeeping, the United Nations, and the Future Role of the Commonwealth".
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The hardening of the United Kingdom's line came as part of a wave of bad news for the Rhodesian regime. The
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38:
1078:, Chairperson-to-be Obasanjo refused to invite Mugabe to the CHOGM. At the CHOGM, Mbeki attempted to oust
772:. The Commonwealth flatly refused to recognise Rhodesia-Zimbabwe, and did not lift its sanctions. At the
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on arms, sugar, and tobacco; making it harder for Rhodesians to access London financial markets than the
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147:. Southern Rhodesia first became a central issue in the Commonwealth in 1910, upon the creation of the
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309:. The most important derogation was on racial affairs; laws related to racial affairs were to have
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The European appearance of Southern Rhodesia's capital Salisbury (pictured here in 1930; now called
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460:
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699:). Meanwhile, the UK had been conducting exploratory talks with the Rhodesian government, aboard
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This was not enough to placate some Commonwealth members, who demanded a military response. Two,
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All this brought Rhodesia to the negotiating table with moderate African leaders, leading to the
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withheld. However, despite these limits, and the formal supremacy of British statutes under the
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on Rhodesia, ending the break-away, and bringing about Rhodesia's final independence under black
100:
2450:
So Far and No Further!: Rhodesia's Bid for Independence During the Retreat from Empire 1959-1965
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In the face of this opposition to the recommendations of the Hilton Young Commission, in 1935,
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pushed to suspend Zimbabwe from the Commonwealth. This has been characterised by Mugabe, and
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156:
136:
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62:
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Taylor, Ian (July 2005). "'The Devilish Thing': The Commonwealth and Zimbabwe's Dénouement".
77:. In response to demands for greater black African power in government, the anti-federation
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1012:, ruled by six-to-one (South Africa being the one) against lifting Zimbabwe's suspension.
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1539:(July 1978). "The Thin White Line: Rhodesia's Armed Forces since the Second World War".
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in late 2017 has indicated that Zimbabwe may return to the Commonwealth in time for the
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A separate and not directly related matter at the CHOGM was an attempt by Mbeki to oust
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58:
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898:, as required of them as Commonwealth members, but failed to do so. As a result, the
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in 1995, Zimbabwe (in green) has been surrounded by Commonwealth member states (blue).
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1828:"The Lusaka Communique, Commonwealth Heads of Government, August 1979, on Rhodesia".
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to a constitutional convention with the leading guerilla leaders, giving rise to the
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1964:(April 2008). "The Expansion of the Commonwealth and the Criteria for Membership".
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On 15 May 2018, Mnangagwa submitted an application to rejoin the Commonwealth.
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After the Zimbabwean people rejected Mugabe's proposed new constitution in a
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1918:
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Marshall, Peter (April 2000). "The British Commonwealth Air Training Plan".
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The Oxford History of the British Empire – Volume IV: The Twentieth Century
244:) reinforced the settlers' belief that Southern Rhodesia deserved to be a
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737:
660:
601:. This was seen as the utmost slight, particularly as newly independent
475:
257:
245:
108:
43:
34:
2371:(October 2007). "Twenty Commonwealth steps from Singapore to Kampala".
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The Report of the Commonwealth Observer Group, Commonwealth Secretariat
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1956:
1954:
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McWilliam, Michael (January 2003). "Zimbabwe and the Commonwealth".
980:, Chairperson-to-be Obasanjo refused to invite Mugabe to the CHOGM.
2409:"Zimbabwe applies to re-join Commonwealth, 15 years after leaving"
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1101:
1064:
997:
664:
656:
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When Welensky held talks with the Southern Rhodesia leadership at
390:, initiating a dialogue that led to the United Kingdom offering a
266:
magazine). Southern Rhodesian Premiers were routinely invited to
235:
20:
84:(RF) was elected in 1962, leading to the collapse of federation.
2427:"Mnangagwa lashes out over UK's stance on Commonwealth re-entry"
1327:
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1321:
1319:
909:, as a neo-colonial campaign, but this is derided as ungrounded
471:
155:
made provisions for the accession of both Southern Rhodesia and
16:
History of Zimbabwe's relations with the Commonwealth of Nations
2791:
2493:
1317:
1315:
1313:
1311:
1309:
1307:
1305:
1303:
1301:
1299:
270:
of dominions' Prime Ministers from 1932 onwards; and, when the
1712:
1710:
1423:
1421:
1419:
1417:
1415:
1246:"The Commonwealth at and immediately after the Coolum CHOGM".
