96:
holographic-imagery technology, with research and development support provided by the TSA and the
Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). In 2002, Silicon Valley startup SafeView, Inc. obtained an exclusive license to PNNL's (background) intellectual property, to commercialize their technology. From 2002 to 2006, SafeView developed a production-ready millimeter body scanner system, and software which included scanner control, algorithms for threat detection and object recognition, as well as techniques to conceal raw images in order to resolve privacy concerns. During this time, SafeView developed foreground IP through several patent applications. By 2006, SafeView's body scanning portals had been installed and trialed at various locations around the globe. They were installed at border crossings in Israel, international airports such as Mexico City and Amsterdam's Schiphol, ferry landings in Singapore, railway stations in the UK, government buildings like The Hague, and commercial buildings in Tokyo. They were also employed to secure soldiers and workers in Iraq's Green Zone. In 2006, SafeView was acquired by L-3 Communications. From 2006 and 2020, L-3 Communications (later L3Harris) continued to make incremental enhancements to their scanner systems, while deploying thousands of units world wide. In 2020, Leidos acquired L3Harris, which included their body scanner business unit.
20:
1051:"The biocompatibility of millimeter-wave devices and systems is an important issue due to the wide number of emerging body-centric wireless applications at millimeter waves. This review article provides the state of knowledge in this field and mainly focuses on recent results and advances related to the different aspects of millimeter-wave interactions with the human body. Electromagnetic, thermal, and biological aspects are considered and analyzed for exposures in the 30-100 GHz range with a particular emphasis on the 60-GHz band. Recently introduced dosimetric techniques and specific instrumentation for bioelectromagnetic laboratory studies are also presented. Finally, future trends are discussed."
429:(OPCC) reviewed a preliminary Privacy Impact Assessment and CATSA accepted recommendations from the OPCC. In October 2009, an Assistant Privacy Commissioner, Chantal Bernier, announced that the OPCC had tested the scanning procedure, and the privacy safeguards that CATSA had agreed to would “meet the test for the proper reconciliation of public safety and privacy”. In January 2010, Transport Canada confirmed that 44 scanners had been ordered, to be used in secondary screening at eight Canadian airports. The announcement resulted in controversies over privacy, effectiveness and whether the exemption for those under 18 would be too large a loophole.
1218:"Thus, it is clear that RF radiation is not genotoxic and therefore cannot initiate cancer... the majority of such studies have shown that chronic exposure of animals to RF in the range of 435 to 2,450 MHz did not significantly alter the development of tumors in a number of animal cancer models... the same acceleration of skin cancer development and reduction in survival occurred in animals exposed to chronic confinement stress in the absence of RF exposure, suggesting that the RF effect could possibly be due to a non-specific stress reaction."
250:. Increased skin permeability under irradiation exacerbates this possibility. It is therefore plausible that the molecular products of thermal injury (and their distribution to areas remote from the site of irradiation) could cause secondary injury. Note that this would be no different from the effects of a thermal injury sustained in a more conventional fashion. Due to the increasing ubiquity of millimeter wave radiation (see
147:
see the person being scanned by the device. In some locations, updated software has removed the necessity of a separate officer in a remote location. These units now generate a generic image of a person, with specific areas of suspicion highlighted by boxes. If no suspicious items are detected by the machine, a green screen instead appears indicating the passenger is cleared.
299:
these scanners is poor. As of
January 2011, there had been no report of a terrorist capture as a result of a body scanner. In a series of repeated tests, the body scanners were not able to detect a handgun hidden in an undercover agent's undergarments, but the agents responsible for monitoring the body scanners were deemed at fault for not recognizing the concealed weapon.
312:
1310:"Our data demonstrated the absence of significant changes in mRNA levels for BiP/GRP78. Our results showed that ER homeostasis does not undergo any modification at molecular level after exposure to low-power MMW radiation at 60.4 GHz. This report is the first study of ER-stress induction by MMW radiations."
