530:
105:, to attract animal pollinators. Not producing such rewards is one benefit of using abiotic pollinators, but a cost associated with this approach is that the pollen may be distributed more randomly. In general, pollination by animals occurs after they reach inside the flowers for nectar. While feeding on the nectar, the animal rubs or touches the stamens and is covered in pollen. Some of this pollen will be deposited on the stigma of the next flower it visits, pollinating the flower.
27:
708:. As of 1997 studies have documented non-flying mammal pollination involving at least 59 species of mammal distributed among 19 families and six orders. As of 1997, there were 85 species of plants from 43 genera and 19 families which were visited by these mammals. In many cases, a plant species is visited by a range of mammals. Two examples of multiple mammal pollination are the genus
461:; one study found seed set higher in areas with a higher lizard density. Both these species are not dependant on nectar as a food source, and do not appear to have evolved specific adaptations to exploit it. Despite the lack of evidence, the authors nonetheless theorise that some plants on small islands may have mutualistically evolved to accommodate lizard pollination.
612:, many of which have more generalist diets and also feed on insects, fruits, and seeds (short-billed birds can also steal nectar from long flowers, as suggested by the name 'flowerpiercer'). Hummingbirds are the oldest group of nectar-specialist birds, with the greatest degree of specialization on nectar. The trumpet creeper (
508:
associated with lizard pollination could be copious nectar and possibly scented flowers in the case of nocturnal lizards. Flowers or inflorescences must also be robust enough to support the weight of the pollinator while feeding. They also theorise that the colour red that the flowers of most species
444:
According to one 2003 paper, it is possible that lizard pollination is underestimated. Lizards have been known to feed on nectar since 1977. However, only two species of lizard from New
Zealand has been shown to carry pollen as of 2003, although it is unknown if they actually pollinate flowers. There
638:
Bat pollination is called chiropterophily. Hundreds of tropical plant species completely, or partially, dependent on bats for pollination in tropical regions. As of 2009, 28 orders, 67 families and about 528 species of angiosperms in some 250 genera are known to be pollinated by nectar-feeding bats.
504:, which has been found on 3% to 47% of the lizards caught on these trees, depending on the night. These lizards are only attracted to the nectar on flowers, not the pollen. If it is proved that lizards are the main pollinators of these plants, the authors of the study theorise that the possible
399:
beetles, and also specialised beetle predators of these beetles -the plant is essentially tricking the beetles into believing that there is food or a place to lay their eggs. Araceae flowers often trap beetles in a compartment with the pollen: the beetles must pass through a constriction of the
666:
Plants pollinated by bats often have white or pale nocturnal flowers that are large and bell shaped. Many of these flowers have large amounts of nectar, and emit a smell that attracts bats, such as a strong fruity or musky odor. Bats use certain chemical cues to locate food sources. They are
687:
Non-flying mammals (i.e. all mammals except bats) have been found to feed on the nectar of several species of plant. This is known as therophily. Though some of these mammals are pollinators, others do not carry or transfer enough pollen to be considered pollinators. The group of non-flying
500:, although the structure of the flowers of the last three species do not allow pollen transfer to occur during feeding by lizards, which are better seen as robbers of nectar, these plants are adapted for bird or insect pollination. The only pollen ever found on these lizards is that of
101:) and biotic (animal). There are benefits and costs associated with any vector. For instance, using animal pollination is beneficial because the process is more directed and often results in pollination. At the same time it is costly for the plant to produce rewards, such as
529:
752:
was also found to be 400 times as viscous, i.e. sticky, as an equivalent sugar solution. This jelly-like consistency of the nectar may discourage insect consumption while also facilitating lapping by rodents.
310:(Tephritidae) are enticed by specific floral attractants emitted by some wild orchids which do not produce nectar. Chemicals emitted by the orchid act as the fly's sex pheromone precursor or booster.
