Axon - Knowledge

1960: 280: 864:. The neurotransmitter chemical then diffuses across to receptors located on the membrane of the target cell. The neurotransmitter binds to these receptors and activates them. Depending on the type of receptors that are activated, the effect on the target cell can be to excite the target cell, inhibit it, or alter its metabolism in some way. This entire sequence of events often takes place in less than a thousandth of a second. Afterward, inside the presynaptic terminal, a new set of vesicles is moved into position next to the membrane, ready to be released when the next action potential arrives. The action potential is the final electrical step in the integration of synaptic messages at the scale of the neuron. 192:. Axons are distinguished from dendrites by several features, including shape (dendrites often taper while axons usually maintain a constant radius), length (dendrites are restricted to a small region around the cell body while axons can be much longer), and function (dendrites receive signals whereas axons transmit them). Some types of neurons have no axon and transmit signals from their dendrites. In some species, axons can emanate from dendrites known as axon-carrying dendrites. No neuron ever has more than one axon; however in invertebrates such as insects or leeches the axon sometimes consists of several regions that function more or less independently of each other. 839: 339: 939:

can potentially become the axon. This alteration of polarity only occurs when the axon is cut at least 10 μm shorter than the other neurites. After the incision is made, the longest neurite will become the future axon and all the other neurites, including the original axon, will turn into dendrites. Imposing an external force on a neurite, causing it to elongate, will make it become an axon. Nonetheless, axonal development is achieved through a complex interplay between extracellular signaling, intracellular signaling and

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separated from the axon origin. In many species some of the neurons have axons that emanate from the dendrite and not from the cell body, and these are known as axon-carrying dendrites. In many cases, an axon originates at an axon hillock on the soma; such axons are said to have "somatic origin". Some axons with somatic origin have a "proximal" initial segment adjacent the axon hillock, while others have a "distal" initial segment, separated from the soma by an extended axon hillock.

829: 38: 656: 733:, electrical currents produced at each node of Ranvier are conducted with little attenuation to the next node in line, where they remain strong enough to generate another action potential. Thus in a myelinated axon, action potentials effectively "jump" from node to node, bypassing the myelinated stretches in between, resulting in a propagation speed much faster than even the fastest unmyelinated axon can sustain. 645: 512: 1054: 889:(~250μs). 2. The voltage change is triphasic. 3. Activity recorded on a tetrode is seen on only one of the four recording wires. In recordings from freely moving rats, axonal signals have been isolated in white matter tracts including the alveus and the corpus callosum as well hippocampal gray matter. 938:

that are equivalent, yet only one of these neurites is destined to become the axon. It is unclear whether axon specification precedes axon elongation or vice versa, although recent evidence points to the latter. If an axon that is not fully developed is cut, the polarity can change and other neurites

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Most axons carry signals in the form of action potentials, which are discrete electrochemical impulses that travel rapidly along an axon, starting at the cell body and terminating at points where the axon makes synaptic contact with target cells. The defining characteristic of an action potential is

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The axon initial segment is unmyelinated and contains a specialized complex of proteins. It is between approximately 20 and 60 μm in length and functions as the site of action potential initiation. Both the position on the axon and the length of the AIS can change showing a degree of plasticity

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play an important role in regulating the length of axons. Based on this observation, researchers developed an explicit model for axonal growth describing how motor proteins could affect the axon length on the molecular level. These studies suggest that motor proteins carry signaling molecules from

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In other cases as seen in rat studies an axon originates from a dendrite; such axons are said to have "dendritic origin". Some axons with dendritic origin similarly have a "proximal" initial segment that starts directly at the axon origin, while others have a "distal" initial segment, discernibly

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Later findings by other researchers identified two groups of Aa fibers that were sensory fibers. These were then introduced into a system (Lloyd classification) that only included sensory fibers (though some of these were mixed nerves and were also motor fibers). This system refers to the sensory

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is a type of neurite outgrowth inhibitory component that is present in the central nervous system myelin membranes (found in an axon). It has a crucial role in restricting axonal regeneration in adult mammalian central nervous system. In recent studies, if Nogo-A is blocked and neutralized, it is