536:
497:
216:
formed a commission to investigate, and this commission, the
42:
have had a controversial and stormy diplomatic relationship.
860:
In recent times, Zimbabwe has dominated the agendas of most
1853:
1851:
1612:
1610:
1608:
1606:
1604:
1602:
1600:
1598:
1016:
Zimbabwe, and cautioned against lecturing and hectoring.
1220:
A Commonwealth obverser mission has been invited for the
182:, BSAC-supported candidates (as opposed to supporters of
2131:
2129:
2127:
2125:
2123:
2121:
1803:"Singapore Declaration of Commonwealth Principles 1971"
552:
513:
201:
This, however, was unpopular amongst settlers, who, in
2178:"PM, Blair for representative government in Iraq soon"
2017:
1762:
1760:
1650:
Imperialism and the British Labour Movement, 1914–1964
1531:
1529:
198:, which would be able to compensate its shareholders.
2015:
2013:
2011:
2009:
2007:
2005:
2003:
2001:
1999:
1997:
1560:
1558:
1556:
1554:
1213:
A Commonwealth observer mission was present for the
3150:
3129:
2826:
2768:
Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Trade
2760:
2744:
2718:
2702:
2661:
2615:
2594:
2534:
1192:on 8 February 2018, and The Gambia's return to the
2468:
2209:Parliament of Zimbabwe, 19 November 2003 (Hansard)
2082:
2080:
2063:. London: Cambridge University Press. p. 11.
2059:Hatchard, John; Ndulo, Muna; Slinn, Peter (2004).
1647:
1431:(April 1980). "The Lessons of Zimbabwe-Rhodesia".
1241:
1239:
1237:
973:Failing to get Mugabe to meet with the opposition
186:) won twelve of the thirteen elected seats in the
1734:
1732:
1730:
3204:Foreign relations of the Commonwealth of Nations
942:ranges from collective disapproval to suspension
1519:
1517:
1515:
939:
2268:"Britain eyes Zimbabwe return to Commonwealth"
1740:"Chronology: Rhodesia UDI: Road to Settlement"
1093:, allowing McKinnon to win by 40 votes to 11.
1034:, allowing McKinnon to win by 40 votes to 11.
722:first Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting
2803:
2505:
740:led to the end of Portuguese assistance from
73:. Southern Rhodesia was integrated into the
8:
2109:
2107:
2105:
1681:Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History
933:, but Zimbabwe was still top of the agenda.
2345:Chimakure, Constantine (28 February 2008).
1375:
1373:
1371:
1369:
1367:
1365:
1289:
1287:
1285:
1283:
1281:
1279:
879:in (ironically enough) Zimbabwe's capital,
2810:
2796:
2788:
2512:
2498:
2490:
969:Final suspension and Zimbabwe’s withdrawal
2171:
2169:
2136:"Editorial: CHOGM 2003, Abuja, Nigeria".
862:Commonwealth Heads of Government Meetings
632:. In vetoing loans to Rhodesia from the
363:in 1939 (like other colonies, as well as
351:Southern Rhodesia in the Second World War
3184:Zimbabwe and the Commonwealth of Nations
410:
139:from 1901, having been colonised by the
114:In later years, under the presidency of
1925:Commonwealth & Comparative Politics
1860:Commonwealth & Comparative Politics
1477:Commonwealth & Comparative Politics
1233:
841:1932 British Empire Economic Conference
591:Meeting of Commonwealth Prime Ministers
323:of the rest of the Empire at the time.
610:Unilateral Declaration of Independence
577:Unilateral Declaration of Independence
380:British Commonwealth Air Training Plan
292:Unilateral Declaration of Independence
97:Unilateral Declaration of Independence
958:Southern Africa Development Community
892:Commonwealth Ministerial Action Group
776:, the Heads of Government issued the
640:, and other institutions; imposing a
209:. Persuaded of its popular support,
205:, elected ten representatives of the
91:from 1964, rejected the principle of
7:
2114:SADC Barometer, January 2004 edition
1842:10.1093/oxfordjournals.afraf.a097167
1188:'s return to the Commonwealth under
925:was delayed in the aftermath of the
819:(and in the face of opposition from
608:On 11 November 1965, Smith issued a
470:in various raw materials: including
419:to Afrikaner-dominated South Africa.
75:Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland
2475:. London: Oxford University Press.