1979:
Wester P (December 2010). "Sticky snack for sengis: the Cape rock elephant-shrew, Elephantulus edwardii (Macroscelidea), as a pollinator of the Pagoda lily, Whiteheadia bifolia (Hyacinthaceae)".
271:, for example) fly slowly and settle on the flower. They do not require as much nectar as the fast-flying hawk moths, and the flowers tend to be small (though they may be aggregated in heads).
892:
216:, a weak scent which is virtually absent at night, and has short spurs containing small amounts of relatively dilute sucrose-rich nectar -these are all considered psychophilous traits.
418:
are able to stick a glob of resin on the otherwise smooth back of the beetles it attracts, modifying them so they are better equipped to carry pollen to the next inflorescence.
621:
Plants pollinated by birds often have elongated or tube-shaped, brightly colored diurnal flowers that are red or orange, but no odor because birds have a poor sense of smell.
744:
flowers support non-flying mammal pollination: it has a dull-colored and very sturdy inflorescence at ground level, has a strong yeasty odor, and secretes copious amounts of
186:, butterflies are generally poor pollinators, lacking specific structures to carry pollen. Nonetheless, some plants appear to have specialised on attracting butterflies.
1821:
147:
length and behaviour (some solitary, some colonial); thus generalization about bee pollination is difficult. Some plants can only be pollinated by bees because their
75:, and appealing shapes and patterns. These plant-animal relationships are often mutually beneficial because of the food source provided in exchange for pollination.
1571:
1173:
Tan KH, Tan LT, Nishida R (2006). "Floral phenylpropanoid cocktail and architecture of
Bulbophyllum vinaceum orchid in attracting fruit flies for pollination".
408:
and thus close the constriction for a time. There is also some evidence that the giant inflorescence, which heats itself to 36°C, thus shines like an invisible
564:
is used to describe pollination specifically by birds. Bird pollination is done primarily by bird species that specialize on eating nectar, which is known as
1138:
Tan KH, Nishida R (2000). "Mutual reproductive benefits between a wild orchid, Bulbophyllum patens, and
Bactrocera fruit flies via a floral synomone".
1068:
Oliveira PE, Gibbs PE, Barbosa AA (2004). "Moth pollination of woody species in the
Cerrados of Central Brazil: a case of so much owed to so few?".
317:. They are attracted to flowers which mimic the odor of such objects. The plant provides them with no reward and they leave quickly unless it has
517:
is a generalist, which is pollinated by both birds and insects. There does not appear to be any mutualistic relationship between the geckoes and
899:
67:, but also by other animals. Zoophilous species frequently have evolved mechanisms to make themselves more appealing to the particular type of
2140:
659:). Pteropodidae are large fruit bats from the Old World which must perch on the plant to access the nectar and do not have the ability to
209:
801:
1651:
Lotz CN, Schondube JE (2006). "Sugar
Preferences in Nectar- and Fruit-Eating Birds: Behavioral Patterns and Physiological Causes".
1751:
Heithaus ER, Opler PA, Baker HG (March 1974). "Bat activity and pollination of
Bauhinia pauletia: plant-pollinator coevolution".
952:"Pollen vector wasps (Hymenoptera, Vespidae) of Schinus terebinthifolius Raddi (Anacardiaceae), Santa Cruz do Sul, RS, Brazil"
639:
In some cases nectivorous bats are do not pollinate certain species, even while they do pollinate others, but instead act as '
1679:
596:, these have long narrow bills suited for probing flowers. However, many shorter-billed birds can also pollinate, including
513:
have, which generally attracts birds, might somehow also serve to repel insects and thus leave more nectar for the geckoes.
1833:
2033:
Johnson SD, Pauw A, Midgley J (October 2001). "Rodent pollination in the
African lily Massonia depressa (Hyacinthaceae)".
1575:
220:
has white flowers, but butterfly-attracting flowers are often coloured. Unlike bees and wasps, some butterflies such as
864:
Fenster CB, Armbruster WS, Wilson P, Dudash MR, Thomson JD (2004). "Pollination syndromes and floral specialization".
