826:
776:), CFC production was capped at 1986 levels with commitments to long-term reductions. This allowed for a ten-year phase-in for developing countries (identified in Article 5 of the protocol). Since then, the treaty was amended to ban CFC production after 1995 in developed countries, and later in developing countries. All of the world's 197 countries have signed the treaty. Beginning January 1, 1996, only recycled or stockpiled CFCs were available for use in developed countries like the US. The production phaseout was possible because of efforts to ensure that there would be substitute chemicals and technologies for all ODS uses.
22:
783:, three satellites and three ground stations confirmed that the upper-atmosphere ozone-depletion rate slowed significantly over the previous decade. Some breakdown was expected to continue because of ODSs used by nations which have not banned them, and because of gases already in the stratosphere. Some ODSs, including CFCs, have very long atmospheric lifetimes ranging from 50 to over 100 years. It has been estimated that the ozone layer will recover to 1980 levels near the middle of the 21st century. A gradual trend toward "healing" was reported in 2016.
544:
latitudes, with spring ozone columns in high northern latitudes occasionally exceeding 600 DU and averaging 450 DU whereas 400 DU constituted a usual maximum in the
Antarctic before anthropogenic ozone depletion. This difference occurred naturally because of the weaker polar vortex and stronger Brewer–Dobson circulation in the northern hemisphere owing to that hemisphere's large mountain ranges and greater contrasts between land and ocean temperatures. The difference between high northern and southern latitudes has increased since the 1970s due to the
572:
553:
434:. The ozone layer (which absorbs from about 200 nm to 310 nm with a maximal absorption at about 250 nm) is very effective at screening out UV-B; for radiation with a wavelength of 290 nm, the intensity at the top of the atmosphere is 350 million times stronger than at the Earth's surface. Nevertheless, some UV-B, particularly at its longest wavelengths, reaches the surface, and is important for the skin's production of
746:
393:
385:
517:
794:, or HCFCs) have been designed to replace CFCs in certain applications. These replacement compounds are more reactive and less likely to survive long enough in the atmosphere to reach the stratosphere where they could affect the ozone layer. While being less damaging than CFCs, HCFCs can have a negative impact on the ozone layer, so they are also being phased out. These in turn are being replaced by
464:
185:
825:
643:
late 1970s. For approximately 5 percent of the Earth's surface, around the north and south poles, much larger seasonal declines have been seen, and are described as "ozone holes". "Ozone holes" are actually patches in the ozone layer in which the ozone is thinner. The thinnest parts of the ozone are at the
543:
Research has found that the ozone levels in the United States are highest in the spring months of April and May and lowest in
October. While the total amount of ozone increases moving from the tropics to higher latitudes, the concentrations are greater in high northern latitudes than in high southern
85:
of ozone, while the average ozone concentration in Earth's atmosphere as a whole is about 0.3 parts per million. The ozone layer is mainly found in the lower portion of the stratosphere, from approximately 15 to 35 kilometers (9 to 22 mi) above Earth, although its thickness varies seasonally and
680:
with ozone pollutions being one of six criteria pollutants. This regulation has proven to be effective since counties, cities and tribal regions must abide by these standards and the EPA also provides assistance for each region to regulate contaminants. Effective presentation of information has also
365:
About 90 percent of the ozone in the atmosphere is contained in the stratosphere. Ozone concentrations are greatest between about 20 and 40 kilometres (66,000 and 131,000 ft), where they range from about 2 to 8 parts per million. If all of the ozone were compressed to the pressure of the air at
524:
The thickness of the ozone layer varies worldwide and is generally thinner near the equator and thicker near the poles. Thickness refers to how much ozone is in a column over a given area and varies from season to season. The reasons for these variations are due to atmospheric circulation patterns
814:
As ozone in the atmosphere prevents most energetic ultraviolet radiation reaching the surface of the Earth, astronomical data in these wavelengths have to be gathered from satellites orbiting above the atmosphere and ozone layer. Most of the light from young hot stars is in the ultraviolet and so
642:
The breakdown of ozone in the stratosphere results in reduced absorption of ultraviolet radiation. Consequently, unabsorbed and dangerous ultraviolet radiation is able to reach the Earth's surface at a higher intensity. Ozone levels have dropped by a worldwide average of about 4 percent since the
685:
and various related topics. The ozone case was communicated to lay persons "with easy-to-understand bridging metaphors derived from the popular culture" and related to "immediate risks with everyday relevance". The specific metaphors used in the discussion (ozone shield, ozone hole) proved quite
396:
Levels of ozone at various altitudes and blocking of different bands of ultraviolet radiation. Essentially all UV-C (100–280 nm) is blocked by dioxygen (from 100–200 nm) or else by ozone (200–280 nm) in the atmosphere. The shorter portion of the UV-C band and the more energetic UV
771:
that damage the ozone layer but the
European Community rejected a similar proposal. In the U.S., chlorofluorocarbons continued to be used in other applications, such as refrigeration and industrial cleaning, until after the discovery of the Antarctic ozone hole in 1985. After negotiation of an
413:
Although the concentration of the ozone in the ozone layer is very small, it is vitally important to life because it absorbs biologically harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation coming from the Sun. Extremely short or vacuum UV (10–100 nm) is screened out by nitrogen. UV radiation capable of
638:
are liberated by the action of ultraviolet light. Each radical is then free to initiate and catalyze a chain reaction capable of breaking down over 100,000 ozone molecules. By 2009, nitrous oxide was the largest ozone-depleting substance (ODS) emitted through human activities.
