510:
zooxanthellae attaching to them decreases, suggesting that zooxanthellae compete with each other to form relationships with the jellyfish. Not all jellyfish form relationships with these microbes and for the most part the ones that do are found in tropic and subtropic waters. The relationship between jellyfish and zooxanthellae is affected a little differently than coral in terms of climate change despite both of them being a part of the cnidaria family. One study suggested that certain species of jellyfish and their symbiotic zooxanthellae may have some type of resistance to decreasing pH caused by climate change to a certain point. Although, jellyfish bleaching events have been documented during extreme heat events. While the causal factors that normally seem to affect the relationship between zooxanthellae and their host may not apply to jellyfish, light intensity does. Light availability can affect the lipid production of zooxanthellae that the jellyfish then utilize. To maximize their light uptake, jellyfish will both swim near the surface and do very specific migrations. The migration patterns also assist with helping the zooxanthellae access specific nutrients. Many of these jellyfish appear to be mixotrophic consuming both live prey and utilizing phototrophy. This may be what helps jellyfish survive climate change and bleaching as they could switch feeding methods rather than attempting to recover lost zooxanthellae quickly. There are many unknowns in when it comes to the relationship between zooxanthellae and jellyfish that scientists look to answer.
321:
the cell provides the host with a reddish-brown hue. Dividing cysts make up a fourth of the composition of zooxanthellae clusters in host tissues and are expressed as cell stages where two daughter cells remain adjoined but possess individual cell walls. Degenerate cysts are present in clusters, though rare, and lose much of their mutualistic benefit to the host they reside in due to a decrease in photosynthetic efficiency. The young zoosporangium and motile zoospore stages, though seen in zooxanthellae life cycles, are much rarer amongst clades. The zoospore resides in the zoosporangium until the cell wall of the cyst bursts. Zooxanthellae is only motile if it originates as a zoospore.
488:
recover them. This not only has positive indications for the clams themselves, but also the surrounding ecosystem. For many organisms, clams are a vital part of the food chain. Not only can they themselves be eaten, but excrement from giant clams contains live zooxanthellae. Opportunistic feeders and clams alike use excreted zooxanthellae as a nutrient source. The consumption of zooxanthellae is especially vital for a clam in its veliger stage as it encourages growth. Zooxanthellae are not only found in clam excrement, but in the mantle tissue as well where they take up ammonia and nitrate. They are also found in the eyes of clams like
408:
427:
450:
303:, one possible life cycle of the cell begins as an immature cyst which reaches maturity then divides to form an immature cyst once more. Once growing into an older cell, it becomes no longer useful. In the life cycle of a motile zooxanthellae cell, its youngest stage is known as a zoosporangium, which matures into a zoospore capable of motility. This motile cell produces and releases gametes for reproduction.
1719:
279:. The cell wall of zooxanthellae varies in structure across species. One structure consists of an outer membrane, middle layer compact with electrons, and a thin inner layer. In other species, the characteristics of this low-density inner layer make up the cell wall’s entire structure. Beneath the cell wall is the cell membrane, and beneath the cell membrane are thecal vesicles.
180:. These provide the yellowish and brownish colours typical of many of the host species. During the day, they provide their host with the organic carbon products of photosynthesis, sometimes providing up to 90% of their host's energy needs for metabolism, growth and reproduction. In return, they receive nutrients, carbon dioxide, and an elevated position with access to sunshine.
31:
401:, with infection occurring as a result of the emission by the coral of a chemical attractant. Infection may also occur after ingestion of infected faecal matter by the host, or of prey that already houses the symbionts. Such indirect acquisition can result in the new host being infected by a species of zooxanthella different from that present in its parent.
471:. Zooxanthellae provide nutrients to their host cnidarians in the form of sugars, glycerol, and amino acids and in return gain carbon dioxide, phosphates, and nitrogen compounds. A coral exposed to environmental stressors can result in expulsion of zooxanthellae from host tissues. This in turn strips the coral of its color, in this phenomenon known as
475:, where the now-transparent tissues of the coral reveal its white internal skeletal structure. Variations in salinity, light intensity, temperature, pollution, sedimentation, and disease can all impact the photosynthetic efficiency of zooxanthellae or result in expulsion from their mutualistic relationships.