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in the cell. Microtubules form in the axoplasm at the axon hillock. They are arranged along the length of the axon, in overlapping sections, and all point in the same direction – towards the axon terminals. This is noted by the positive endings of the microtubules. This overlapping

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When an action potential reaches a presynaptic terminal, it activates the synaptic transmission process. The first step is rapid opening of calcium ion channels in the membrane of the axon, allowing calcium ions to flow inward across the membrane. The resulting increase in intracellular calcium

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can be classified based on their physical features and signal conduction properties. Axons were known to have different thicknesses (from 0.1 to 20 μm) and these differences were thought to relate to the speed at which an action potential could travel along the axon – its

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Axons vary largely in length from a few micrometers up to meters in some animals. This emphasizes that there must be a cellular length regulation mechanism allowing the neurons both to sense the length of their axons and to control their growth accordingly. It was discovered that

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for this work in 1963. The formulae detailing axonal conductance were extended to vertebrates in the Frankenhaeuser–Huxley equations. The understanding of the biochemical basis for action potential propagation has advanced further, and includes many details about individual

543:(AIS) is a structurally and functionally separate microdomain of the axon. One function of the initial segment is to separate the main part of an axon from the rest of the neuron; another function is to help initiate action potentials. Both of these functions support neuron 377:, which is specialized to conduct signals very rapidly, is close to 1 millimeter in diameter, the size of a small pencil lead. The numbers of axonal telodendria (the branching structures at the end of the axon) can also differ from one nerve fiber to the next. Axons in the 227:

of the axon closely adjoins the membrane of the target cell, and special molecular structures serve to transmit electrical or electrochemical signals across the gap. Some synaptic junctions appear along the length of an axon as it extends; these are called

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characteristic allows action potentials to be transmitted from one end of a long axon to the other without any reduction in size. There are, however, some types of neurons with short axons that carry graded electrochemical signals, of variable amplitude.

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arrangement provides the routes for the transport of different materials from the cell body. Studies on the axoplasm has shown the movement of numerous vesicles of all sizes to be seen along cytoskeletal filaments – the microtubules, and

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In addition to propagating action potentials to axonal terminals, the axon is able to amplify the action potentials, which makes sure a secure propagation of sequential action potentials toward the axonal terminal. In terms of molecular mechanisms,

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It has also been discovered through research that if the axons of a neuron were damaged, as long as the soma (the cell body of a neuron) is not damaged, the axons would regenerate and remake the synaptic connections with neurons with the help of

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proved this hypothesis, and identified several types of nerve fiber, establishing a relationship between the diameter of an axon and its nerve conduction velocity. They published their findings in 1941 giving the first classification of axons.

860:(tiny containers enclosed by a lipid membrane) filled with a neurotransmitter chemical to fuse with the axon's membrane and empty their contents into the extracellular space. The neurotransmitter is released from the presynaptic nerve through 555:

that can fine-tune the neuronal output. A longer AIS is associated with a greater excitability. Plasticity is also seen in the ability of the AIS to change its distribution and to maintain the activity of neural circuitry at a constant level.

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that function in the release of neurotransmitters. However, axonal varicosities are also present in neurodegenerative diseases where they interfere with the conduction of an action potential. Axonal varicosities are also the hallmark of

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Extracellular recordings of action potential propagation in axons has been demonstrated in freely moving animals. While extracellular somatic action potentials have been used to study cellular activity in freely moving animals such as

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takes place at the part of the axon furthest from the cell body. This degeneration takes place quickly following the injury, with the part of the axon being sealed off at the membranes and broken down by macrophages. This is known as

729:, which are found periodically interspersed between segments of the myelin sheath. Therefore, at the point of the node of Ranvier, the axon is reduced in diameter. These nodes are areas where action potentials can be generated. In 896:

in the neurons. Although previous studies indicate an axonal origin of a single spike evoked by short-term pulses, physiological signals in vivo trigger the initiation of sequential spikes at the cell bodies of the neurons.