425:
UV-C, which is very harmful to all living things, is entirely screened out by a combination of dioxygen (< 200 nm) and ozone (> about 200 nm) by around 35 kilometres (115,000 ft) altitude. UV-B radiation can be harmful to the skin and is the main cause of
681:
proven to be important in order to educate the general population of the existence and regulation of ozone depletion and contaminants. A scientific paper was written by
Sheldon Ungar in which the author explores and studies how information about the depletion of the ozone,
159:
threatened life on Earth, including increased skin cancer in humans and other ecological problems, led to bans on the chemicals, and the latest evidence is that ozone depletion has slowed or stopped. The United
Nations General Assembly has designated September 16 as the
113:
end of the spectrum. It was deduced that the missing radiation was being absorbed by something in the atmosphere. Eventually the spectrum of the missing radiation was matched to only one known chemical, ozone. Its properties were explored in detail by the
British
536:, make the ozone layer thickest in the spring and thinnest in the fall. When ozone is produced by solar UV radiation in the tropics, it is done so by circulation lifting ozone-poor air out of the troposphere and into the stratosphere where the sun
801:
The residual effects of CFCs accumulating within the atmosphere lead to a concentration gradient between the atmosphere and the ocean. This organohalogen compound is able to dissolve into the ocean's surface waters and is able to act as a
738:. That is why many countries have set in place regulations to improve "good" ozone and prevent the increase of "bad" ozone in urban or residential areas. In terms of ozone protection (the preservation of "good" ozone) the
445:
Ozone is transparent to most UV-A, so most of this longer-wavelength UV radiation reaches the surface, and it constitutes most of the UV reaching the Earth. This type of UV radiation is significantly less harmful to
548:
phenomenon. The highest amounts of ozone are found over the Arctic during the spring months of March and April, but the
Antarctic has the lowest amounts of ozone during the summer months of September and October,
686:
useful and, compared to global climate change, the ozone case was much more seen as a "hot issue" and imminent risk. Lay people were cautious about a depletion of the ozone layer and the risks of skin cancer.
129:) that could be used to measure stratospheric ozone from the ground. Between 1928 and 1958, Dobson established a worldwide network of ozone monitoring stations, which continue to operate to this day. The "
779:
On August 2, 2003, scientists announced that the global depletion of the ozone layer might be slowing because of the international regulation of ozone-depleting substances. In a study organized by the
305:
409:(315–400 nm), is hardly affected by ozone, and most of it reaches the ground. UV-A does not primarily cause skin reddening, but there is evidence that it causes long-term skin damage.
161:
360:
2378:
1943:, they did act collectively.... We did something similar to restore Earth's protective ozone layer.... he cost of technology really matters.... In the past decade the price of
742:
has strict guidelines on what products are allowed to be bought, distributed or used in specific areas. With effective regulation, the ozone is expected to heal over time.
2415:
673:
81:) in relation to other parts of the atmosphere, although still small in relation to other gases in the stratosphere. The ozone layer contains less than 10
2351:
1548:
1776:
1059:
540:
oxygen molecules and turns them into ozone. Then, the ozone-rich air is carried to higher latitudes and drops into lower layers of the atmosphere.
230:. The ozone molecule is unstable (although, in the stratosphere, long-lived) and when ultraviolet light hits ozone it splits into a molecule of O
388:
UV-B energy levels at several altitudes. Blue line shows DNA sensitivity. Red line shows surface energy level with 10 percent decrease in ozone
62:
97:. Measurements of the sun showed that the radiation sent out from its surface and reaching the ground on Earth is usually consistent with the
2306:
2263:
1921:
731:
726:
can cause adverse health risks respiratory effects (difficulty breathing) and is proven to be an aggravator of respiratory illnesses such as
962:
1970:
865:
1279:
618:, the concentrations of chlorine and bromine increased markedly in recent decades because of the release of large quantities of man-made
2408:
839:
could not have been taken from the surface of the Earth because the ozone layer blocks the ultra-violet radiation emitted by the nebula.
401:
of dioxygen (below 240 nm) react with more dioxygen. The ozone layer also blocks most, but not quite all, of the sunburn-producing
1032:
754:
2327:
2285:
2242:
1182:
652:
503:
2180:"Reducing abrupt climate change risk using the Montreal Protocol and other regulatory actions to complement cuts in CO2 emissions"
450:, although it may still potentially cause physical damage, premature aging of the skin, indirect genetic damage, and skin cancer.
414:
penetrating nitrogen is divided into three categories, based on its wavelength; these are referred to as UV-A (400–315 nm),
889:
244:
749:
Levels of atmospheric ozone measured by satellite show clear seasonal variations and appear to verify their decline over time.
2536:
870:
532:
and is transported towards the poles by stratospheric wind patterns. In the northern hemisphere these patterns, known as the
485:
200:
2401:
533:
430:; excessive exposure can also cause cataracts, immune system suppression, and genetic damage, resulting in problems such as
2252:
Benedick, Richard Elliot; World
Wildlife Fund (U.S.); Institute for the Study of Diplomacy. Georgetown University. (1998).
1357:
1939:, vol. 330, no. 1 (January 2024), pp. 75–76. "ountries will act only if they know others are willing to do the same. With
669:
21:
151:
In 1985, atmospheric research revealed that the ozone layer was being depleted by chemicals released by industry, mainly
481:
105:
with a temperature in the range of 5,500–6,000 K (5,230–5,730 °C), except that there was no radiation below a
1665:
2348:
780:
1522:
405:(280–315 nm) band, which lies in the wavelengths longer than UV-C. The band of UV closest to visible light,
787:
311:
2531:
1436:"Potential Ozone Depletion From Satellite Demise During Atmospheric Reentry in the Era of Mega-Constellations"
806:. This tracer helps scientists study ocean circulation by tracing biological, physical and chemical pathways.
140:
The ozone layer absorbs 97 to 99 percent of the Sun's medium-frequency ultraviolet light (from about 200
815:
study of these wavelengths is important for studying the origins of galaxies. The Galaxy
Evolution Explorer,
1933:, "What We Learned from Acid Rain: By working together, the nations of the world can solve climate change",
1815:
1090:
791:
717:
552:
474:
2270:(Ambassador Benedick was the Chief U.S. Negotiator at the meetings that resulted in the Montreal Protocol.)