478:
The physiological mechanisms behind endosymbiont expulsion remain under research but are speculated to involve various means of detachment of zooxanthellae or gastrodermal cells from host corals. During a bleaching event, entire gastrodermal cells containing zooxanthellae may leave the host. In other
396:
can acquire its zooxanthellae via sexual reproduction or directly from the environment. The egg from which the individual developed may have already been infected by zooxanthellae at the time of fertilization, or cells of the symbiont may have been transferred from the mother in a period during which
320:
The most common phases in the life history of zooxanthellae following the vegetative phase are cysts, dividing cysts, and degenerate cysts. Cysts possess a thick cell wall yet retain the composition of the cytoplasm and constitute the majority of clustered zooxanthellae in host tissues. This stage of
492:
where they act as a lens. Different clades of zooxanthellae have an impact on clam morphology. Clade E1 of zooxanthellae seems to influence or favor smaller offspring from clams when compared to clams harboring other clades and all five clades appear to be needed in order for larval settlement to
329:
Zooxanthellae in the zoospore stage exhibit motility as forward movement or gyratory movement. In moving forward, the organism rotates on the posterior flagellum’s axis whilst simultaneously propelling through the water column. The zoospore gyrates through the water column via attachment of the
487:
Coral is not the only aquatic organism to be affected by bleaching and the expulsion of zooxanthellae; clams have also been found to undergo a similar process when temperatures become too high. However, clams discard zooxanthellae that are still alive and have been observed being able to
311:
The vegetative phase in the life cycle of a zooxanthellae is the predominant form of the organism. In this form, the single-celled organism has a thin cell wall. As opposed to the zoospore, the zooxanthella contains numerous chloroplasts. Once the cell continues growing, however, chloroplasts
509:
a model jellyfish species. Many different types of zooxanthellae have been observed forming relationships with jellyfish across many different phylogenetic branches, and the roles they play will change throughout the jellyfish’s life cycle. However, as the jellyfishes ages, the diversity of
286:
complement. The DNA possesses ribosomal RNA (rRNA) that is folded and of similar morphology to rRNA in archaeobacteria. This indicates that RNA is important for DNA packaging in zooxanthellae. Zooxanthellae, in addition to all other dinoflagellates, possess 5-hydroxymethyluracil and
534:. The genus name has long been understood to be problematic due to confusion with the term "zooxanthellae" (singular "zooxanthella"), but proposals to ditch this name have failed. Under a not widely-used argument by Guiry & Anderson 2018,
397:
the larva was brooded by its parent. Alternatively, the new individual may acquire the zooxanthellae direct from sea water in which the dinoflagellates freely live at some stages of their life cycle. Some stony corals use
153:(Joh.Müll., 1856) and systematically placed in Peridiniales. Another group of unicellular eukaryotes that partake in similar endosymbiotic relationships in both marine and freshwater habitats are green algae
479:
cases, gastrodermal cells will remain in the host tissues, but zooxanthellae contained in vacuoles may separately undergo damage or may physically leave the cells and enter the surrounding environment.
965:
Stat, Michael; Carter, Dee; Hoegh-Guldberg, Ove (2006). "The evolutionary history of
Symbiodinium and scleractinian hosts--Symbiosis, diversity, and the effect of climate change".
407:
389:. Many different species of zooxanthellae are present in host organisms, each species with its own adaptive capabilities and degree of tolerance of varying environmental factors.
1208:
Ladrière, Ophélie; Compère, Philippe; Decloux, Nicole; Vandewalle, Pierre; Poulicek, Mathieu (2008). "Morphological alterations of zooxanthellae in bleached cnidarian hosts".
1955:
557:
LaJeunesse, Todd C.; Parkinson, John
Everett; Gabrielson, Paul W.; Jeong, Hae Jin; Reimer, James Davis; Voolstra, Christian R.; Santos, Scott R. (20 August 2018).
426:
1821:
1174:
Trench, R.K. (1997). "Diversity of symbiotic dinoflagellates and the evolution of microalgal-invertebrate symbioses". In
Lessios, H.A.; MacIntyre, I.G. (eds.).
271:
protrudes from each chloroplast and is encased along with the chloroplast by a thick, starchy covering. Within the cell’s cytoplasm also exists lipid vacuoles,
1410:
Long, Chao; Zhang, Yuehuan; Li, Yunqing; Li, Jun; Zhou, Zihua; Qin, Yanping; Li, Xingyou; Ma, Haitao; Wei, Jinkuan; Zhou, Yinyin; Noor, Zohaib (2021).
1900:
796:
2052:
1306:
774:
749:
626:
299:
Zooxanthellae alternate between life phases expressed as cysts and as motile organisms in the water column. In zooxanthellae of the genus
992:
Herzog, M.; Soyer-Gobillard, M. (1981). "Distinctive features of dinoflagellate chromatin. Absence of nucleosomes in a primitive species
282:
DNA in the cell exists in the form of chromatin coils tightly compacted together. It is condensed in the nucleus alongside an atypical
1975:
449:
1990:
2095:
1935:
1625:
312:
decrease in abundance. The vegetative cell will either divide into two separate daughter cells or transition into a cyst stage.
2223:
2026:
913:"The role of zooxanthellae in the thermal tolerance of corals: a 'nugget of hope' for coral reefs in an era of climate change"
1950:
1875:
642:
Brandt, K. (1881). "Über das
Zusammenleben von Thieren und Algen" [About the coexistence of animals and algae].
256:
belong to a total of eight phylogenetic clades A-H, differentiated via their nuclear ribosomal DNA and chloroplast DNA.