119:. These privacy advocates called the images "virtual strip searches". However, in 2013 the U.S. Congress prohibited the display of detailed images and required the display of metal and other objects on a generic body outline instead of the person's actual skin. Such generic body outlines can be made by
126:
Software imaging technology can also mask specific body parts. Proposed remedies for privacy concerns include scanning only people who are independently detected to be carrying contraband, or developing technology to mask genitals and other private parts. In some locations, travelers have the choice
146:
admitted that it had saved thousands of images captured from a
Florida checkpoint. The officer sitting at the machine does not see the image; rather that screen shows only whether the viewing officer has confirmed that the passenger has cleared. Conversely, the officer who views the image does not
298:
The efficacy of millimeter wave scanners in detecting threatening objects has been questioned. Formal studies demonstrated the relative inability of these scanners to detect objects—dangerous or not—on the person being scanned. Additionally, some studies suggested that the cost–benefit ratios of
1455:
In
Germany, the false positive rate was 54 percent, meaning that every other person who went through the scanner had to undergo at least a limited pat-down that found nothing. Jan Korte, a German parliament member who focuses on homeland security, called the millimeter-wave scanner "a defective
257:
Independent of thermal injury, a 2009 study funded by
National Institute of Health, conducted by U.S. Department of Energy's Los Alamos National Laboratories Theoretical Division and Center for Nonlinear Studies and Harvard University Medical School found that terahertz range radiation creates
86:
In active scanners, the millimeter wave is transmitted from two antennas simultaneously as they rotate around the body. The wave energy reflected back from the body or other objects on the body is used to construct a three-dimensional image, which is displayed on a remote monitor for analysis.
95:
The first millimeter-wave full body scanner was developed at the
Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL) in Richland, Washington. The operation is one of the eight national laboratories Battelle manages for the U.S. Department of Energy. In the 1990s, they patented their 3-D
77:
scanners themselves come in two varieties: active and passive. Active scanners direct millimeter wave energy at the subject and then interpret the reflected energy. Passive systems create images using only ambient radiation and radiation emitted from the human body or objects.
131:". In Australia, the scans are mandatory; in the UK, however, passengers may opt out of being scanned. In this case, the individual must be screened by an alternative method which includes at least an enhanced hand search in private as set out on the UK government website.
123:(ATR) software. As of June 1, 2013, all back-scatter full body scanners were removed from use at U.S. airports, because they could not comply with TSA's software requirements. Millimeter-wave full body scanners utilize ATR, and are compliant with TSA software requirements.
660:
1065:
Stewart D.A.; Gowrishankar T.R.; Weaver J.C. (August 2006). "Skin
Heating and Injury by Prolonged Millimeter-Wave Exposure: Theory Based on a Skin Model Coupled to a Whole Body Model and Local Biochemical Release From Cells at Supraphysiologic Temperatures".
262:
dynamics, creating apparent interference with the naturally occurring local strand separation dynamics of double-stranded DNA and consequently, with DNA function. The same article was referenced by MIT Technology
Journal article on October 30, 2009.
840:
1229:
Mason, Patrick; Thomas J. Walters; John DiGiovanni; Charles W. Beason; James R. Jauchem; Edward J. Dick Jr; Kavita
Mahajan; Steven J. Dusch; Beth A. Shields; James H. Merritt; Michael R. Murphy; Kathy L. Ryan (June 14, 2001).
302:
Millimeter wave scanners also have problems reading through sweat, in addition to yielding false positives from buttons and folds in clothing. Some countries, such as
Germany, have reported a false-positive rate of 54%.
1623:
1274:
Nicolaz C.N.; Zhadobov M.; Desmots F.; Sauleau R.; Thouroude D.; Michel D.; Le Drean Y. (October 2009). "Absence of direct effect of low-power millimeter-wave radiation at 60.4 GHz on endoplasmic reticulum stress".
203:. Due to the shallow penetration depth of millimeter waves into tissue (typically less than 1 mm), acute biological effects of irradiation are localized in epidermal and dermal layers and manifest primarily as
110:
Historically, privacy advocates were concerned about the use of full body scanning technology because it used to display a detailed image of the surface of the skin under clothing, prosthetics including
150:
Concerns remain about alternative ways to capture and disseminate the image. Additionally, the protective steps often do not entirely address the underlying privacy concerns. Subjects may object to
1649:
1434:
But two of Europe's largest countries, France and Germany, have decided to forgo the millimeter-wave scanners because of false alarms triggered by folds in clothing, buttons and even sweat.
746:
583:
487:
Scanners can be used for 3D physical measurement of body shape for applications such as apparel design, prosthetic devices design, ergonomics, entertainment and gaming.
479:
installed body scanners from Smiths in all four airport terminals in 2015. The scanners are not yet in use, and are controversial among some airport security screeners.