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content are inversely correlated; when PGMS becomes enriched at the tip of a neurite, its f-actin content is substantially decreased. In addition, exposure to actin-depolimerizing drugs and toxin B (which inactivates

1073:. The filopodia are the mechanism by which the entire process adheres to surfaces and explores the surrounding environment. Actin plays a major role in the mobility of this system. Environments with high levels of 880:

can also be recorded. Extracellular recordings of axon action potential propagation is distinct from somatic action potentials in three ways: 1. The signal has a shorter peak-trough duration (~150μs) than of

1136:, are typically other neurons that are sometimes immature. When the axon has completed its growth at its connection to the target, the diameter of the axon can increase by up to five times, depending on the 474:

The structure of a neuron is seen to consist of two separate functional regions, or compartments – the cell body together with the dendrites as one region, and the axonal region as the other.

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Fletcher TL, Banker GA (December 1989). "The establishment of polarity by hippocampal neurons: the relationship between the stage of a cell's development in situ and its subsequent development in culture".

636:. Dynein is minus-end directed. There are many forms of kinesin and dynein motor proteins, and each is thought to carry a different cargo. The studies on transport in the axon led to the naming of kinesin. 1159:

possible to induce long-distance axonal regeneration which leads to enhancement of functional recovery in rats and mouse spinal cord. This has yet to be done on humans. A recent study has also found that

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Hedgecock EM, Culotti JG, Hall DH (January 1990). "The unc-5, unc-6, and unc-40 genes guide circumferential migrations of pioneer axons and mesodermal cells on the epidermis in C. elegans".

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Serafini T, Kennedy TE, Galko MJ, Mirzayan C, Jessell TM, Tessier-Lavigne M (August 1994). "The netrins define a family of axon outgrowth-promoting proteins homologous to C. elegans UNC-6".

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The axonal region or compartment, includes the axon hillock, the initial segment, the rest of the axon, and the axon telodendria, and axon terminals. It also includes the myelin sheath. The

181:, and group C are unmyelinated. These groups include both sensory fibers and motor fibers. Another classification groups only the sensory fibers as Type I, Type II, Type III, and Type IV. 487:

that produce the neuronal proteins are absent in the axonal region. Proteins needed for the growth of the axon, and the removal of waste materials, need a framework for transport. This

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also employed the squid giant axon (1939) and by 1952 they had obtained a full quantitative description of the ionic basis of the action potential, leading to the formulation of the

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Schwann cells form the myelin sheath of a myelinated axon. Oligodendrocytes form the insulating myelin in the CNS. Along myelinated nerve fibers, gaps in the myelin sheath known as

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netrin receptor is mutated, several neurites are irregularly projected out of neurons and finally a single axon is extended anteriorly. The neurotrophic factors –

1765:, particularly when axonal transport is impaired, this is known as Wallerian-like degeneration. Studies suggest that the degeneration happens as a result of the axonal protein 4336: 219:

but can also make contact with muscle or gland cells. In some circumstances, the axon of one neuron may form a synapse with the dendrites of the same neuron, resulting in an

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Axons are classified in two systems. The first one introduced by Erlanger and Gasser, grouped the fibers into three main groups using the letters A, B, and C. These groups,

771:. This makes multiple synaptic connections with other neurons possible. Sometimes the axon of a neuron may synapse onto dendrites of the same neuron, when it is known as an 1077:(CAMs) create an ideal environment for axonal growth. This seems to provide a "sticky" surface for axons to grow along. Examples of CAMs specific to neural systems include 114: 998:

at the tip of neutrites, is required for the elongation of axons. PMGS asymmetrically distributes to the tip of the neurite that is destined to become the future axon.