287:
systems, where they are numerous and other insect groups may be lacking. There are two main types of fly pollination:
159:
sonicate, but honeybees do not. About 9% of the flowers of the world are primarily pollinated using buzz pollination.
663:, whereas the much smaller Phyllostomidae only occur in the New World and have the ability to hover and echolocate.
793:
The families and genera of vascular plants. Vol.3. Flowering plants. Monocotyledons: Lilianae (except
Orchidaceae)
2205:
2133:
1103:
Larson BM, Kevan PG, Inouye DW (2001). "Flies and flowers: taxonomic diversity of anthophiles and pollinators".
647:) contain nectivores, and morphologically specialized nectivores are in the minority in both of these families,
414:
472:
466:
412:
beacon in the dark of night on the jungle floor, unseen by humans but detectable by insects. The blooms of
977:
387:
221:
1002:
643:' and exploit other pollination systems. Only two families of bats (not including the somewhat bizarre
1597:
Olesen JM, Valido A (April 2003). "Lizards as pollinators and seed dispersers: an island phenomenon".
1367:
Prieto D, Cascante-Marín A (June 2017). "Pollination by nitidulid beetles in the hemi-epiphytic aroid
200:
2210:
2126:
2042:
1988:
762:
679:
acids. Bats often have excellent spatial memory and will visit specific flowering plants repeatedly.
609:
505:
478:
453:
496:
155:(also known as "sonication"). Bees are the only animals that perform this behaviour. Bumblebees and
923:
Buchmann SL (July 1985). "Bees use vibration to aid pollen collection from non-poricidal flowers".
668:
660:
428:
334:
951:
2066:
2012:
1917:
1768:
1349:
1198:
1155:
1120:
1085:
932:
676:
1624:
Whitaker AH (April 1987). "The roles of lizards in New
Zealand plant reproductive strategies".
2101:
2058:
2004:
1873:
1733:
1552:
1457:
1438:
1283:
1190:
797:
732:
447:
392:
391:. This bloom appears like column sticking out of a vast sheet of rotting flesh. It is able to
352:
32:
877:
783:
2093:
2050:
1996:
1959:
1909:
1863:
1802:
1760:
1723:
1715:
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1606:
1542:
1534:
1428:
1388:
1380:
1341:
1273:
1265:
1232:
1182:
1147:
1112:
1077:
1041:
873:
614:
547:
458:
318:
152:
893:"Pollination in the Agricultural Landscape: Best Management Practices for Crop Pollination"
720:
which is visited by eight (although not all these animals actually pollinate the flowers).
727:
from southwestern
Australia is the only entirely nectarivorous mammal which is not a bat.
633:
605:
490:
405:
330:
194:
90:
329:
Beetles are particularly important in some parts of the world such as semi-arid areas of
2046:
1992:
1806:
1728:
1703:
1547:
1522:
1278:
1253:
787:
705:
656:
652:
640:
484:
395:, which it uses to exude a powerful foetid and revolting odour at night. This attracts
357:
2097:
1896:
Wiens D, Rourke JP, Casper BB, Rickart EA, LaPine TR, Peterson CJ, Channing A (1983).
1610:
224:
are able to see the colour red. Butterflies also require a platform on which to land.
2199:
1664:
1487:
1302:
1025:
824:
363:
338:
1897:
1849:"Echoes of bat-pollinated bell-shaped flowers: conspicuous for nectar-feeding bats?"