235:
179:
819:, is an orbiting ultraviolet space telescope launched on April 28, 2003, which operated until early 2012.
644:
2144:
571:
2156:
2115:
2055:
1994:
1882:
1791:
1707:
1608:
1243:
992:
928:
2042:
Velders, Guus J.M.; Andersen, Stephen O.; Daniel, John S.; Fahey, David W.; McFarland, Mack (2007).
384:
2424:
2364:
delivers maps, datasets and validation reports about the past and current state of the ozone layer.
1935:
1866:
635:
152:
126:
1975:
Environmental
Effects of Ozone Depletion and its Interactions with Climate Change: 2010 Assessment
2219:
2131:
2030:
1898:
1411:
1146:
944:
850:
803:
795:
764:
623:
576:
397:
above this band causes the formation of the ozone layer, when single oxygen atoms produced by UV
188:
2103:
1331:
966:
1309:
1231:
1006:
2323:
2302:
2281:
2259:
2238:
2211:
2083:
2022:
1917:
1870:
1832:
1807:
1735:
1549:"International Treaties and Cooperation about the Protection of the Stratospheric Ozone Layer"
1504:
1486:
1403:
1287:
1178:
1138:
1082:
773:
656:
122:
82:
1604:
988:
708:
that endure in the atmosphere for decades. Estimates for 2022 alone were ~17 metric tons (~30
203:
in 1930. Ozone in the Earth's stratosphere is created by ultraviolet light striking ordinary
2201:
2191:
2164:
2123:
2104:"The importance of phasing down hydrofluorocarbons and other short-lived climate pollutants"
2073:
2063:
2012:
2002:
1960:
1952:
1890:
1799:
1725:
1715:
1494:
1476:
1443:
1395:
1383:
1259:
1251:
1128:
1074:
1036:
936:
661:
647:. The discovery of the annual depletion of ozone above the Antarctic was first announced by
615:
2178:
Molina, M.; Zaelke, D.; Sarma, K. M.; Andersen, S. O.; Ramanathan, V.; Kaniaru, D. (2009).
745:
2373:
1964:
677:
566:
156:
118:
1803:
170:
also has a thin ozone layer at an altitude of 100 kilometers above the planet's surface.
2160:
2119:
2059:
1998:
1886:
1795:
1711:
1247:
932:
516:
392:
2206:
2179:
2078:
2043:
2017:
1982:
1981:
Velders, G. J. M.; Fahey, D. W.; Daniel, J. S.; McFarland, M.; Andersen, S. O. (2009).
1930:
1499:
1464:
855:
739:
693:
682:
1967:
affiliation.... Change can happen – but not on its own. We need to drive it." (p. 76.)
199:
mechanisms that give rise to the ozone layer were discovered by the British physicist
2525:
2384:
2369:
2355:
2135:
1902:
1133:
1116:
948:
768:
619:
595:
219:
196:
115:
94:
90:
2223:
1399:
1384:"Knowledge, ignorance and the popular culture: climate change versus the ozone hole"
1150:
897:
2450:
2440:
2034:
1956:
1944:
1415:
705:
631:
591:
584:
134:
58:
34:
30:
2343:
1574:
2317:
2296:
2275:
2253:
2232:
1911:
1205:
1172:
148:), which otherwise would potentially damage exposed life forms near the surface.
2483:
2473:
2435:
1948:
1434:
Ferreira, Jose P.; Huang, Ziyu; Nomura, Ken-ichi; Wang, Joseph (June 11, 2024).
836:
463:
431:
130:
110:
70:
38:
2048:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
1621:
2510:
2505:
2468:
2445:
2393:
2127:
1894:
648:
627:
545:
537:
398:
145:
106:
102:
2169:
1983:"The large contribution of projected HFC emissions to future climate forcing"
1490:
1481:
1407:
2478:
2455:
2196:
2068:
2007:
1940:
1720:
1695:
1643:
735:
689:
587:
435:
141:
26:
2215:
2087:
2026:
1811:
1753:
1739:
1508:
1142:
1086:
798:(HFCs) and other compounds that do not destroy stratospheric ozone at all.
919:
McElroy, C.T.; Fogal, P.F. (2008). "Ozone: From discovery to protection".
1730:
1448:
1435:
630:. These highly stable compounds are capable of surviving the rise to the
607:
603:
207:
98:
2361:
1264:
184:
25:
The ozone layer visible from space at Earth's horizon as a blue band of
2487:
611:
529:
488: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
439:
427:
1255:
1078:
940:
2388:
860:
760:
727:
204:
1575:"The Evolution of Policy Responses to Stratospheric Ozone Depletion"
2234:
Technology Transfer for the Ozone Layer: Lessons for Climate Change
1955:
costs have tumbled by 98 percent since 1990, bringing the price of
1871:"Lessons from the stratospheric ozone layer protection for climate"
668:
Regulation attempts have included but not have been limited to the
832:
816:
744:
723:
515:
234:
and an individual atom of oxygen, a continuing process called the
183:
167:
74:
54:
20:
1310:"NOAA Study Shows Nitrous Oxide Now Top Ozone-Depleting Emission"
419:
415:
406:
402:
211:
2397:
2044:"The Importance of the Montreal Protocol in Protecting Climate"
1429:
1427:
1425:
269:
2143:
Xu, Y.; Zaelke, D.; Velders, G. J. M.; Ramanathan, V. (2013).
457:
447:
66:
2145:"The role of HFCS in mitigating 21st century climate change"
89:
The ozone layer was discovered in 1913 by French physicists
29:
within the bottom of the large bright blue band that is the
1230:
Douglass, Anne R.; Newman, Paul A.; Solomon, Susan (2014).
1060:"Photolysis of Atmospheric Ozone in the Ultraviolet Region"
2255:
Ozone Diplomacy: New Directions in Safeguarding the Planet
1463:
Zhang, Junfeng (Jim); Wei, Yongjie; Fang, Zhangfu (2019).