1329:"Relationship between pH and the availability of dissolved inorganic nitrogen in the zooxanthella-giant clam symbiosis"
1980:
1940:
1236:
465:
A zooxanthella in symbiosis with coral is contained in vacuoles of the host’s gastrodermal cells and is of the genus
2067:
1832:
2077:
1930:
1895:
1575:"Light intensity influences the production and translocation of fatty acids by zooxanthellae in the jellyfish
1920:
1521:"Does seawater acidification affect zooxanthellae density and health in the invasive upside-down jellyfish,
705:
2062:
1915:
2057:
2021:
1985:
1827:
1815:
1793:
1574:
559:"Systematic Revision of Symbiodiniaceae Highlights the Antiquity and Diversity of Coral Endosymbionts"
2167:
2105:
1910:
1618:
1485:
1340:
1032:
805:
2085:
1880:
1855:
1293:, Sustainable Development Goals Series, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 131–153,
908:
146:
2228:
2031:
2016:
1965:
1905:
1552:
1501:
1358:
1256:
1148:
881:
1412:"Effects of Symbiodiniaceae Phylotypes in Clades A–E on Progeny Performance of Two Giant Clams (
2036:
1885:
1544:
1389:
1302:
1179:
1156:
1048:
1005:
942:
889:
831:
770:
745:
739:
686:
622:
590:
661:
Gottschling, M.; McLean, T.I. (2013). "New home for tiny symbionts: Dinophytes determined as
616:
2197:
2172:
1788:
1745:
1669:
1590:
1536:
1493:
1431:
1348:
1294:
1248:
1217:
1140:
1090:
1040:
974:
932:
924:
873:
821:
813:
678:
580:
570:
393:
46:
2192:
2162:
2011:
1865:
1810:
1611:
1178:. Vol. 2. Balboa, Panama: Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute. pp. 1275–86.
1023:
Rizzo, P.J. (1981). "Comparative aspects of basic chromatin proteins in dinoflagellates".
472:
272:
862:"Revised Description of the Fine Structure of in situ "Zooxanthellae" Genus Symbiodinium"
1520:
1489:
1344:
1287:"Farming Giant Clams in 2021: A Great Future for the 'Blue Economy' of Tropical Islands"
1125:"Stages in the life history of a symbiotic zooxanthella in pellets extruded by its host
1036:
809:
2177:
1945:
1890:
1694:
1519:
Weeks, Chelsea; Meagher, Shawn; Willink, Philip; McCravy, Kenneth W. (September 2019).
1472:
Djeghri, Nicolas; Pondaven, Philippe; Stibor, Herwig; Dawson, Michael N. (2019-10-10).
1094:
937:
912:
826:
791:
234:
177:
161:
98:
1176:
Proceedings of the eighth
International Coral Reef Symposium, Panama, June 24–29, 1996
2217:
1850:
1800:
1689:
1664:
1556:
1505:
1044:
441:
437:
196:
169:
165:
1362:
1239:(1977). "Reef Corals: Mutualistic Symbioses Adapted to Nutrient-Poor Environments".
2143:
1960:
1735:
1727:
1679:
1646:
467:
386:
276:
264:
248:
138:
123:
861:
2136:
1925:
1860:
1674:
1659:
1654:
1594:
1298:
1124:
978:
682:
352:
218:
202:
129:
1718:
1378:"Siphonal eyes of giant clams and their relationship to adjacent zooxanthellae"
501:
Jellyfish and zooxanthellae have a history together in the scientific world as
2202:
2187:
2110:
2100:
2090:
1842:
1805:
1783:
1765:
1750:
1740:
1638:
1497:
1436:
1411:
1353:
1328:
1286:
792:"Characterization of a Latent Virus-Like Infection of Symbiotic Zooxanthellae"
575:
558:
414:
398:
382:
360:
260:
228:
118:
106:
17:
1548:
1285:
Moore, David (2022), Moore, David; Heilweck, Matthias; Petros, Peter (eds.),
1183:
2182:
1474:"Review of the diversity, traits, and ecology of zooxanthellate jellyfishes"
1473:
356:
288:
208:
173:
154:
114:
102:
1160:
946:
928:
893:
835:
690:
594:
30:
1052:
1009:
1870:
1708:
1684:
1603:
817:
418:
378:
369:
364:
268:
585:
1970:
1755:
1260:
1152:
885:
433:
348:
283:
1573:
Mortillaro, J. M.; Pitt, K. A.; Lee, S. Y.; Meziane, T. (2009-09-30).
1540:
1393:
1377:
1995:
1702:
1221:
374:
190:
1252:
1144:
877:
542:
sensu lato. Guiry did not cite the
Peridiniales work by Gottschling.
1773:
1634:
344:
134:
110:
27:
Dinoflagellates in symbiosis with coral, jellyfish and nudibranchs
1081:
sp. nov., a zooxanthella: Taxonomy, life cycle, and morphology".
1607:
765:
Ruppert, Edward E.; Fox, Richard S.; Barnes, Robert D. (2004).