1237:
1220:
1202:
1159:
1124:
1089:
212:
of visiting butterflies. Unlike its relatives, this orchid species exhibits diurnal
170:
are also responsible for the pollination of several plants species, being important
2182:
2070:
2016:
1637:
842:
724:
648:
644:
593:
589:
561:
555:
396:
381:
375:
342:
156:
56:
1898:"Nonflying Mammal Pollination of Southern African Proteas: A Non-Coevolved System"
1254:"The pollination ecology of an assemblage of grassland asclepiads in South Africa"
26:
1433:
1412:
791:
2177:
2149:
1384:
565:
544:
539:
307:
298:
Myophily includes flies that feed on nectar and pollen as adults - particularly
253:
245:
171:
120:
114:
78:
60:
52:
37:
1964:
1943:
1046:
306:(Syrphidae), and others - and these regularly visit flowers. In contrast, male
2165:
2160:
2054:
2000:
1186:
1151:
1081:
710:
601:
585:
241:
205:
140:
98:
94:
68:
1944:"Diurnal pollination, primarily by a single species of rodent, documented in
1442:
2084:
Carthew SM, Goldingay RL (March 1997). "Non-flying mammals as pollinators".
716:
689:
597:
581:
299:
264:
249:
237:
136:
20:
2105:
2062:
2008:
1877:
1737:
1556:
1287:
1194:
1538:
476:. Between them, they visit the flowers of at least four species of plant:
1719:
1269:
672:
573:
569:
409:
369:
321:
to slow them down. Such plants are far less common than myophilous ones.
303:
284:
280:
213:
188:
132:
1116:
936:
1921:
1772:
1393:
1353:
745:
577:
349:
268:
260:
148:
1868:
1848:
1789:
Tschapka M, von Helversen O (28 June 2008). "Pollinators of Syntopic
697:
534:
401:
144:
102:
86:
82:
72:
1913:
1764:
1345:
898:. Canadian Pollination Initiative (NSERC-CANPOLIN). Archived from
701:
693:
528:
314:
313:
Sapromyophiles, on the other hand, normally visit dead animals or
183:
1523:"On the thermogenesis of the Titan arum (Amorphophallus titanum)"
1793:
Species in Costa Rican Lowland Rain Forest: Bats and Opossums".
521:, neither species requires the presence of the other to thrive.
248:: they hover in front of flowers with rapid wingbeats. Most are
233:
174:, and in some cases, even more efficient pollinators than bees.
167:
2122:
1500:(Araceae) by dung beetles (Insecta: Coleoptera: Scarabaeoidea)"
1486:
Moretto P, Krell FT, Aristophanous M, Cosson M (5 April 2019).
1024:
Balducci, M. G.; van der Niet, T.; Johnson, S. D. (July 2019).
182:
Despite their complete dependence on flowers for sustenance as
2118:
1704:"The evolution of bat pollination: a phylogenetic perspective"
980:. U.S. Forest Service, United States Department of Agriculture
433:
204:
which has evolved into a psychophile. This orchid affixes its
64:
1417:(Araceae): secretion, release and synchrony with pollinators"
1252:
Ollerton J, Johnson SD, Cranmer L, Kellie S (December 2003).
93:. There are many vectors for pollination, including abiotic (
730:
One example of a plant using animal pollinators is the bulb
618:) is a plant species adapted specifically for hummingbirds.
143:), forming large groups that are quite distinctive in size,
36:) is attracted to brightly colored flowers and assists the
1411:
Gonçalves-Souza P, Schlindwein C, Paiva EA (4 June 2018).
348:
Cantharophily is often the main pollination system in the
736:. At least four rodent species were found to be visiting
192:
is a well-known example. The species in the orchid genus
385:. A well-known example is the gigantic inflorescence of
151:
release pollen internally, and it must be shaken out by
1847:
von Helversen D, Holderied MW, von Helversen O (2003).
1221:"The uses of pollen and its implication for Entomology"
572:, and many other bird species throughout the world are
1469:
Aroideana - Journal of the International Aroid Society
1311:
Aroideana - Journal of the International Aroid Society
576:
nectarivores and important pollinators. These include
1678:
Harris M, Naumann R, Kirschbaum K (7 November 2006).
55:
whereby pollen is transferred by animals, usually by
1572:"Secrets of some of the Pyrenees' threatened plants"
1030:(Orchidaceae): Solving a puzzle from the Darwin era"
400:
spathe to get inside, but the plant can tighten the
1702:Fleming TH, Geiselman C, Kress WJ (November 2009).