2294:"EU, the Commonwealth and Zimbabwe"
1396:. 24 September 1923. Archived from
856:Zimbabwe and the Harare Declaration
3194:2003 disestablishments in Zimbabwe
2347:"Zim to rejoin Commonwealth – MDC"
2230:(January 2004). "Abuja Notebook".
1137:Foreign and Commonwealth Secretary
685:1966 full Prime Ministers' Meeting
207:Responsible Government Association
14:
2452:. Victoria: Trafford Publishing.
2320:"Mugabe's Zanu-PF loses majority"
1222:2023 Zimbabwean general elections
1215:2018 Zimbabwean general elections
3029:Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
2585:
2521:
2176:Baruah, Amit (7 December 2003).
823:), the Commonwealth created the
540:
501:
87:The RF, under the leadership of
3189:1980 establishments in Zimbabwe
1723:. 12 November 1965. p. 13.
1717:"Facing the Rhodesian Crisis".
1038:Zimbabwe withdraws and reaction
345:Governor-General of New Zealand
315:Colonial Laws Validity Act 1865
135:Zimbabwe was formerly known as
1646:Gupta, Partha Sarathi (1975).
927:September 11 terrorist attacks
810:Commonwealth Secretary-General
171:, as a means of countering an
131:Towards responsible government
1:
3209:Political history of Zimbabwe
3199:Foreign relations of Zimbabwe
2528:Foreign relations of Zimbabwe
1654:. London: Macmillan. p.
1509:Louis et al. (1999), p. 552–3
1194:Commonwealth Games Federation
825:Commonwealth Monitoring Force
371:, which had not ratified the
228:, which was granted in 1923.
1769:Contemporary British History
1441:(4). The MIT Press: 177–84.
951:Purported further suspension
768:under which Rhodesia became
746:South African Prime Minister
141:British South Africa Company
2246:10.1080/0035853042000188157
2152:10.1080/0035853042000188139
1523:Louis et al. (1999), p. 270
1148:2008 parliamentary election
1059:Since Zimbabwe's withdrawal
917:Initial 12-month suspension
757:with the newly independent
671:(the only one held outside
634:International Monetary Fund
461:potential American colonies
386:offered to raise three air
284:Prime Minister of Australia
3225:
2349:. The Zimbabwe Independent
2146:(373): 3–6. January 2004.
1895:International Peacekeeping
1836:(314): 115. January 1980.
1744:London School of Economics
1256:(364): 125–9. April 2002.
1058:
830:The resounding victory of
796:Ceasefire and independence
402:Central African Federation
46:is a former member of the
2818:Foreign relations of the
2583:
2387:10.1080/00358530701625877
2038:10.1080/00358530500174630
1980:10.1080/00358530801962089
1907:10.1080/13533319408413524
1781:10.1080/13619460500407004
1693:10.1080/03086530802318573
1633:10.1017/S0018246X00021956
1489:10.1080/14662040701516904
1262:10.1080/00358530220144139
806:Lancaster House Agreement
800:The agreement demanded a
790:Lancaster House Agreement
422:Click here to enlarge map
175:-dominated South Africa.
1807:Commonwealth Secretariat
1063:The next CHOGM, held in
888:February 2000 referendum
691:. Nonetheless, despite
299:Southern Rhodesian pound
2820:Commonwealth of Nations
2726:Commonwealth of Nations
1174:2022 Commonwealth Games
1152:Canadian Prime Minister
904:South African President
650:Commonwealth Preference
334:Hilton Young Commission
39:Commonwealth of Nations
25:Since the accession of
2773:Diplomatic missions of
2214:June 10, 2015, at the
1434:International Security
1045:Parliament of Zimbabwe
944:
549:This section is empty.
510:This section is empty.
454:The official visit of
425:
373:Statute of Westminster
253:
226:responsible government
180:election of March 1914
67:responsible government
30:
3019:Saint Kitts and Nevis
2448:Wood, J.R.T. (2005).
1170:President of Zimbabwe
851:Zimbabwe under Mugabe
718:Singapore Declaration
616:Commonwealth reaction
494:Towards independence?
414:
286:, found in 1963 that
250:Union of South Africa
239:
196:Union of South Africa
165:Leander Starr Jameson
153:South Africa Act 1909
149:Union of South Africa
24:
3130:Former Member states
2731:Non-Aligned Movement
2272:Agence France-Presse
734:Carnation Revolution
728:Beginning of the end
486:Forming a federation
468:cornering the market
327:Bledisloe Commission
305:against the British
268:Imperial Conferences
248:, on a par with the
3084:Trinidad and Tobago
2834:Antigua and Barbuda
2433:. 11 February 2019.