575:
NASA projections of stratospheric ozone concentrations if
300:{\displaystyle {\ce {O2{}+{\mathit {h}}\nu _{uv}->2O}}}
1286:. Energy Information Administration. 1997. Archived from
692:
burning up upon re-entry into Earth's atmosphere produce
348:
332:
287:
259:
162:
International Day for the Preservation of the Ozone Layer
2298:
Transnational Environmental Policy: Reconstructing Ozone
1666:"Stratospheric Ozone and Surface Ultraviolet Radiation"
1603:
An Interview with Lee Thomas, EPA's 6th Administrator.
1284:
Emissions of Greenhouse Gases in the United States 1996
987:
An Interview with Lee Thomas, EPA's 6th Administrator.
614:(Br). While there are natural sources for all of these
2274:
Chasek, P. S.; Downie, David L.; Brown, J. W. (2013).
1913:
Protecting the Ozone Layer: The United Nations History
314:
247:
2231:
Anderson, S. O.; Sarma, M. K.; Taddonio, K. (2007).
720:
can eventually lead to significant ozone depletion.
155:(CFCs). Concerns that increased UV radiation due to
1696:"Emergence of healing in the Antarctic ozone layer"
2102:Zaelke, Durwood; Borgford-Parnell, Nathan (2015).
1910:Andersen, S.O.; Sarma, K.M.; Sinclair, L. (2012).
1465:"Ozone Pollution: A Major Health Hazard Worldwide"
676:. The Clean Air Act introduced the requirement of
354:
299:
222:); the atomic oxygen then combines with unbroken O
1115:Narayanan, D.L.; Saladi, R.N.; Fox, J.L. (2010).
520:Ozone layer within Earth's atmosphere by altitude
2319:Protecting the Ozone Layer: Science and Strategy
1644:"Brief Questions and Answers on Ozone Depletion"
218:), splitting them into individual oxygen atoms (
2184:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
1987:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
1947:has fallen by more than 90 percent and that of
1777:"Observations of CFCs and SF6 as Ocean Tracers"
1117:"Review: Ultraviolet radiation and skin cancer"
73:radiation. It contains a high concentration of
1673:Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion: 2010
678:National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS)
2409:
2108:Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences
1875:Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences
1694:Solomon, Susan, et al. (June 30, 2016).
1174:Global Warming: The Effect Of Ozone Depletion
674:United States Environmental Protection Agency
8:
556:Brewer–Dobson circulation in the ozone layer
2344:Stratospheric ozone: an electronic textbook
1332:"ozone layer | National Geographic Society"
1242:(7). American Institute of Physics: 42–48.
528:The majority of ozone is produced over the
366:sea level, it would be only 3 millimetres (
355:{\displaystyle {\ce {O + O2 <-> O3}}}
2416:
2402:
2394:
2258:(2nd ed.). Harvard University Press.
1007:"Scientists discover Ozone Layer on Venus"
137:of ozone overhead, is named in his honor.
2280:(6th ed.). Boulder: Westview Press.
2205:
2195:
2168:
2077:
2067:
2016:
2006:
1729:
1719:
1498:
1480:
1447:
1358:"Ozone Implementation Regulatory Actions"
1263:
1132:
716:kg satellite). Increasing populations of
504:Learn how and when to remove this message
347:
342:
331:
326:
315:
313:
292:
268:
267:
262:
258:
253:
248:
246:
570:
551:
391:
383:
238:. Chemically, this can be described as:
881:
821:
759:In 1978, the United States, Canada and
1622:"Amendments to the Montreal Protocol"
1232:"The Antarctic ozone hole: An update"
1166:
1164:
1162:
1160:
7:
1971:United Nations Environment Programme
1804:10.1146/annurev.marine.010908.163933
1121:International Journal of Dermatology
1005:SPACE.com staff (October 11, 2011).
866:United Nations Environment Programme
486:adding citations to reliable sources
133:" (DU), a convenient measure of the
2322:. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
583:The ozone layer can be depleted by
1058:Matsumi, Y.; Kawasaki, M. (2003).
755:Ozone depletion and climate change
14:
2149:Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics
1356:US EPA, OAR (December 14, 2016).
2362:CAMS stratospheric ozone service
1336:education.nationalgeographic.org
1134:10.1111/j.1365-4632.2010.04474.x
896:. March 20, 2008. Archived from
824:
462:
454:Distribution in the stratosphere
1959:down with them....he stance of
1784:Annual Review of Marine Science
1388:Public Understanding of Science
1206:"Nasa Ozone Watch: Ozone facts"
1177:. APH Publishing. p. 194.
659:, in a paper which appeared in
473:needs additional citations for
37:in the orange afterglow of the
871:Short-lived climate pollutants
335:
278:
1:
2277:Global Environmental Politics
1573:Morrisette, Peter M. (1989).
1547:US EPA, OAR (July 15, 2015).
1280:"Halocarbons and Other Gases"
1440:Geophysical Research Letters
1382:Ungar, Sheldon (July 2000).
712:kg of nanoparticles per ~250
645:polar points of Earth's axis
109:of about 310 nm at the
1837:National Geographic Society
2553:
2295:Grundmann, Reiner (2001).
1754:"Ozone Depletion Glossary"
1611:(see p15). April 19, 2012.
995:(see p13). April 19, 2012.
810:Implications for astronomy
781:American Geophysical Union
772:international treaty (the
752:
564:
177:
16:Region of the stratosphere
2496:
2464:
2431:
2128:10.1007/s13412-014-0215-7
1951:by more than 70 percent.
1895:10.1007/s13412-014-0213-9
1579:Natural Resources Journal
1400:10.1088/0963-6625/9/3/306
534:Brewer–Dobson circulation
288:
121:, who developed a simple
33:, with a silhouette of a
2170:10.5194/acp-13-6083-2013
1963:matters more than their
1916:. Taylor & Francis.