761:"Leidos completes acquisition of L3Harris Technologies' Security Detection and Automation Businesses creating a comprehensive, global security and detection portfolio"
1469:
142:(TSA) claimed to have taken steps to address privacy objections. The TSA claimed that the images captured by the machines were not stored. On the other hand, the
833:
426:
365:
319:
While airport security may be the most visible and public use of body scanners, companies have opted to deploy passive employee screening to help reduce
551:
19:
760:
1657:
928:
Nelson D.A.; Nelson M.T.; Walters T.J.; Mason P.A. (November 2000). "Skin Heating Effects of Millimeter-Wave Irradiation - Thermal Modeling Results".
502:
410:
207:. There is no clear evidence to date of harmful effects other than those caused by localised heating and ensuing chemical changes (expression of
1446:
1425:
383:
in Amsterdam on 15 May 2007, with more expected to be installed later. The passenger's head is masked from the view of the security personnel.
334:
139:
1859:
1163:
966:
Millenbaugh N.J.; Kiel J.L.; Ryan K.L.; Blystone R.V.; Kalns J.E.; Brott B.J.; Cerna C.Z.; Lawrence W.S.; Soza L.L.; Mason P.A. (June 2006).
816:
1601:
353:
591:
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472:
357:
892:
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224:
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1714:
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154:
viewing them in a state of effective undress, even if it is not the agent next to the machine or the image is not retrievable.
231:
required to produce thermal injury in skin is much higher than that typically delivered in an active millimeter wave scanner.
1911:
369:
1886:
1112:
Moulder J.E. (June 2012). "Risks of Exposure to Ionizing and Millimeter-Wave Radiation from Airport Whole-Body Scanners".
414:
1916:
120:
1477:
1187:"Radio frequency radiation of millimeter wave length: potential occupational safety issues relating to surface heating"
401:
The federal courthouse in Orlando, Florida employs passive screening devices capable of recording and storing images.
345:
212:
1739:
968:"Comparison of blood pressure and thermal responses in rats exposed to millimeter wave energy or environmental heat"
518:
47:
1387:
866:
157:
Reports of full-body scanner images being improperly and perhaps illegally saved and disseminated have emerged.
1191:
523:
327:
200:
189:
1785:
747:"L-3 Communications Acquires Two Leaders in Threat Detection for Military and Homeland Security Applications"
562:
605:
Appleby, R (15 February 2004). "Passive millimetre–wave imaging and how it differs from terahertz imaging".
320:
239:
193:
116:
259:
143:
1232:"Lack of effect of 94 GHz radio frequency radiation exposure in an animal model of skin carcinogenesis"
1887:
List of American airports that currently/will use Millimeter Wave Scanners in their passenger searches
1679:
774:
732:
704:
1810:
1344:
1121:
1075:
937:
614:
24:
1897:
Full-Body Scanners: Full Protection from Terrorist Attacks or Full-On Violation of the Constitution?
813:
1492:
283:
267:
834:"Code of Practice for the Acceptable Use of Security Scanners in an Aviation Security Environment"
1896:
1334:
1300:
1145:
1091:
1041:
997:
638:
279:
208:
204:
177:
43:
1891:
559:
House Homeland Security Subcommittee on Transportation Security & Infrastructure Protection
1759:
1687:
1629:
1370:
1292:
1253:
1208:
1137:
989:
666:
662:
The Art and Science of Security: Practical Security Applications for Team Leaders and Managers
630:
508:
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112:
105:
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66:
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59:
1538:
46:
device used for detecting objects concealed underneath a person’s clothing using a form of
1699:
1559:
1511:
1020:"Millimeter-wave interactions with the human body: state of knowledge and recent advances"
820:
173:
74:
51:
1602:"Terrorismo, sì dell'Italia ai body scanner – Frattini: "Sicurezza prima della privacy""
1348:
1125:
1079:
941:
618:
1552:
1365:
1322:
984:
967:
242:
molecules resulting from thermal injury may be delivered to neighbouring cells through
228:
1553:
PATH riders to face anti-terror screening Program will begin at station in Jersey City
337:
began deploying scanners at airports, e.g., at the Los Angeles International Airport (
1905:
1597:
1572:
1204:
1045:
376:
135:
1304:
1149:
1095:
274:
scanners, a completely different technology used for similar purposes at airports.
1356:
1001:
718:
642:
220:
552:"An Assessment of Checkpoint Security: Are Our Airports Keeping Passengers Safe?"
1248:
1231:
342:
287:
235:
216:
185:
1288:
1036:
1019:
197:
181:
166:
1413:
TSA Source: Armed Agent Slips Past DFW Body Scanner | NBC 5 Dallas-Fort Worth
1018:
Zhadobov M.; Chahat N.; Sauleau R.; Le Quement C.; Le Drean Y. (April 2011).