1778:
710:(Dinophyceae, Suessiaceae) revisited and the reinstatement of
644:
Archiv für
Anatomie und Physiologie / Physiologische Abteilung
82:
343:
Zooxanthellae are particularly associated with reef-building
73:
76:
58:
55:
1420:) During Early History Life Stages in the South China Sea"
860:
Wakefield, Timothy; Farmer, Mark; Kempf, Stephen (2000).
621:. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 98–99.
64:
967:
Perspectives in Plant
Ecology, Evolution and Systematics
790:
Lohr, Jayme; Munn, Colin B.; Wilson, William H. (2007).
917:
Proceedings of the Royal
Society B: Biological Sciences
267:
composed of thylakoids present in clusters of three. A
291:
in their genomes, unlike any other eukaryotic genome.
67:
61:
52:
49:
738:
Hoek, Christiaan; Mann, David; Jahns, H. M. (1995).
79:
2155:
2123:
2076:
2045:
2004:
1841:
1764:
1726:
1645:
704:Michael D. Guiry; Robert A. Andersen (April 2018).
538:should be treated as the earliest generic name for
455:
Diagram of radiolarian containing zooxanthellae (z)
70:
1583:Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology
1568:
1566:
1068:
1066:
1064:
1062:
1467:
855:
853:
851:
849:
847:
845:
1465:
1463:
1461:
1459:
1457:
1455:
1453:
1451:
1449:
1447:
1203:
1201:
1199:
1197:
1195:
1193:
188:Zooxanthellae can be grouped in the classes of
347:but they also inhabit other invertebrates and
1822:The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs
1619:
1280:
1278:
1276:
1274:
1272:
1270:
1118:
1116:
1114:
1112:
1110:
1108:
1106:
1104:
8:
1405:
1403:
1291:Aquaculture: Ocean Blue Carbon Meets UN-SDGS
121:. Most known zooxanthellae are in the genus
105:with diverse marine invertebrates including
1327:Fitt, W.; Rees, T.; Yellowlees, D. (1995).
1129:(Duch. and Mich.) (Coelenterata, Anthozoa)"
960:
958:
956:
744:. Cambridge University Press. p. 278.
610:
608:
606:
604:
2073:
1626:
1612:
1604:
665:are Peridiniales and distantly related to
1435:
1352:
936:
825:
584:
574:
392:A juvenile organism or newly established
172:, as well as the dinoflagellate pigments
97:) is a colloquial term for single-celled
413:Cross section of the mantle tissue of a
137:, as yet unidentified, may have similar
29:
549:
519:
403:
1901:Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary
797:Applied and Environmental Microbiology
505:was first cultured from the jellyfish
2053:Environmental issues with coral reefs
671:Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution
91:
7:
330:posterior flagellum to a substrate.
127:, but some are known from the genus
741:Algae: An Introduction to Phycology
1095:10.1111/j.1550-7408.1962.tb02579.x
25:
769:. Cengage Learning. p. 122.
767:Invertebrate Zoology, 7th edition
2096:International Coral Reef Society
1936:Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System
1717:
998:European Journal of Cell Biology
706:"Validation of the generic name
448:
425:
406:
45:
2027:Stony coral tissue loss disease
1376:Fankboner, P. V. (1981-01-01).
1:
1956:Northwestern Hawaiian Islands
618:Life and Death of Coral Reefs
184:Morphology and classification
1079:Symbiodinium microadriaticum
1045:10.1016/0303-2647(81)90048-4
1981:Southeast Asian coral reefs
1595:10.1016/j.jembe.2009.07.003
1424:Frontiers in Marine Science
1299:10.1007/978-3-030-94846-7_5
1083:The Journal of Protozoology
1073:Freudenthal, Hugo (1962). "
979:10.1016/j.ppees.2006.04.001
683:10.1016/j.ympev.2013.01.003
615:Birkeland, Charles (1997).
497:Jellyfish and Zooxanthellae
381:as well as some species of
351:; their hosts include many
275:crystals, dictyosomes, and
2245:
1941:New Caledonia barrier reef
1333:Limnology and Oceanography
1210:Cahiers de Biologie Marine
35:Yellow-brown zooxanthellae
1833:Spur and groove formation
1715:
1498:10.1007/s00227-019-3581-6
1437:10.3389/fmars.2021.633761
1354:10.4319/LO.1995.40.5.0976
909:van Oppen, Madeleine J.H.
576:10.1016/j.cub.2018.07.008
252:. Zooxanthellae of genus
164:organisms, which contain
101:that are able to live in
1896:East African coral coast
530:to include one species,
339:Endosymbiont acquisition
1133:The Biological Bulletin
1123:Steele, Dunbar (1975).
866:The Biological Bulletin
483:Clams and Zooxanthellae
2224:Dinoflagellate biology
2063:Coral reef restoration
929:10.1098/rspb.2006.3567
532:Zooxanthella nutricula
417:showing the symbiotic
37:
2058:Coral reef protection
2022:Skeletal eroding band
1828:Catlin Seaview Survey
1816:Census of Coral Reefs
1794:mesophotic coral reef
246:, and most commonly,
141:affinities. The true
33:
2168:Aquaculture of coral
1951:Non-tropical regions
1529:Invertebrate Biology
818:10.1128/AEM.02449-06
569:(16): 2570–2580.e6.