2300:. 20 September 2008
2190:on 30 December 2003
1400:on 22 December 2008
1091:Lakshman Kadirgamar
1032:Lakshman Kadirgamar
913:and racist itself.
808:, at the behest of
766:Internal Settlement
232:A status of its own
188:Legislative Council
71:white minority rule
1962:McIntyre, W. David
1620:Historical Journal
1202:In February 2019,
1196:on 31 March 2018.
1162:Emmerson Mnangagwa
1144:Harare Declaration
1053:London Declaration
873:Harare Declaration
778:Lusaka Declaration
572:Rhodesia after UDI
426:
357:declaration of war
341:Viscount Bledisloe
254:
211:Colonial Secretary
143:(BSAC), headed by
120:Harare Declaration
31:
3171:
3170:
2785:
2784:
2482:978-0-19-820564-7
2459:978-1-4120-4952-8
2070:978-0-521-58464-7
1937:10.1080/713999560
1872:10.1080/713999562
1809:. 22 January 1971
1665:978-0-8419-0191-9
1581:10.1080/750459434
1537:McLaughlin, Peter
1429:Lord Saint Brides
1379:Wood (2005), p. 9
1348:10.1080/750456746
1293:Wood (2005), p. 8
1080:Secretary-General
1076:Morgan Tsvangirai
1021:Secretary-General
978:Morgan Tsvangirai
770:Zimbabwe Rhodesia
569:
568:
530:
529:
218:Buxton Commission
203:the 1920 election
157:Northern Rhodesia
137:Southern Rhodesia
79:white nationalist
63:Southern Rhodesia
57:Zimbabwe was the
3216:
3009:Papua New Guinea
2812:
2805:
2798:
2789:
2589:
2526:
2525:
2514:
2507:
2500:
2491:
2486:
2474:
2463:
2435:
2434:
2423:
2417:
2416:
2405:
2399:
2398:
2381:(392): 555–563.
2365:
2359:
2358:
2356:
2354:
2342:
2336:
2335:
2333:
2331:
2316:
2310:
2309:
2307:
2305:
2290:
2284:
2283:
2281:
2279:
2264:
2258:
2257:
2224:
2218:
2206:
2200:
2199:
2197:
2195:
2186:. Archived from
2173:
2164:
2163:
2133:
2116:
2111:
2100:
2095:
2089:
2084:
2075:
2074:
2056:
2050:
2049:
2019:
1992:
1991:
1958:
1949:
1948:
1920:
1911:
1910:
1890:
1884:
1883:
1855:
1846:
1845:
1825:
1819:
1818:
1816:
1814:
1799:
1793:
1792:
1764:
1755:
1754:
1752:
1750:
1736:
1725:
1724:
1714:
1705:
1704:
1676:
1670:
1669:
1653:
1643:
1637:
1636:
1614:
1593:
1592:
1562:
1549:
1548:
1541:Journal Zambezia
1533:
1524:
1521:
1510:
1507:
1501:
1500:
1472:
1459:
1458:
1425:
1410:
1409:
1407:
1405:
1386:
1380:
1377:
1360:
1359:
1329:
1294:
1291:
1274:
1273:
1243:
1204:Harriett Baldwin
1155:John Diefenbaker
875:, issued at the
813:Shridath Ramphal
720:, issued at the
630:Second World War
584:Harold Macmillan
564:
561:
551:You can help by
544:
537:
525:
522:
512:You can help by
505:
498:
343:(newly departed
272:Dominions Office
3224:
3223:
3219:
3218:
3217:
3215:
3214:
3213:
3174:
3173:
3172:
3167:
3146:
3125:
3054:Solomon Islands
2822:
2816:
2786:
2781:
2756:
2740:
2714:
2698:
2657:
2611:
2590:
2581:
2530:
2520:
2518:
2483:
2466:
2460:
2447:
2444:
2439:
2438:
2425:
2424:
2420:
2407:
2406:
2402:
2374:The Round Table
2367:
2366:
2362:
2352:
2350:
2344:
2343:
2339:
2329:
2327:
2318:
2317:
2313:
2303:
2301:
2292:
2291:
2287:
2277:
2275:
2266:
2265:
2261:
2233:The Round Table
2226:
2225:
2221:
2216:Wayback Machine
2207:
2203:
2193:
2191:
2175:
2174:
2167:
2139:The Round Table
2135:
2134:
2119:
2112:
2103:
2096:
2092:
2085:
2078:
2071:
2058:
2057:
2053:
2032:(380): 367–80.