823:. Australian Government - TravelSECURE (2013-02-25). Retrieved on 2013-02-25.
50:. Typical uses for this technology include detection of items for commercial
1447:"Sweating Bullets: Body Scanners Can See Perspiration as a Potential Weapon"
1426:"Sweating Bullets: Body Scanners Can See Perspiration as a Potential Weapon"
1087:
528:
247:
243:
170:
55:
1374:
1321:
Alexandrov BS, Gelev V, Bishop AR, Usheva A, Rasmunssen KØ (October 2010).
1296:
1257:
1212:
1141:
993:
634:
626:
311:
128:
330:) initiated use of passive screening technology to detect illicit goods.
1811:"Security experts wary of Canada's airport scanner exemption for minors"
418:
348:. They have also been deployed at San Francisco International airport (
28:
949:
1133:
870:
476:
275:
32:
1186:
913:
One Hundred Naked Citizens: One Hundred Leaked Body Scans | Gizmodo
584:"Companies Seek Full-Body Scans That Ease Health, Privacy Concerns"
1339:
391:
310:
251:
18:
912:
176:
spectrum. Even at its high-energy end, it is still more than 3
461:
457:
453:
449:
445:
441:
437:
433:
361:
349:
338:
254:), research into its potential biological effects is ongoing.
1323:"DNA Breathing Dynamics in the Presence of a Terahertz Field"
1680:"Report to Parliament 2008–2009 – Report on the Privacy Act"
1650:"Passengers virtually stripped naked by 3-D airport scanner"
1185:
Ryan KL, D'Andrea JA, Jauchem JR, Mason PA (February 2000).
1860:"NAIA screeners not impressed with new full-body scanners"
1625:
Counter-Terrorism for Emergency Responders, Third Edition
282:, more energetic than millimeter waves by more than five
1390:. Americablog.com (2010-01-18). Retrieved on 2012-12-31.
58:, and screening for weapons at government buildings and
1537:. Vol. 16, no. 10. p. 25. Archived from
801:"TSA removes body scanners criticized as too revealing"
115:, and other medical equipment normally hidden, such as
1402:. Csmonitor.com (2010-01-26). Retrieved on 2012-12-31.
893:"Airport body scanners 'will expose personal dignity'"
775:"Privacy Impact Assessment for TSA Whole Body Imaging"
609:. A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences.
1835:"Full-body scanners ready for use in NAIA terminals"
1577:"Fiumicino, body scanners attivi da Giovedì 4 Marzo"
1400:
Why Europe Doesn't Want an Invasion of Body Scanners
930:
IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and Techniques
961:
959:
705:"Battelle fund puts money in security system maker"
915:Gizmodo.com (2010-11-16). Retrieved on 2010-11-16.
867:"Police agencies admit to saving body scan images"
545:
543:
341:). These machines have also been deployed in the
69:used for body imaging; a competing technology is
1013:
1011:
577:
575:
1715:"Privacy watchdog OKs 'naked' airport scanners"
1269:
1267:
1107:
1105:
1060:
1058:
607:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society
364:), Minneapolis-St. Paul International Airport (
352:), as well as Salt Lake International Airport (
1678:Office of the Privacy Commissioner of Canada.
1388:German TV on the Failure of Full-Body Scanners
923:
921:
386:Passive scanners are also currently in use at
360:), Detroit-Wayne County Metropolitan Airport (
1786:"Airport scanner announcement ignites debate"
686:
684:
682:
8:
795:
793:
427:Office of the Privacy Commissioner of Canada
379:using millimeter waves were put into use at
1760:"Airport scanners invade privacy: advocate"
1740:"Body scanners coming to Canadian airports"
1512:"Facility Security:Security By The Layers"
432:Scanners are currently used in Saskatoon (
246:and into the systemic circulation through
1364:
1338:
1247:
1035:
983:
503:Explosives trace-detection portal machine
411:Canadian Air Transport Security Authority
326:The UK Border Agency (the predecessor of
368:), and Las Vegas International Airport (
192:. As such, millimeter wave radiation is
65:It is one of the common technologies of
539:
356:), Indianapolis International Airport (
266:Millimeter wave scanners should not be
1695:
1685:
1415:. Nbcdfw.com. Retrieved on 2012-12-31.