1482:10.3389/fimmu.2019.02518
1210:ozonewatch.gsfc.nasa.gov
792:hydrochlorofluorocarbons
718:satellite constellations
283:
277:
2379:considered for deletion
2197:10.1073/pnas.0902568106
2069:10.1073/pnas.0610328104
2008:10.1073/pnas.0902817106
1721:10.1126/science.aae0061
1469:Frontiers in Immunology
1312:. NOAA. August 27, 2009
1171:Tabin, Shagoon (2008).
418:(315–280 nm), and
1775:Fine, Rana A. (2011).
1624:. EPA. August 19, 2010
750:
622:compounds, especially
580:
557:
521:
410:
389:
356:
301:
210:containing two oxygen
192:
42:
2537:Ultraviolet radiation
2237:. London: Earthscan.
1821:on February 10, 2015.
804:time-dependent tracer
786:Compounds containing
748:
574:
555:
525:and solar intensity.
519:
395:
387:
357:
302:
187:
24:
2301:. Psychology Press.
1646:. EPA. June 28, 2006
1449:10.1029/2024GL109280
1033:"NASA Facts Archive"
900:on November 21, 2017
482:improve this article
312:
245:
2316:Parson, E. (2003).
2190:(49): 20616–20621.
2161:2013ACP....13.6083X
2120:2015JEnSS...5..169Z
2060:2007PNAS..104.4814V
1999:2009PNAS..10610949V
1993:(27): 10949–10954.
1936:Scientific American
1887:2015JEnSS...5..143A
1796:2011ARMS....3..173F
1712:2016Sci...353..269S
1248:2014PhT....67g..42D
933:2008AtO....46....1M
672:implemented by the
624:chlorofluorocarbons
579:had not been banned
577:chlorofluorocarbons
422:(280–100 nm).
350:
334:
261:
153:chlorofluorocarbons
2425:Earth's atmosphere
1523:"Ozone Regulation"
851:Cambrian explosion
837:Cygnus Loop nebula
796:hydrofluorocarbons
751:
634:, where Cl and Br
628:bromofluorocarbons
581:
558:
522:
411:
390:
352:
338:
322:
297:
249:
236:ozone–oxygen cycle
226:to create ozone, O
193:
191:in the ozone layer
189:Ozone-oxygen cycle
180:Ozone–oxygen cycle
43:
2519:
2518:
2354:July 2, 2004, at
2308:978-0-415-22423-9
2265:978-0-674-65003-9
2155:(12): 6083–6089.
2054:(12): 4814–4819.
1961:elected officials
1923:978-1-84977-226-6
1256:10.1063/PT.3.2449
1079:10.1021/cr0205255
1073:(12): 4767–4781.
941:10.3137/ao.460101
774:Montreal Protocol
665:on May 16, 1985.
657:Jonathan Shanklin
610:(Cl), and atomic
514:
513:
506:
380:Ultraviolet light
341:
325:
318:
295:
286:
282:
281:
271:
252:
123:spectrophotometer
83:parts per million
2544:
2418:
2411:
2404:
2395:
2382:
2349:Ozone Layer Info
2333:
2312:
2291:
2269:
2248:
2227:
2209:
2199:
2174:
2172:
2139:
2091:
2081:
2071:
2038:
2020:
2010:
1977:. Nairobi: UNEP.
1927:
1906:
1849:
1848:
1846:
1844:
1829:
1823:
1822:
1820:
1814:. Archived from
1781:
1772:
1766:
1765:
1763:
1761:
1750:
1744:
1743:
1733:
1723:
1706:(6296): 269–74.
1691:
1685:
1684:
1682:
1680:
1670:
1662:
1656:
1655:
1653:
1651:
1640:
1634:
1633:
1631:
1629:
1618:
1612:
1601:
1595:
1594:
1592:
1590:
1570:
1564:
1563:
1561:
1559:
1544:
1538:
1537:
1535:
1533:
1519:
1513:
1512:
1502:
1484:
1460:
1454:
1453:
1451:
1431:
1420:
1419:
1379:
1373:
1372:
1370:
1368:
1353:
1347:
1346:
1344:
1342:
1328:
1322:
1321:
1319:
1317:
1306:
1300:
1299:
1297:
1295:
1290:on June 29, 2008
1276:
1270:
1269:
1267:
1227:
1221:
1220:
1218:
1216:
1202:
1196:
1195:
1193:
1191:
1168:
1155:
1154:
1136:
1112:
1106:
1105:
1103:
1101:
1096:on June 17, 2012
1095:
1089:. Archived from
1064:
1055:
1049:
1048:
1046:
1044:
1039:on April 6, 2013
1035:. Archived from
1029:
1023:
1022:
1020:
1018:
1002:
996:
985:
979:
978:
976:
974:
965:. Archived from
959:
953:
952:
921:Atmosphere-Ocean
916:
910:
909:
907:
905:
886:
828:
763:enacted bans on
715:
711:
509:
502:
498:
495:
489:
466:
458:
375:
374:
370:
361:
359:
358:
353:
351:
349:
346:
339:
333:
330:
323:
316:
306:
304:
303:
298:
296:
293:
284:
273:
272:
263:
260:
257:
250:
86:geographically.
2552:
2551:
2547:
2546:
2545:
2543:
2542:
2541:
2532:Ozone depletion
2522:
2521:
2520:
2515:
2492:
2460:
2427:
2422:
2367:
2340:
2330:
2315:
2309:
2294:
2288:
2273:
2266:
2251:
2245:
2230:
2177:
2142:
2101:
2041:
1980:
1931:Ritchie, Hannah
1924:
1909:
1867:Andersen, S. O.