624:Some 500 genera of plants are pollinated by birds.
655:(perhaps up to 38 species in the subfamily called
464:The lizards known to carry pollen are the geckoes
950:Sühs RB, Somavilla A, Köhler A, Putzke J (2009).
748:-dominant nectar during the night. The nectar of
1784:
1782:
1458:"Flowering Phenology and Beetle Pollination in
971:
969:
279:Flies tend to be important pollinators in high-
2028:
2026:
1697:
1695:
1693:
2134:
1328:Young HJ (June 1986). "Beetle Pollination of
1214:
1212:
8:
1891:
1889:
1887:
1406:
1404:
275:Fly pollination (myophily and sapromyophily)
71:, e.g. brightly colored or scented flowers,
925:Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society
796:. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. pp. 34–48.
2141:
2127:
2119:
1521:Korotkova N, Barthlott W (November 2009).
1963:
1867:
1727:
1546:
1432:
1392:
1303:"Beetle pollination - Cantharophily - in
1277:
1236:
1045:
997:
995:
543:mistletoe rub against the forecrown of a
131:There are diverse types of bees (such as
1005:. Encyclopaedia Britannica. 26 July 1999
878:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.34.011802.132347
866:Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics
667:attracted to odors that contain esters,
198:are all pollinated by moths, except for
25:
1902:Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden
774:
714:which is visited by twelve species and
1942:Melidonis CA, Peter CI (March 2015).
1003:"Pollination - Butterflies and moths"
123:. There are many different subtypes.
7:
1301:Sivadasan M, Sabu T (January 1989).
178:Butterfly pollination (psychophily)
1807:10.1111/j.1438-8677.1999.tb00720.x
568:. Hummingbirds, found only in the
325:Beetle pollination (cantharophily)
14:
2086:Trends in Ecology & Evolution
1599:Trends in Ecology & Evolution
845:. Missouri Botanical Garden. 2006
244:). Their behaviour is similar to
1665:10.1111/j.1744-7429.2006.00104.x
956:Brazilian Journal of Biosciences
843:"Biology of Plants: Pollination"
740:during the night. Traits of the
445:is also circumstantial evidence
228:Moth pollination (phalaenophily)
1952:South African Journal of Botany
1856:Journal of Experimental Biology
1456:Sivadasan M, Kavalan R (2005).
1238:10.1590/S1519-566X2001000300001
1070:Plant Systematics and Evolution
1034:South African Journal of Botany
1638:10.1080/0028825X.1987.10410078
1527:Plant Signaling & Behavior
432:, pollination is performed by
355:. It occurs in genera such as
337:and the montane grasslands of
127:Bee pollination (melittophily)
81:is defined as the transfer of
1:
2098:10.1016/s0169-5347(96)10067-7
1626:New Zealand Journal of Botany
1611:10.1016/S0169-5347(03)00004-1
1948:using modified camera traps"
1434:10.1590/0102-33062018abb0115
683:Pollination by other mammals
1385:10.1016/j.flora.2017.04.010
1371:(Araceae: Monsteroideae)".
1219:Jones GD, Jones SD (2001).
1175:Journal of Chemical Ecology
1140:Journal of Chemical Ecology
688:pollinators is composed of
2227:
2035:American Journal of Botany
1965:10.1016/j.sajb.2014.12.009
1490:Amorphophallus barthlottii
1334:American Journal of Botany
1305:Amorphophallus hohenackeri
1047:10.1016/j.sajb.2019.03.030
1026:"Butterfly pollination of
631:
553:
112:
18:
2156:
2055:10.1007/s00114-010-0723-6
2001:10.1007/s00114-010-0723-6
1574:. Lychnos. Archived from
1330:Dieffenbachia longispatha
1187:10.1007/s10886-006-9154-4
1082:10.1007/s00606-003-0120-0
232:Among the more important
63:, particularly birds and
1822:"Bats and Their Flowers"
1415:Philodendron adamantinum
415:Philodendron adamantinum
19:Not to be confused with
1981:Die Naturwissenschaften
1421:Acta Botanica Brasilica
1152:10.1023/A:1005477926244
978:"Butterfly Pollination"
473:Dactylocnemis pacificus
467:Hoplodactylus duvauceli
1680:"Archilochus colubris"
1570:García, María Begoña.