461:Symbiosis with coral
367:like the giant clam
2086:Coral Reef Alliance
1976:Solomon Archipelago
1881:Belize Barrier Reef
1856:African coral reefs
1490:2019MarBi.166..147D
1345:1995LimOc..40..976F
1037:1981BiSys..14..433R
994:Prorocentrum micans
923:(1599): 2305–2312.
810:2007ApEnM..73.2976L
149:of the radiolarian
2032:White band disease
2017:Black band disease
1986:Tuvalu Archipelago
1966:Raja Ampat Islands
1906:Great Barrier Reef
259:Zooxanthellae are
212:and of the genera
160:Zooxanthellae are
38:
2211:
2210:
2119:
2118:
2037:White pox disease
1886:Coral Sea Islands
1541:10.1111/ivb.12255
1414:Tridacna squamosa
1308:978-3-030-94846-7
907:Berkelmans, Ray;
776:978-81-315-0104-7
751:978-0-521-31687-3
628:978-0-412-03541-8
442:endosymbiotically
440:living inside it
191:Bacillariophyceae
16:(Redirected from
2236:
2198:Deep-water coral
2173:Coral dermatitis
2074:
1789:Deep-water coral
1721:
1628:
1621:
1614:
1605:
1599:
1598:
1570:
1561:
1560:
1516:
1510:
1509:
1469:
1442:
1441:
1439:
1407:
1398:
1397:
1373:
1367:
1366:
1356:
1324:
1318:
1317:
1316:
1315:
1282:
1265:
1264:
1237:Porter, James W.
1232:
1226:
1225:
1205:
1188:
1187:
1171:
1165:
1164:
1127:Aiptasia tagetes
1120:
1099:
1098:
1070:
1057:
1056:
1031:(3–4): 433–443.
1020:
1014:
1013:
989:
983:
982:
962:
951:
950:
940:
904:
898:
897:
857:
840:
839:
829:
804:(9): 2976–2981.
787:
781:
780:
762:
756:
755:
735:
729:
728:
718:
701:
695:
694:
658:
652:
651:
639:
633:
632:
612:
599:
598:
588:
578:
554:
543:
526:Brandt proposed
524:
452:
429:
410:
365:bivalve molluscs
307:Vegetative phase
151:Collozoum inerme
93:
89:
88:
85:
84:
81:
78:
75:
72:
69:
66:
63:
60:
57:
54:
51:
21:
2244:
2243:
2239:
2238:
2237:
2235:
2234:
2233:
2214:
2213:
2212:
2207:
2193:Coralline algae
2163:Artificial reef
2151:
2124:Symbiotic algae
2115:
2072:
2068:Reef resilience
2041:
2012:Coral bleaching
2000:
1866:Andros, Bahamas
1837:
1811:Coral reef fish
1760:
1722:
1713:
1641:
1632:
1602:
1572:
1571:
1564:
1518:
1517:
1513:
1471:
1470:
1445:
1409:
1408:
1401:
1375:
1374:
1370:
1326:
1325:
1321:
1313:
1311:
1309:
1284:
1283:
1268:
1253:10.2307/1297526
1234:
1233:
1229:
1207:
1206:
1191:
1173:
1172:
1168:
1145:10.2307/1540389
1122:
1121:
1102:
1072:
1071:
1060:
1022:
1021:
1017:
991:
990:
986:
964:
963:
954:
906:
905:
901:
878:10.2307/1542709
859:
858:
843:
789:
788:
784:
777:
764:
763:
759:
752:
737:
736:
732:
721:Notulae Algarum
716:
703:
702:
698:
660:
659:
655:
641:
640:
636:
629:
614:
613:
602:
563:Current Biology
556:
555:
551:
547:
546:
525:
521:
516:
499:
485:
473:coral bleaching
463:
456:
453:
444:
430:
421:
411:
341:
336:
327:
318:
309:
297:
273:calcium oxalate
186:
99:dinoflagellates
48:
44:
36:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2242:
2240:
2232:
2231:
2226:
2216:
2215:
2209:
2208:
2206:
2205:
2200:
2195:
2190:
2185:
2180:
2178:Precious coral
2175:
2170:
2165:
2159:
2157:
2153:
2152:
2150:
2149:
2148:
2147:
2140:
2127:
2125:
2121:
2120:
2117:
2116:
2114:
2113:
2108:
2103:
2098:
2093:
2088:
2082:
2080:
2071:
2070:
2065:
2060:
2055:
2049:
2047:
2043:
2042:
2040:
2039:
2034:
2029:
2024:
2019:
2014:
2008:
2006:
2005:Coral diseases
2002:
2001:
1999:
1998:
1993:
1991:Virgin Islands
1988:
1983:
1978:
1973:
1968:
1963:
1958:
1953:
1948:
1943:
1938:
1933:
1928:
1923:
1918:
1913:
1908:
1903:
1898:
1893:
1891:Coral Triangle
1888:
1883:
1878:
1873:
1868:
1863:
1858:
1853:
1847:
1845:
1839:
1838:
1836:
1835:
1830:
1825:
1818:
1813:
1808:
1803:
1798:
1797:
1796:
1786:
1781:
1776:
1770:
1768:
1762:
1761:
1759:
1758:
1753:
1748:
1743:
1738:
1732:
1730:
1724:
1723:
1716:
1714:
1712:
1711:
1705:
1699:
1698:
1697:
1692:
1682:
1677:
1672:
1667:
1662:
1657:
1651:
1649:
1643:
1642:
1633:
1631:
1630:
1623:
1616:
1608:
1601:
1600:
1562:
1511:
1478:Marine Biology
1443:
1399:
1368:
1339:(5): 976–982.