1865:
1857:
1855:Further reading
1852:
1842:
1840:
1831:
1830:
1826:
1818:
1779:
1774:
1773:
1769:
1759:
1757:
1752:
1751:
1747:
1693:
1692:
1688:
1678:
1676:
1668:
1664:
1663:
1659:
1649:
1647:
1642:
1641:
1637:
1627:
1625:
1620:
1619:
1615:
1602:
1598:
1588:
1586:
1572:
1571:
1567:
1557:
1555:
1546:
1545:
1541:
1531:
1529:
1521:
1520:
1516:
1462:
1461:
1457:
1433:
1432:
1423:
1381:
1380:
1376:
1366:
1364:
1355:
1354:
1350:
1340:
1338:
1330:
1329:
1325:
1315:
1313:
1308:
1307:
1303:
1293:
1291:
1278:
1277:
1273:
1229:
1228:
1224:
1214:
1212:
1204:
1203:
1199:
1189:
1187:
1185:
1170:
1169:
1158:
1114:
1113:
1109:
1099:
1097:
1093:
1062:
1057:
1056:
1052:
1042:
1040:
1031:
1030:
1026:
1016:
1014:
1004:
1003:
999:
986:
982:
972:
970:
961:
960:
956:
918:
917:
913:
903:
901:
888:
887:
883:
879:
847:
840:
829:
812:
757:
713:
709:
703:
699:
601:
569:
567:Ozone depletion
563:
510:
499:
493:
490:
479:
467:
456:
382:
372:
368:
367:
310:
309:
243:
242:
233:
229:
225:
217:
182:
176:
157:ozone depletion
144:to 315 nm
119:G. M. B. Dobson
80:
53:is a region of
17:
12:
11:
5:
2550:
2548:
2540:
2539:
2534:
2524:
2523:
2517:
2516:
2514:
2513:
2508:
2503:
2497:
2494:
2493:
2491:
2490:
2481:
2476:
2471:
2465:
2462:
2461:
2459:
2458:
2453:
2448:
2443:
2438:
2432:
2429:
2428:
2423:
2421:
2420:
2413:
2406:
2398:
2392:
2391:
2365:
2358:
2346:
2339:
2338:External links
2336:
2335:
2334:
2328:
2313:
2307:
2292:
2286:
2271:
2264:
2249:
2243:
2228:
2175:
2140:
2114:(2): 169–175.
2098:
2097:
2093:
2092:
2039:
1978:
1968:
1928:
1922:
1907:
1881:(2): 143–162.
1862:
1861:
1856:
1853:
1851:
1850:
1824:
1767:
1745:
1686:
1657:
1635:
1613:
1596:
1565:
1539:
1514:
1455:
1421:
1394:(3): 297–312.
1374:
1348:
1323:
1301:
1271:
1222:
1197:
1183:
1156:
1127:(9): 978–986.
1107:
1050:
1024:
997:
980:
969:on May 2, 2021
954:
911:
890:"Ozone Basics"
880:
878:
875:
874:
873:
868:
863:
858:
856:Nuclear winter
853:
846:
843:
842:
841:
830:
823:
811:
808:
769:aerosol sprays
753:Main article:
740:European Union
701:
697:
694:aluminum oxide
683:climate change
653:Brian Gardiner
599:
565:Main article:
562:
559:
512:
511:
470:
468:
461:
455:
452:
381:
378:
363:
362:
345:
337:
329:
321:
307:
291:
280:
276:
266:
256:
231:
227:
223:
215:
201:Sydney Chapman
178:Main article:
175:
172:
78:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2549:
2538:
2535:
2533:
2530:
2529:
2527:
2512:
2509:
2507:
2504:
2502:
2499:
2498:
2495:
2489:
2485:
2482:
2480:
2477:
2475:
2472:
2470:
2467:
2466:
2463:
2457:
2454:
2452:
2449:
2447:
2444:
2442:
2439:
2437:
2434:
2433:
2430:
2426:
2419:
2414:
2412:
2407:
2405:
2400:
2399:
2396:
2390:
2386:
2380:
2376:
2375:
2371:
2366:
2363:
2359:
2357:
2356:archive.today
2353:
2350:
2347:
2345:
2342:
2341:
2337:
2331:
2329:9780190288716
2325:
2321:
2320:
2314:
2310:
2304:
2300:
2299:
2293:
2289:
2287:9780813348971
2283:
2279:
2278:
2272:
2267:
2261:
2257:
2256:
2250:
2246:
2244:9781849772846
2240:
2236:
2235:
2229:
2225:
2221:
2217:
2213:
2208:
2203:
2198:
2193:
2189:
2185:
2181:
2176:
2171:
2166:
2162:
2158:
2154:
2150:
2146:
2141:
2137:
2133:
2129:
2125:
2121:
2117:
2113:
2109:
2105:
2100:
2099:
2095:
2094:
2089:
2085:
2080:
2075:
2070:
2065:
2061:
2057:
2053:
2049:
2045:
2040:
2036:
2032:
2028:
2024:
2019:
2014:
2009:
2004:
2000:
1996:
1992:
1988:
1984:
1979:
1976:
1972:
1969:
1966:
1962:
1958:
1957:electric cars
1954:
1950:
1946:
1942:
1938:
1937:
1932:
1929:
1925:
1919:
1915:
1914:
1908:
1904:
1900:
1896:
1892:
1888:
1884:
1880:
1876:
1872:
1868:
1864:
1863:
1859:
1858:
1854:
1843:September 16,
1839:. May 9, 2011
1838:
1834:
1833:"ozone layer"
1828:
1825:
1817:
1813:
1809:
1805:
1801:
1797:
1793:
1789:
1785:
1778:
1771:
1768:
1755:
1749:
1746:
1741:
1737:
1732:
1731:1721.1/107197
1727:
1722:
1717:
1713:
1709:
1705:
1701:
1697:
1690:
1687:
1674:
1667:
1661:
1658:
1645:
1639:
1636:
1623:
1617:
1614:
1610:
1606:
1600:
1597:
1584:
1580:
1576:
1569:
1566:
1554:
1550:
1543:
1540:
1528:
1524:
1518:
1515:
1510:
1506:
1501:
1496:
1492:
1488:
1483:
1478:
1474:
1470:
1466:
1459:
1456:
1450:
1445:
1441:
1437:
1430:
1428:
1426:
1422:
1417:
1413:
1409:
1405:
1401:
1397:
1393:
1389:
1385:
1378:
1375:
1363:
1359:
1352:
1349:
1337:
1333:
1327:
1324:
1311:
1305:
1302:
1289:
1285:
1281:
1275:
1272:
1266:
1261:
1257:
1253:
1249:
1245:
1241:
1237:
1236:Physics Today
1233:
1226:
1223:
1215:September 16,
1211:
1207:
1201:
1198:
1186:
1184:9788131303962
1180:
1176:
1175:
1167:
1165:
1163:
1161:
1157:
1152:
1148:
1144:
1140:
1135:
1130:
1126:
1122:
1118:
1111:
1108:
1092:
1088:
1084:
1080:
1076:
1072:
1068:
1061:
1054:
1051:
1038:
1034:
1028:
1025:
1012:
1008:
1001:
998:
994:
990:
984:
981:
973:September 23,
968:
964:
963:"Ozone layer"
958:
955:
950:
946:
942:
938:
934:
930:
926:
922:
915:
912:
899:
895:
891:
885:
882:
876:
872:
869:
867:
864:
862:
859:
857:
854:
852:
849:
848:
844:
838:
835:image of the
834:
827:
822:
820:
818:
809:
807:
805:
799:
797:
793:
789:
784:
782:
777:
775:
770:
766:
762:
756:
747:
743:
741:
737:
733:
729:
725:
721:
719:
707:
706:nanoparticles
695:
691:
687:
684:
679:
675:
671:
670:Clean Air Act
666:
664:
663:
658:
654:
650:
646:
640:
637:
633:
629:
625:
621:
620:organohalogen
617:
613:
609:
606:(OH), atomic
605:
597:
596:nitrous oxide
593:
589:
586:
578:
573:
568:
560:
554:
550:
547:
541:
539:
535:
531:
526:
518:
508:
505:
497:
494:February 2013
487:
483:
477:
476:
471:This section
469:
465:
460:
459:
453:
451:
449:
443:
441:
437:
433:
429:
423:
421:
417:
408:
404:
400:
394:
386:
379:
377:
376:inch) thick.
343:
327:
319:
308:
289:
274:
264:
254:
241:
240:
239:
237:
221:
220:atomic oxygen
213:
209:
206:
202:
198:
197:photochemical
190:
186:
181:
173:
171:
169:
165:
163:
158:
154:
149:
147:
143:
138:
136:
132:
128:
124:
120:
117:
116:meteorologist
112:
108:
104:
100:
96:
95:Henri Buisson
92:
91:Charles Fabry
87:
84:
76:
72:
68:
64:
60:
56:
52:
48:
40:
36:
32:
28:
23:
19:
2500:
2451:Thermosphere
2441:Stratosphere
2372:
2318:
2297:
2276:
2254:
2233:
2187:
2183:
2152:
2148:
2111:
2107:
2051:
2047:
1990:
1986:
1974:
1945:solar energy
1934:
1912:
1878:
1874:
1841:. Retrieved
1836:
1827:
1816:the original
1787:
1783:
1770:
1760:September 3,
1758:. Retrieved
1748:
1703:
1699:
1689:
1677:. Retrieved
1672:
1660:
1648:. Retrieved
1638:
1626:. Retrieved
1616:
1599:
1587:. Retrieved
1582:
1578:
1568:
1556:. Retrieved
1552:
1542:
1530:. Retrieved
1527:ec.europa.eu
1526:
1517:
1472:
1468:
1458:
1439:
1391:
1387:
1377:
1365:. Retrieved
1361:
1351:
1339:. Retrieved
1335:
1326:
1314:. Retrieved
1304:
1292:. Retrieved
1288:the original
1283:
1274:
1265:1721.1/99159
1239:
1235:
1225:
1213:. Retrieved
1209:
1200:
1188:. Retrieved
1173:
1124:
1120:
1110:
1098:. Retrieved
1091:the original
1070:
1066:
1053:
1041:. Retrieved
1037:the original
1027:
1015:. Retrieved
1010:
1000:
983:
971:. Retrieved
967:the original
957:
924:
920:
914:
902:. Retrieved
898:the original
893:
884:
813:
800:
785:
778:
767:-containing
758:
722:
688:
667:
660:
641:
632:stratosphere
592:nitric oxide
590:, including
585:free radical
582:
542:
527:
523:
500:
491:
480:Please help
475:verification
472:
444:
424:
412:
364:
194:
166:
150:
139:
88:
65:most of the
59:stratosphere
51:ozone shield
50:
46:
44:
35:cumulonimbus
31:stratosphere
18:
2501:Ozone layer
2484:Thermopause
2474:Stratopause
2436:Troposphere
2385:Ozone layer
1949:wind energy
1675:. WMO. 2011
1650:November 8,
1553:www.epa.gov
1362:www.epa.gov
1316:November 8,
1190:January 12,
927:(1): 1–13.
904:January 29,
724:"Bad" ozone
626:(CFCs) and
432:skin cancer
131:Dobson Unit
127:Dobsonmeter
111:ultraviolet
71:ultraviolet
47:ozone layer
39:troposphere
2526:Categories
2511:Ionosphere
2506:Turbopause
2469:Tropopause
2446:Mesosphere
1790:: 173–95.