4458:"Perturbed interactions of mutant proteolipid protein/DM20 with cholesterol and lipid rafts in oligodendroglia: implications for dysmyelination in spastic paraplegia" 678:, or unmyelinated. This is the provision of an insulating layer, called a myelin sheath. The myelin membrane is unique in its relatively high lipid to protein ratio. 1121:. Some of these are surface bound to cells and thus act as short range attractants or repellents. Others are difusible ligands and thus can have long range effects. 235:

A single axon, with all its branches taken together, can target multiple parts of the brain and generate thousands of synaptic terminals. A bundle of axons make a

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to the cell body and from the cell body to the spinal cord along another branch of the same axon. Axon dysfunction can be the cause of many inherited and acquired

70: 4595: 1039:) causes the formation of multiple axons. Consequently, the interruption of the actin network in a growth cone will promote its neurite to become the axon. 232:("in passing boutons") and can be in the hundreds or even the thousands along one axon. Other synapses appear as terminals at the ends of axonal branches. 1812:

that axonal damage from a single mild traumatic brain injury, can leave a susceptibility to further damage, after repeated mild traumatic brain injuries.

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Hsu K, Terakawa S (July 1996). "Fenestration in the myelin sheath of nerve fibers of the shrimp: a novel node of excitation for saltatory conduction".

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is increased at the tip of destined axon. Disrupting the activity of PI3K inhibits axonal development. Activation of PI3K results in the production of

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Da Silva JS, Hasegawa T, Miyagi T, Dotti CG, Abad-Rodriguez J (May 2005). "Asymmetric membrane ganglioside sialidase activity specifies axonal fate".

361:. Some axons can extend up to one meter or more while others extend as little as one millimeter. The longest axons in the human body are those of the 3470:"A ligand-gated association between cytoplasmic domains of UNC5 and DCC family receptors converts netrin-induced growth cone attraction to repulsion" 5077: 4344: 2981:"CLARITY reveals a more protracted temporal course of axon swelling and disconnection than previously described following traumatic brain injury" 2140: 1867:

was the first to describe the gaps or nodes found on axons and for this contribution these axonal features are now commonly referred to as the

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Grant G (December 2006). "The 1932 and 1944 Nobel Prizes in physiology or medicine: rewards for ground-breaking studies in neurophysiology".

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to the big toe of each foot. The diameter of axons is also variable. Most individual axons are microscopic in diameter (typically about one

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that it is "all-or-nothing" – every action potential that an axon generates has essentially the same size and shape. This

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is the area formed from the cell body of the neuron as it extends to become the axon. It precedes the initial segment. The received

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Neurotransmitter released from presynaptic axon terminal, and transported across synaptic cleft to receptors on postsynaptic neuron

5701: 5631: 648: 5696: 5626: 5241: 4738: 338: 1090: 910: 801: 551:) of a neuron receive input signals at the basal region, and at the apical region the neuron's axon provides output signals. 1932:

has the largest axon known. Its size ranges from 0.5 (typically) to 1 mm in diameter and is used in the control of its

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occur at evenly spaced intervals. The myelination enables an especially rapid mode of electrical impulse propagation called

5316: 4743: 1078: 800:. Axonal damage is usually to the axon cytoskeleton disrupting transport. As a consequence protein accumulations such as 65: 4607: 1014:(PtdIns) which can cause significant elongation of a neurite, converting it into an axon. As such, the overexpression of 892:

In fact, the generation of action potentials in vivo is sequential in nature, and these sequential spikes constitute the

5311: 5299: 5070: 1608: 1240:). The first group A, was subdivided into alpha, beta, gamma, and delta fibers – Aα, Aβ, Aγ, and Aδ. The 902: 624:

carries cell waste materials from the axon terminal to the cell body. Outgoing and ingoing tracks use different sets of

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in the neuron are transmitted to the axon hillock for the generation of an action potential from the initial segment.

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the soma to the growth cone and vice versa whose concentration oscillates in time with a length-dependent frequency.

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in the initial segment where the action potential is initiated. The ion channels are accompanied by a high number of

5346: 1875:, a Spanish anatomist, proposed that axons were the output components of neurons, describing their functionality. 5856: 5706: 5641: 5269: 4716: 3694:"The axonal glycoprotein TAG-1 is an immunoglobulin superfamily member with neurite outgrowth-promoting activity" 3361:

Arimura N, Kaibuchi K (March 2007). "Neuronal polarity: from extracellular signals to intracellular mechanisms".