1319:
1307:
1266:
1247:(7): 454–460.
1235:Muscatine, L;
1227:
1216:(3): 215–227.
1189:
1166:
1139:(3): 590–600.
1100:
1077:gen. nov. and
1058:
1015:
1004:(2): 295–302.
984:
952:
899:
841:
782:
775:
757:
750:
730:
696:
677:(1): 217–222.
653:
634:
627:
600:
548:
545:
544:
518:
517:
515:
512:
498:
495:
484:
481:
462:
459:
458:
457:
454:
447:
445:
431:
424:
422:
412:
405:
387:foraminiferans
340:
337:
335:
332:
326:
323:
317:
314:
308:
305:
296:
293:
185:
182:
178:diadinoxanthin
162:photosynthetic
145:K.brandt is a
34:
26:
24:
18:Zooxanthellate
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2241:
2230:
2227:
2225:
2222:
2221:
2219:
2204:
2201:
2199:
2196:
2194:
2191:
2189:
2186:
2184:
2181:
2179:
2176:
2174:
2171:
2169:
2166:
2164:
2161:
2160:
2158:
2154:
2146:
2145:
2141:
2139:
2138:
2134:
2133:
2132:
2131:Zooxanthellae
2129:
2128:
2126:
2122:
2112:
2109:
2107:
2104:
2102:
2101:Project AWARE
2099:
2097:
2094:
2092:
2089:
2087:
2084:
2083:
2081:
2079:
2078:Organizations
2075:
2069:
2066:
2064:
2061:
2059:
2056:
2054:
2051:
2050:
2048:
2044:
2038:
2035:
2033:
2030:
2028:
2025:
2023:
2020:
2018:
2015:
2013:
2010:
2009:
2007:
2003:
1997:
1994:
1992:
1989:
1987:
1984:
1982:
1979:
1977:
1974:
1972:
1969:
1967:
1964:
1962:
1959:
1957:
1954:
1952:
1949:
1947:
1946:Ningaloo Reef
1944:
1942:
1939:
1937:
1934:
1932:
1929:
1927:
1924:
1922:
1919:
1917:
1914:
1912:
1909:
1907:
1904:
1902:
1899:
1897:
1894:
1892:
1889:
1887:
1884:
1882:
1879:
1877:
1874:
1872:
1869:
1867:
1864:
1862:
1859:
1857:
1854:
1852:
1851:List of reefs
1849:
1848:
1846:
1844:
1843:Coral regions
1840:
1834:
1831:
1829:
1826:
1824:
1823:
1819:
1817:
1814:
1812:
1809:
1807:
1804:
1802:
1799:
1795:
1792:
1791:
1790:
1787:
1785:
1782:
1780:
1777:
1775:
1772:
1771:
1769:
1767:
1763:
1757:
1754:
1752:
1749:
1747:
1744:
1742:
1739:
1737:
1734:
1733:
1731:
1729:
1725:
1720:
1710:
1706:
1704:
1700:
1696:
1693:
1691:
1688:
1687:
1686:
1683:
1681:
1678:
1676:
1673:
1671:
1668:
1666:
1663:
1661:
1658:
1656:
1653:
1652:
1650:
1648:
1644:
1640:
1636:
1629:
1624:
1622:
1617:
1615:
1610:
1609:
1606:
1596:
1592:
1588:
1584:
1580:
1578:
1569:
1567:
1563:
1558:
1554:
1550:
1546:
1542:
1538:
1534:
1530:
1526:
1524:
1515:
1512:
1507:
1503:
1499:
1495:
1491:
1487:
1483:
1479:
1475:
1468:
1466:
1464:
1462:
1460:
1458:
1456:
1454:
1452:
1450:
1448:
1444:
1438:
1433:
1429:
1425:
1421:
1419:
1415:
1406:
1404:
1400:
1395:
1391:
1387:
1383:
1379:
1372:
1369:
1364:
1360:
1355:
1350:
1346:
1342:
1338:
1334:
1330:
1323:
1320:
1310:
1304:
1300:
1296:
1292:
1288:
1281:
1279:
1277:
1275:
1273:
1271:
1267:
1262:
1258:
1254:
1250:
1246:
1242:
1238:
1231:
1228:
1223:
1219:
1215:
1211:
1204:
1202:
1200:
1198:
1196:
1194:
1190:
1185:
1181:
1177:
1170:
1167:
1162:
1158:
1154:
1150:
1146:
1142:
1138:
1134:
1130:
1128:
1119:
1117:
1115:
1113:
1111:
1109:
1107:
1105:
1101:
1096:
1092:
1088:
1084:
1080:
1076:
1069:
1067:
1065:
1063:
1059:
1054:
1050:
1046:
1042:
1038:
1034:
1030:
1026:
1019:
1016:
1011:
1007:
1003:
999:
995:
988:
985:
980:
976:
972:
968:
961:
959:
957:
953:
948:
944:
939:
934:
930:
926:
922:
918:
914:
910:
903:
900:
895:
891:
887:
883:
879:
875:
871:
867:
863:
856:
854:
852:
850:
848:
846:
842:
837:
833:
828:
823:
819:
815:
811:
807:
803:
799:
798:
793:
786:
783:
778:
772:
768:
761:
758:
753:
747:
743:
742:
734:
731:
726:
722:
715:
713:
709:
700:
697:
692:
688:
684:
680:
676:
672:
668:
664:
657:
654:
649:
646:(in German).