1609:Transcript
1017:October 3,
993:Transcript
877:References
690:Satellites
649:Joe Farman
546:ozone hole
538:photolyzes
399:photolysis
146:wavelength
107:wavelength
103:black body
2479:Mesopause
2456:Exosphere
2377:is being
2136:128974741
1941:acid rain
1903:129725437
1679:March 14,
1628:March 28,
1589:April 20,
1585:: 793–820
1491:1664-3224
1408:0963-6625
1100:March 14,
1067:Chem. Rev
1011:SPACE.com
949:128994884
790:(such as
788:C–H bonds
736:emphysema
588:catalysts
561:Depletion
436:vitamin D
336:⟷
279:⟶
275:ν
208:molecules
27:afterglow
2370:template
2352:Archived
2224:13240115
2216:19822751
2088:17360370
2027:19549868
1973:(2010).
1869:(2015).
1812:21329203
1740:27365314
1509:31736954
1475:: 2518.
1294:June 24,
1151:22224492
1143:20883261
1087:14664632
845:See also
636:radicals
608:chlorine
604:hydroxyl
99:spectrum
2488:Exobase
2207:2791591
2157:Bibcode
2116:Bibcode
2079:1817831
2056:Bibcode
2035:3743609
2018:2700150
1995:Bibcode
1953:Battery
1883:Bibcode
1860:Science
1792:Bibcode
1708:Bibcode
1700:Science
1558:May 30,
1532:May 30,
1500:6834528
1416:7089937
1367:May 30,
1341:May 30,
1244:Bibcode
1043:June 9,
1013:. Purch
929:Bibcode
616:species
612:bromine
530:tropics
440:mammals
428:sunburn
371:⁄
174:Sources
63:absorbs
2389:Curlie
2383:
2374:Curlie
2326:
2305:
2284:
2262:
2241:
2222:
2214:
2204:
2134:
2096:Policy
2086:
2076:
2033:
2025:
2015:
1920:
1901:
1810:
1738:
1507:
1497:
1489:
1414:
1406:
1181:
1149:
1141:
1085:
947:
861:Oxygen
761:Norway
728:asthma
714:
710:
662:Nature
594:(NO),
205:oxygen
135:amount
2368:‹The
2220:S2CID
2132:S2CID
2031:S2CID
1965:party
1899:S2CID
1819:(PDF)
1780:(PDF)
1756:. EPA
1669:(PDF)
1605:Video
1412:S2CID
1147:S2CID
1094:(PDF)
1063:(PDF)
989:Video
945:S2CID
833:GALEX
831:This
817:GALEX
212:atoms
168:Venus
125:(the
101:of a
75:ozone
61:that
55:Earth
2360:The
2324:ISBN
2303:ISBN
2282:ISBN
2260:ISBN
2239:ISBN
2212:PMID
2084:PMID
2023:PMID
1918:ISBN
1845:2021
1808:PMID
1762:2008
1736:PMID
1681:2015
1652:2011
1630:2011
1591:2010
1560:2022
1534:2022
1505:PMID
1487:ISSN
1404:ISSN
1369:2022
1343:2022
1318:2011
1296:2008
1217:2021
1192:2016
1179:ISBN
1139:PMID
1102:2015
1083:PMID
1045:2011
1019:2015
975:2007
906:2007
894:NOAA
734:and
732:COPD
655:and
602:O),
420:UV-C
416:UV-B
407:UV-A
403:UV-B
195:The
93:and
45:The
2387:at
2202:PMC
2192:doi
2188:106
2165:doi
2124:doi
2074:PMC
2064:doi
2052:104
2013:PMC
2003:doi
1991:106
1891:doi
1800:doi
1726:hdl
1716:doi
1704:353
1495:PMC
1477:doi
1444:doi
1396:doi
1260:hdl
1252:doi
1129:doi
1075:doi
1071:103
937:doi
765:CFC
696:(Al
484:by
448:DNA
438:in
69:'s
67:Sun
57:'s
49:or
2528::
2486:/
2381:.›
2218:.
2210:.
2200:.
2186:.
2182:.
2163:.
2153:13
2151:.
2147:.
2130:.
2122:.
2110:.
2106:.
2082:.
2072:.
2062:.
2050:.
2046:.
2029:.
2021:.
2011:.
2001:.
1989:.
1985:.
1897:.
1889:.
1877:.
1873:.
1835:.
1806:.
1798:.
1786:.
1782:.
1734:.
1724:.
1714:.
1702:.
1698:.
1671:.
1607:,
1583:29
1581:.
1577:.
1551:.
1525:.
1503:.
1493:.
1485:.
1473:10
1471:.
1467:.
1442:.
1438:.
1424:^
1410:.
1402:.
1390:.
1386:.
1360:.
1334:.
1282:.
1258:.
1250:.
1240:67
1238:.
1234:.
1208:.
1159:^
1145:.
1137:.
1125:49
1123:.
1119:.
1081:.
1069:.
1065:.
1009:.
991:,
943:.
935:.
925:46
923:.
892:.
730:,
704:)
651:,
598:(N
442:.
285:uv
214:(O
164:.
142:nm
77:(O
2417:e
2410:t
2403:v
2332:.
2311:.
2290:.
2268:.
2247:.
2226:.
2194::
2173:.
2167::
2159::
2138:.
2126::
2118::
2112:5
2090:.
2066::
2058::
2037:.
2005::
1997::
1926:.
1905:.
1893::
1885::
1879:5
1847:.
1802::
1794::
1788:3
1764:.
1742:.
1728::
1718::
1710::
1683:.
1654:.
1632:.
1593:.
1562:.
1536:.
1511:.
1479::
1452:.
1446::
1418:.
1398::
1392:9
1371:.
1345:.
1320:.
1298:.
1268:.
1262::
1254::
1246::
1219:.
1194:.
1153:.
1131::
1104:.
1077::
1047:.
1021:.
977:.
951:.
939::
931::
908:.
702:3
700:O
698:2
600:2
507:)
501:(
496:)
492:(
478:.
373:8
369:1
344:3
340:O
328:2
324:O
320:+
317:O
294:O
290:2
270:h
265:+
255:2
251:O
232:2
228:3
224:2
216:2
79:3
41:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