2025:The Round Table
2021:
2020:
1995:
1974:(395): 273–85.
1967:The Round Table
1960:
1959:
1952:
1922:
1921:
1914:
1892:
1891:
1887:
1857:
1856:
1849:
1830:African Affairs
1827:
1826:
1822:
1812:
1810:
1801:
1800:
1796:
1766:
1765:
1758:
1748:
1746:
1738:
1737:
1728:
1716:
1715:
1708:
1678:
1677:
1673:
1666:
1645:
1644:
1640:
1616:
1615:
1596:
1575:(354): 267–78.
1568:The Round Table
1564:
1563:
1552:
1535:
1534:
1527:
1522:
1513:
1508:
1504:
1474:
1473:
1462:
1447:10.2307/2626673
1427:
1426:
1413:
1403:
1401:
1388:
1387:
1383:
1378:
1363:
1335:The Round Table
1331:
1330:
1297:
1292:
1277:
1249:The Round Table
1245:
1244:
1235:
1230:
1164:, who replaced
1061:
1040:
971:
953:
919:
858:
853:
821:Lord Carrington
798:
730:
681:
648:; and removing
618:
579:
574:
565:
559:
556:
535:
526:
520:
517:
496:
488:
420:
409:
404:
384:Godfrey Huggins
353:
329:
234:
222:1922 referendum
214:Viscount Milner
184:self-government
169:Francis Chaplin
133:
128:
82:Rhodesian Front
17:
12:
11:
5:
3222:
3220:
3212:
3211:
3206:
3201:
3196:
3191:
3186:
3176:
3175:
3169:
3168:
3166:
3165:
3160:
3154:
3152:
3151:Foreign states
3148:
3147:
3145:
3144:
3139:
3133:
3131:
3127:
3126:
3124:
3123:
3118:
3113:
3112:
3111:
3106:
3099:United Kingdom
3096:
3091:
3086:
3081:
3076:
3071:
3066:
3061:
3056:
3051:
3046:
3041:
3036:
3031:
3026:
3021:
3016:
3011:
3006:
3001:
2996:
2991:
2986:
2981:
2976:
2971:
2966:
2961:
2956:
2951:
2946:
2941:
2936:
2931:
2926:
2921:
2916:
2911:
2906:
2901:
2896:
2891:
2886:
2881:
2876:
2871:
2866:
2861:
2856:
2851:
2846:
2841:
2836:
2830:
2828:
2824:
2823:
2817:
2815:
2814:
2807:
2800:
2792:
2783:
2782:
2780:
2779:
2770:
2764:
2762:
2761:Related topics
2758:
2757:
2755:
2754:
2748:
2746:
2742:
2741:
2739:
2738:
2728:
2722:
2720:
2716:
2715:
2713:
2712:
2706:
2704:
2700:
2699:
2697:
2696:
2694:United Kingdom
2691:
2686:
2681:
2676:
2671:
2665:
2663:
2659:
2658:
2656:
2655:
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2645:
2640:
2635:
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2613:
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2610:
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2604:
2598:
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2584:
2582:
2580:
2579:
2574:
2569:
2564:
2559:
2554:
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2544:
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2519:
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2502:
2494:
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2464:
2458:
2443:
2440:
2437:
2436:
2418:
2415:. 21 May 2018.
2400:
2360:
2337:
2326:. 3 April 2008
2311:
2298:Harare Tribune
2285:
2274:. 3 April 2008
2259:
2219:
2201:
2165:
2117:
2101:
2090:
2076:
2069:
2051:
1993:
1950:
1912:
1885:
1847:
1820:
1794:
1756:
1726:
1706:
1671:
1664:
1638:
1594:
1550:
1525:
1511:
1502:
1460:
1411:
1390:"New Dominion"
1381:
1361:
1342:(368): 89–98.