645:
638:
635:
630:
624:
620:
619:
611:
609:
607:
605:
601:
596:
592:
587:
582:
577:
572:
568:
564:
560:
553:
550:
541:
537:
533:
529:
523:
520:
513:
511:
508:
504:
496:
494:
491:
482:
480:
476:
474:
470:
469:
460:
451:
446:
443:
439:
438:zoochlorellae
435:
428:
423:
420:
416:
409:
404:
402:
400:
395:
390:
388:
384:
380:
376:
372:
371:
366:
362:
358:
354:
350:
346:
338:
333:
331:
324:
322:
315:
313:
306:
304:
302:
294:
292:
290:
285:
280:
278:
274:
270:
266:
262:
257:
255:
251:
250:
245:
241:
237:
236:
231:
230:
225:
221:
220:
215:
211:
210:
209:Rhodophycaeae
205:
204:
199:
198:
197:Cryptophyceae
193:
192:
183:
181:
179:
175:
171:
170:chlorophyll c
167:
166:chlorophyll a
163:
158:
156:
155:zoochlorellae
152:
148:
144:
140:
136:
132:
131:
126:
125:
120:
116:
112:
108:
104:
100:
96:
87:
42:
41:Zooxanthellae
32:
19:
2144:Symbiodinium
2142:
2135:
2130:
2046:Conservation
1961:Pulley Ridge
1820:
1728:Octocorallia
1647:Hexacorallia
1589:(1): 22–30.
1586:
1582:
1576:
1532:
1528:
1522:
1514:
1481:
1477:
1427:
1423:
1417:
1413:
1385:
1381:
1371:
1336:
1332:
1322:
1312:, retrieved
1290:
1244:
1240:
1230:
1213:
1209:
1175:
1169:
1136:
1132:
1126:
1089:(1): 45–52.
1086:
1082:
1078:
1075:Symbiodinium
1074:
1028:
1024:
1018:
1001:
997:
993:
987:
970:
966:
920:
916:
902:
872:(1): 76–84.
869:
865:
801:
795:
785:
766:
760:
740:
733:
724:
720:
712:Zooxanthella
711:
708:Symbiodinium
707:
699:
674:
670:
667:Symbiodinium
666:
663:Zooxanthella
662:
656:
647:
643:
637:
617:
586:10754/630499
566:
562:
552:
540:Symbiodinium
539:
536:Zooxanthella
535:
531:
528:Zooxanthella
527:
522:
506:
503:Symbiodinium
502:
500:
489:
486:
477:
468:Symbiodinium
466:
464:
391:
383:radiolarians
368:
353:sea anemones
342:
328:
319:
310:
300:
298:
295:Life history
281:
277:mitochondria
265:chloroplasts
258:
254:Symbiodinium
253:
249:Symbiodinium
247:
243:
240:Scrippsiella
239:
235:Prorocentrum
233:
227:
223:
217:
213:
207:
201:
195:
189:
187:
159:
150:
143:Zooxanthella
142:
139:endosymbiont
133:, and other
128:
124:Symbiodinium
122:
95:zooxanthella
94:
40:
39:
2137:Amphidinium
1926:Lakshadweep
1861:Amazon Reef
1766:Coral reefs
1639:coral reefs
1484:(11): 147.
1382:The Veliger
436:with green
361:nudibranchs
316:Cyst stages
301:Gymnodinium
263:containing
244:Gloeodinium
224:Aureodinium
219:Gymnodinium
214:Amphidinium
203:Dinophyceae
130:Amphidinium
119:nudibranchs
107:demosponges
2218:Categories
2203:Fire coral
2188:Coral sand
2111:Reef Check
2091:Green Fins
1806:Microatoll
1746:Organ pipe
1670:Hermatypic
1430:: 633761.