335:Transportation Security Administration
140:Transportation Security Administration
106:Full body scanner § Controversies
814:Australia Airport Body Scanners - FAQ
7:
1491:Brendan Alexander (September 2008).
286:, and raise concerns about possible
196:and incapable of causing cancers by
1068:IEEE Transactions on Plasma Science
499:(in security scanning applications)
1892:Challenge to Airport Body Scanners
985:10.1097/01.shk.0000209550.11087.fd
891:The Daily Telegraph (2008-10-24).
846:from the original on June 21, 2021
659:Supan, Joel Jesus M. (June 2012).
473:Ninoy Aquino International Airport
14:
1784:The Canadian Press (2010-01-05).
1654:Canadian Broadcasting Corporation
1411:Stinchfield, Grant. (2011-02-21)
733:"L3 Communications buys SafeView"
703:Newpoff, Laura (August 2, 2004).
225:mobile phone radiation and health
180:lower in energy than its nearest
1510:Robert P. Daly (December 2008).
1205:10.1097/00004032-200002000-00006
1024:Int. J. Microw. Wireless Technol
413:held a trial of the scanners at
394:. They will next be deployed in
1622:Burke, Robert A. (2017-10-31).
1164:"Radiation Exposure and Cancer"
323:from key distribution centers.
1357:10.1016/j.physleta.2009.12.077
582:Matthew Harwood (2010-03-05).
1:
1713:Bronskill, Jim (2009-10-30).
1468:Jennifer Brown (2011-01-03).
550:Mitchel Laskey (2010-03-17).
415:Kelowna International Airport
169:radiation is a subset of the
23:A millimeter wave scanner at
1809:Allison Jones (2010-01-06).
1656:. 2008-06-20. Archived from
315:Passive millimeter wave unit
127:between the body scan or a "
121:Automatic Target Recognition
333:As of April 2009, the U.S.
1933:
1551:Marsico, Ron (2006-07-12)
103:
1289:10.1007/s10565-008-9101-y
1249:10.1093/carcin/22.10.1701
1037:10.1017/S1759078711000122
519:Electromagnetic radiation
48:electromagnetic radiation
524:Extremely high frequency
425:. Before the trial, the
328:UK Visas and Immigration
190:electromagnetic spectrum
1738:CBC News (2010-01-05).
1493:"Streamlined Screening"
1470:"The ROI for detection"
1088:10.1109/TPS.2006.878996
865:NBC News (2010-08-04).
691:TSA: Imaging technology
665:. Trafford Publishing.
648:(subscription required)
464:), and Winnipeg (YWG).
161:Possible health effects
40:millimeter wave scanner
627:10.1098/rsta.2003.1323
316:
35:
1912:Measuring instruments
1531:"Securing the border"
873:on September 23, 2020
314:
221:inflammatory response
144:U.S. Marshals Service
22:
16:Body screening device
25:Cologne Bonn Airport
1917:Security technology
1815:Winnipeg Free Press
1535:Government Business
1349:2010PhLA..374.1214A
1126:2012RadR..177..723M
1080:2006ITPS...34.1480S
942:2000ITMTT..48.2111M
619:2004RSPTA.362..379A
588:Security Management
284:orders of magnitude
209:heat shock proteins
178:orders of magnitude
1698:has generic name (
1558:2011-11-22 at the
1277:Cell Biol. Toxicol
1114:Radiation Research
819:2016-07-09 at the
483:Other applications
317:
280:ionizing radiation
44:whole-body imaging
36:
1541:on July 23, 2011.
1516:Security Products
1497:Canadian Security
1474:Canadian Security
1333:(10): 1214–1217.
1327:Physics Letters A
1242:(10): 1701–1708.
950:10.1109/22.884202
749:. March 29, 2006.
613:(1815): 379–393.
509:Full body scanner
497:Backscatter X-ray
388:Fiumicino Airport
377:security scanners
346:PATH train system
272:backscatter X-ray
201:DNA bond cleavage
113:breast prostheses
82:Technical details
71:backscatter X-ray
67:full body scanner
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1660:on June 23, 2008
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1476:. Archived from
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869:. Archived from
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839:. October 2016.
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602:
596:
595:
590:. Archived from
579:
570:
569:
567:
561:. Archived from
556:
547:
514:Security theater
505:(puffer machine)
423:British Columbia
396:Malpensa Airport
381:Schiphol Airport
321:inventory shrink
100:Privacy concerns
60:airport security
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1560:Wayback Machine
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