1295:
1275:
1232:
1231:
1229:
1226:
1140:David Miliband
1060:
1057:
1039:
1036:
970:
967:
952:
949:
918:
915:
900:United Kingdom
857:
854:
852:
849:
817:Kenneth Kaunda
797:
794:
729:
726:
706:(in 1966) and
680:
677:
617:
614:
596:Prime Minister
578:
575:
573:
570:
567:
566:
547:
545:
534:
531:
528:
527:
508:
506:
495:
492:
487:
484:
449:vicious circle
445:Victoria Falls
408:
405:
403:
400:
352:
349:
328:
325:
307:pound sterling
280:Robert Menzies
233:
230:
132:
129:
127:
124:
52:British Empire
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3221:
3210:
3207:
3205:
3202:
3200:
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3135:
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3128:
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3110:
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3007:
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2832:
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2829:
2827:Member states
2825:
2821:
2813:
2808:
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2801:
2799:
2794:
2793:
2790:
2778:
2774:
2771:
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2052:
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2018:
2016:
2014:
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1994:
1989:
1985:
1981:
1977:
1973:
1969:
1968:
1963:
1957:
1955:
1951:
1946:
1942:
1938:
1934:
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1919:
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407:Deliberations
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159:(present-day
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126:Early history
125:
123:
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117:
116:Robert Mugabe
112:
110:
106:
105:majority rule
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3044:Sierra Leone
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646:Soviet Union
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438:Roy Welensky
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392:blank cheque
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338:
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311:Royal Assent
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2994:New Zealand
2844:The Bahamas
2777:in Zimbabwe
2353:23 December
2330:23 December
2304:23 December
2278:23 December
2194:20 December
1813:24 December
1749:23 December
1404:24 December
907:Thabo Mbeki
864:(CHOGMs).
626:Suez Crisis
624:during the
586:'s words).
369:New Zealand
288:Jack Howman
3178:Categories
3039:Seychelles
2979:Mozambique
2904:The Gambia
2849:Bangladesh
2752:Yugoslavia
2735:8th Summit
2562:Mozambique
2442:References
2431:Times Live
1186:The Gambia
1178:Birmingham
1110:Mozambique
990:Mozambique
923:2002 CHOGM
877:1991 CHOGM
774:1979 CHOGM
751:attempted
742:Mozambique
638:World Bank
224:in favour
65:, gaining
61:colony of
27:Mozambique
3064:Sri Lanka
3049:Singapore
2974:Mauritius
2839:Australia
2710:Australia
2648:Palestine
2633:Indonesia
2395:154737836
2254:219625486
2183:The Hindu
2160:219624427
2046:145081802
1988:219623317
1945:145292779
1880:154253142
1789:154277000
1720:The Times
1701:159891117
1589:153944992
1497:154230912
1356:144538905
1270:219624218
1228:Footnotes
1208:France 24
1126:Australia
1087:Sri Lanka
1028:Sri Lanka
1006:Australia
911:revionism
866:President
802:ceasefire
792:in 1979.
786:Ian Smith
708:HMS
701:HMS
599:Ian Smith
589:The 1964
430:Nyasaland
388:squadrons
365:Australia
320:zeitgeist
173:Afrikaner
101:sanctions
89:Ian Smith
3142:Zimbabwe
3104:Scotland
3069:Tanzania
3004:Pakistan
2964:Maldives
2959:Malaysia
2944:Kiribati
2894:Eswatini
2889:Dominica
2874:Cameroon
2864:Botswana
2854:Barbados
2643:Pakistan
2595:Americas
2547:Botswana
2324:BBC News
2212:Archived
1135:British
738:Portugal
703:Fearless
661:Tanzania
533:Collapse
258:Dominion
246:Dominion
109:Zimbabwe
44:Zimbabwe
37:and the
35:Zimbabwe
3137:Ireland
3116:Vanuatu
2999:Nigeria
2984:Namibia
2949:Lesotho
2934:Jamaica
2919:Grenada
2703:Oceania
2669:Germany
2567:Namibia
1455:2626673
1182:England
1122:Jamaica
1114:Nigeria
1069:Nigeria
1002:Jamaica
994:Nigeria
929:on the
836:ZANU-PF
759:Angolan
754:détente
669:Nigeria
612:(UDI).
480:uranium
178:In the
151:. The
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3158:France
3121:Zambia
3094:Uganda
3089:Tuvalu
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2954:Malawi
2924:Guyana
2884:Cyprus
2879:Canada
2869:Brunei
2859:Belize
2745:Former
2689:Serbia
2684:Russia
2679:Poland
2674:Greece
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2653:Turkey
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881:Harare
689:NIBMAR
673:London
603:Malawi
478:, and
476:chrome
434:Malawi
396:pilots
303:parity
242:Harare
161:Zambia
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2929:India
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2909:Gabon
2628:India
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2552:Kenya
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1984:S2CID
1941:S2CID
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