1314:2022-04-25
1241:BioScience
1025:BioSystems
650:: 570–574.
514:References
507:Cassiopea,
415:giant clam
399:chemotaxis
363:, certain
261:autotrophs
229:Gyrodinium
2229:Symbiosis
2183:Coral rag
2106:Reef Ball
1876:Baa Atoll
1577:Cassiopea
1557:202017643
1549:1077-8306
1523:Cassiopea
1506:208553146
1418:T. crocea
1222:2268/6020
1184:833272061
973:: 23–43.
714:K.Brandt"
379:flatworms
357:jellyfish
289:thymidine
174:peridinin
147:mutualist
115:jellyfish
103:symbiosis
1931:Maldives
1921:Kiribati
1871:Apo Reef
1801:Fringing
1756:Sea pens
1751:Sea fans
1709:Tabulate
1695:Staghorn
1665:Elegance
1363:14951608
1161:29324193
947:16928632
911:(2006).
894:10975645
836:17351090
691:23333735
595:30100341
490:Tridacna
419:protozoa
370:Tridacna
349:protists
325:Motility
269:pyrenoid
1971:Red Sea
1916:Jamaica
1690:Elkhorn
1675:Chalice
1486:Bibcode
1394:6701276
1341:Bibcode
1261:1297526
1153:1540389
1053:6175358
1033:Bibcode
1010:6258920
938:1636081
886:1542709
827:1892877
806:Bibcode
493:occur.
434:ciliate
375:sponges
334:Ecology
284:histone
1996:Yabiji
1736:Bamboo
1703:Rugose
1680:Pillar
1635:Corals
1555:
1547:
1525:spp.?"
1504:
1392:
1361:
1305:
1259:
1182:
1159:
1151:
1051:
1008:
945:
935:
892:
884:
834:
824:
773:
748:
727:: 1–5.
689:
625:
593:
394:colony
345:corals
206:, and
117:, and
111:corals
2156:Other
1911:India
1784:Coral
1774:Atoll
1685:Table
1660:Brain
1655:Black
1553:S2CID
1535:(3).
1502:S2CID
1388:(3).
1359:S2CID
1257:JSTOR
1149:JSTOR
882:JSTOR
717:(PDF)
1741:Blue
1637:and
1545:ISSN
1416:and
1390:OSTI
1303:ISBN
1180:OCLC
1157:PMID
1049:PMID
1006:PMID
943:PMID
890:PMID
832:PMID
771:ISBN
746:ISBN
687:PMID
648:1881
623:ISBN
591:PMID
385:and
377:and
176:and
168:and
135:taxa
1779:Cay
1591:doi
1587:378
1579:sp"
1537:doi
1533:138
1494:doi
1482:166
1432:doi
1349:doi
1295:doi
1249:doi
1218:hdl
1141:doi
1137:149
1091:doi
1041:doi
996:".
975:doi
933:PMC
925:doi
921:273
874:doi
870:199
822:PMC
814:doi
679:doi
669:".
581:hdl
571:doi
92:sg.
2220::
1585:.
1581:.
1565:^
1551:.
1543:.
1531:.
1527:.
1500:.
1492:.
1480:.
1476:.
1446:^
1426:.
1422:.
1402:^
1386:23
1384:.
1380:.
1357:.
1347:.
1337:40
1335:.
1331:.
1301:,
1289:,
1269:^
1255:.
1245:27
1243:.
1214:49
1212:.
1192:^
1155:.
1147:.
1135:.
1131:.
1103:^
1085:.
1061:^
1047:.
1039:.
1029:14
1027:.
1002:23
1000:.
969:.
955:^
941:.
931:.
919:.
915:.
888:.
880:.
868:.
864:.
844:^
830:.
820:.
812:.
802:73
800:.
794:.
725:58
723:.
719:.
685:.
675:67
673:.
603:^
589:.
579:.
567:28
565:.
561:.
432:A
373:,
359:,
355:,
242:,
238:,
232:,
226:,
222:,
216:,
200:,
194:,
157:.
113:,
109:,
90:;
83:iː
56:oʊ
1707:†
1701:†
1627:e
1620:t
1613:v
1597:.
1593::
1559:.
1539::
1508:.
1496::
1488::
1440:.
1434::
1428:8
1396:.
1365:.
1351::
1343::
1297::
1263:.
1251::
1224:.
1220::
1186:.
1163:.
1143::
1097:.
1093::
1087:9
1055:.
1043::
1035::
1012:.
981:.
977::
971:8
949:.
927::
896:.
876::
838:.
816::
808::
779:.
754:.
693:.
681::
631:.
597:.
583::
573::
86:/
80:l
77:ɛ
74:θ
71:ˈ
68:n
65:æ
62:z
59:ə
53:z
50:ˌ
47:/
43:(
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