1460:Theriophonum infaustum
1225:Neotropical Entomology
976:Meeuse, Bastiaan J.D.
551:
388:Amorphophallus titanum
41:
30:A rufous hummingbird (
16:Pollination by animals
1539:10.4161/psb.4.11.9872
1504:Catharsius - la Revue
1105:Canadian Entomologist
532:
29:
1684:Animal Diversity Web
891:Woodcock TS (2012).
763:Pollination syndrome
610:lories and lorikeets
519:Metrosideros excelsa
515:Metrosideros excelsa
506:pollination syndrome
502:Metrosideros excelsa
479:Metrosideros excelsa
454:Euphorbia dendroides
236:pollinators are the
2047:2010NW.....97.1107W
1993:2010NW.....97.1107W
1832:(4). Archived from
1578:on 10 February 2020
1117:10.4039/Ent133439-4
451:may help pollinate
429:Dioscorea chouardii
335:southern California
208:firmly between the
1720:10.1093/aob/mcp197
1462:N.E.Br. (Araceae)"
1413:"Floral resins of
1270:10.1093/aob/mcg206
831:. 1 December 2006.
790:, Huber H (eds.).
552:
440:Lizard pollination
109:Insect pollination
59:but in some cases
42:
2193:
2192:
1869:10.1242/jeb.00203
1826:MEMBG News Letter
1820:Gibson A (2001).
1181:(11): 2429–2441.
733:Massonia depressa
651:(15 species) and
533:The pollen-laden
448:Podarcis lilfordi
119:This is known as
33:Selasphorus rufus
2218:
2206:Plant morphology
2143:
2136:
2129:
2120:
2110:
2109:
2081:
2075:
2074:
2030:
2021:
2020:
1976:
1970:
1969:
1967:
1939:
1933:
1932:
1930:
1928:
1893:
1882:
1881:
1871:
1862:(6): 1025–1034.
1853:
1844:
1838:
1837:
1836:on 23 June 2003.
1817:
1811:
1810:
1786:
1777:
1776:
1748:
1742:
1741:
1731:
1708:Annals of Botany
1699:
1688:
1687:
1675:
1669:
1668:
1648:
1642:
1641:
1621:
1615:
1614:
1594:
1588:
1587:
1585:
1583:
1567:
1561:
1560:
1550:
1518:
1512:
1511:
1488:"Pollination of
1483:
1477:
1476:
1466:
1453:
1447:
1446:
1436:
1408:
1399:
1398:
1396:
1364:
1358:
1357:
1325:
1319:
1318:
1298:
1292:
1291:
1281:
1258:Annals of Botany
1249:
1243:
1242:
1240:
1216:
1207:
1206:
1170:
1164:
1163:
1135:
1129:
1128:
1100:
1094:
1093:
1065:
1059:
1058:
1056:
1054:
1049:
1028:Bonatea cassidea
1021:
1015:
1014:
1012:
1010:
999:
990:
989:
987:
985:
973:
964:
963:
947:
941:
940:
920:
914:
913:
911:
910:
904:
897:
888:
882:
881:
861:
855:
854:
852:
850:
839:
833:
832:
821:
815:
814:
812:
810:
784:"Floral biology"
782:Vogel S (1998).
779:
615:Campsis radicans
548:amethyst sunbird
525:Bird pollination
494:and in one case
459:Balearic Islands
201:Bonatea cassidea
163:Wasp pollination
153:buzz pollination
2226:
2225:
2221:
2220:
2219:
2217:
2216:
2215:
2196:
2195:
2194:
2189:
2152:
2147:
2116:
2114:
2113:
2083:
2082:
2078:
2041:(10): 1768–73.
2032:
2031:
2024:
1987:(12): 1107–12.
1978:
1977:
1973:
1941:
1940:
1936:
1926:
1924:
1914:10.2307/2399006
1895:
1894:
1885:
1852:(abstract page)
1851:
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1818:
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1765:10.2307/1935229
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1485:
1484:
1480:
1464:
1455:
1454:
1450:
1410:
1409:
1402:
1369:Monstera lentii
1366:
1365:
1361:
1346:10.2307/2444306
1327:
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1322:
1300:
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1295:
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806:
804:
781:
780:
776:
771:
759:
706:elephant shrews
685:
636:
634:chiropterophily
630:
628:Bat pollination
558:
527:
491:Myoporum laetum
442:
424:
331:Southern Africa
327:
302:(Bombyliidae),
277:
230:
180:
165:
129:
117:
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51:, is a form of
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1971:
1946:Protea foliosa
1934:
1883:
1839:
1812:
1801:(4): 382–388.
1778:
1743:
1714:(6): 1017–43.
1689:
1670:
1643:
1616:
1589:
1562:
1533:(11): 1096–8.
1513:
1494:A. abyssinicus
1478:
1448:
1427:(3): 392–401.
1400:
1359:
1340:(6): 931–944.
1320:
1293:
1244:
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1208:
1165:
1146:(2): 533–546.
1130:
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1095:
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1060:
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872:(1): 375–403.
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829:Dictionary.com
816:
802:
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772:
770:
767:
766:
765:
758:
755:
684:
681:
657:Glossophaginae
653:Phyllostomidae
641:nectar robbers
632:Main article:
629:
626:
606:flowerpiercers
554:Main article:
545:nectar-feeding
526:
523:
497:Hebe bollonsii
485:Phormium tenax
441:
438:
423:
420:
358:Amorphophallus
326:
323:
276:
273:
229:
226:
179:
176:
172:pollen vectors
164:
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128:
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113:Main article:
110:
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1961:
1957:
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1796:
1795:Plant Biology
1792:
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1644:
1639:
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1632:(2): 315–28.
1631:
1627:
1620:
1617:
1612:
1608:
1605:(4): 177–81.
1604:
1600:
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1324:
1321:
1317:(1–4): 32–37.
1316:
1312:
1308:
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1297:
1294:
1289:
1285:
1280:
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1271:
1267:
1264:(6): 807–34.
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962:(2): 138–143.
961:
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931:(3): 517–25.
930:
926:
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905:on 2018-02-19
901:
894:
887:
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825:"Pollination"
820:
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803:3-540-64060-6
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364:Dieffenbachia
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339:KwaZulu-Natal
336:
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296:
294:
293:sapromyophily
290:
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259:Other moths (
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62:
58:
57:invertebrates
54:
50:
46:
40:of the plant.
39:
35:
34:
28:
22:
2183:Ornithophily
2172:
2115:
2092:(3): 104–8.
2089:
2085:
2079:
2038:
2034:
1984:
1980:
1974:
1955:
1951:
1945:
1937:
1925:. Retrieved
1905:
1901:
1859:
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1842:
1834:the original
1829:
1825:
1815:
1798:
1794:
1790:
1759:(2): 412–9.
1756:
1752:
1746:
1711:
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1576:the original
1565:
1530:
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1497:
1493:
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1037:
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1009:21 September
1007:. Retrieved
984:21 September
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959:
955:
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924:
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907:. Retrieved
900:the original
886:
869:
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859:
847:. Retrieved
837:
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807:. Retrieved
792:
777:
749:
741:
737:
731:
729:
725:honey possum
722:
715:
709:
686:
665:
649:Pteropodidae
645:Mystacinidae
637:
623:
620:
613:
562:ornithophily
559:
556:ornithophily
538:
518:
514:
511:Metrosideros
510:
501:
495:
489:
483:
477:
471:
465:
463:
452:
446:
443:
427:
425:
413:
404:against the
397:necrophagous
386:
382:Theriophonum
380:
376:Philodendron
374:
368:
362:
356:
347:
343:South Africa
328:
312:
297:
292:
288:
278:
258:
246:hummingbirds
231:
222:swallowtails
217:
199:
193:
187:
181:
166:
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118:
77:
48:
44:
43:
31:
2211:Pollination
2178:Entomophily
2150:Pollination
1927:1 September
1908:(1): 1–31.
1659:(1): 3–15.
1394:11056/17271
1040:: 308–316.
750:M. depressa
742:M. depressa
738:M. depressa
602:bananaquits
586:honeyeaters
566:nectarivory
540:Tapinanthus
308:fruit flies
254:crepuscular
218:B. cassidea
141:orchid bees
121:entomophily
115:Entomophily
79:Pollination
61:vertebrates
53:pollination
38:pollination
2200:Categories
2166:Hydrophily
2161:Anemophily
1791:Marcgravia
1653:Biotropica
1475:: 104–112.
1307:(Araceae)"
909:2016-07-29
849:7 November
809:14 January
788:Kubitzki K
769:References
711:Quararibea
690:marsupials
661:echolocate
598:white-eyes
582:sugarbirds
304:hoverflies
265:Geometrids
242:Sphingidae
238:hawk moths
206:pollinaria
137:bumblebees
69:pollinator
1443:1677-941X
1379:: 57–64.
717:Combretum
677:aliphatic
673:aldehydes
560:The term
300:bee flies
283:and high-
250:nocturnal
133:honeybees
85:from the
21:Zoophilia
2173:Zoophily
2106:21237993
2063:21669608
2009:21080154
1958:: 9–15.
1878:12582145
1738:19789175
1557:19838070
1510:: 19–36.
1498:akeassii
1288:14612378
1203:15812115
1195:17082990
1160:24971928
1125:55767580
1090:21936259
937:25084671
757:See also
669:alcohols
578:sunbirds
574:obligate
570:Americas
410:infrared
370:Monstera
289:myophily
285:latitude
281:altitude
269:Pyralids
261:Noctuids
214:anthesis
189:Buddleja
45:Zoophily
2071:8649184
2043:Bibcode
2017:8649184
1989:Bibcode
1922:2399006
1773:1935229
1753:Ecology
1729:2766192
1548:2819525
1496:subsp.
1354:2444306
1279:4243623
746:sucrose
698:rodents
535:anthers
457:on the
350:Araceae
195:Bonatea
184:imagoes
149:anthers
89:to the
49:zoogamy
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702:shrews
694:lemurs
675:, and
406:spadix
402:spathe
353:family
145:tongue
139:, and
103:nectar
91:stigma
87:anther
83:pollen
73:nectar
2067:S2CID
2013:S2CID
1918:JSTOR
1769:JSTOR
1465:(PDF)
1373:Flora
1350:JSTOR
1199:S2CID
1156:S2CID
1121:S2CID
1086:S2CID
933:JSTOR
903:(PDF)
896:(PDF)
786:. In
537:of a
422:Other
319:traps
210:palpi
168:Wasps
99:water
47:, or
2102:PMID
2059:PMID
2005:PMID
1929:2020
1874:PMID
1734:PMID
1584:2019
1553:PMID
1492:and
1439:ISSN
1284:PMID
1191:PMID
1055:2020
1011:2020
986:2020
851:2006
811:2014
798:ISBN
723:The
592:and
470:and
434:ants
379:and
333:and
315:dung
291:and
234:moth
97:and
95:wind
65:bats
2094:doi
2051:doi
1997:doi
1960:doi
1910:doi
1864:doi
1860:206
1803:doi
1761:doi
1724:PMC
1716:doi
1712:104
1661:doi
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1607:doi
1543:PMC
1535:doi
1429:doi
1389:hdl
1381:doi
1377:231
1342:doi
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1266:doi
1233:doi
1183:doi
1148:doi
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