3030:"Short duration waveforms recorded extracellularly from freely moving rats are representative of axonal activity" 1872: 1762: 1534: 1200: 1194: 1137: 421: 248: 154: 146: 2077:"Receptive fields, geometry and conduction block of sensory neurones in the central nervous system of the leech" 1936:

system. The fastest recorded conduction speed of 210 m/s, is found in the ensheathed axons of some pelagic

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Matalon R, Michals-Matalon K, Surendran S, Tyring SK (2006). "Canavan Disease: Studies on the Knockout Mouse".

4231:"Axonal conduction velocity changes following muscle tenotomy or deafferentation during development in the rat" 1628: 1369: 1327: 797: 53: 1883:

earlier developed the classification system for peripheral nerve fibers, based on axonal conduction velocity,

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In the normally developed brain, along the shaft of some axons are located pre-synaptic boutons also known as

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surrounding neurons play a prominent role in axonal development. These signaling molecules include proteins,

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extend. Elaborate branching allows for the simultaneous transmission of messages to a large number of target

5896: 5335: 5063: 1986: 382: 133:. The function of the axon is to transmit information to different neurons, muscles, and glands. In certain 2271:"Axonal Membranes and Their Domains: Assembly and Function of the Axon Initial Segment and Node of Ranvier" 1745:. The dysfunction of axons in the nervous system is one of the major causes of many inherited and acquired 5803: 5330: 5094: 3411: 1856: 1816: 1797: 1758: 1753: 1213: 1102: 1074: 567: 459:

in the CNS. Where these tracts cross the midline of the brain to connect opposite regions they are called

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were the first to identify and characterize the axon initial segment. Kölliker named the axon in 1896.

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In order of degree of severity, injury to a nerve in the peripheral nervous system can be described as

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An axon can divide into many branches called telodendria (Greek for 'end of tree'). At the end of each

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of the cerebral cortex which contains the neuronal cell bodies. A similar arrangement is seen in the

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is generally credited with the discovery of the axon by distinguishing it from the dendrites. Swiss

5826: 5671: 5666: 5201: 5134: 2812: 1981: 1590: 1229: 1221: 968: 906: 828: 697: 468: 174: 170: 166: 4509:. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology. Vol. 576. pp. 77–93, discussion 361–3. 5861: 5831: 5762: 5731: 5721: 5716: 5711: 5656: 5432: 5342: 5196: 4855: 4556:"Further evidence for altered myelin biosynthesis and glutamatergic dysfunction in schizophrenia" 4536: 4170: 4136: 3850: 3723: 3631: 3585: 3542: 3499: 3450: 3386: 3242: 2877: 2861: 2668: 2445: 2322:"Ankyrin G Membrane Partners Drive the Establishment and Maintenance of the Axon Initial Segment" 2251: 1776: 1503: 1352: 1310: 1257: 1249: 1245: 689:. In the central nervous system the myelin sheath is provided by another type of glial cell, the 696:

The composition of myelin is different in the two types. In the CNS the major myelin protein is

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Rasband MN (August 2010). "The axon initial segment and the maintenance of neuronal polarity".

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also provide a sticky substrate for axons to grow along. Examples of these molecules include

1065:, which is at the tip of the axon. The growth cone has a broad sheet-like extension called a 775:. Some synaptic junctions appear along the length of an axon as it extends; these are called 381:(CNS) typically show multiple telodendria, with many synaptic end points. In comparison, the 5813: 5776: 5771: 5119: 5014: 5004: 4960: 4913: 4874: 4839: 4658: 4650: 4629:

Wright DK, Brady RD, Kamnaksh A, Trezise J, Sun M, McDonald SJ, et al. (October 2019).

4603: 4567: 4510: 4477: 4469: 4428: 4418: 4377: 4369: 4250: 4242: 4201: 4154: 4095: 4085: 4044: 4036: 3987: 3979: 3938: 3930: 3889: 3881: 3834: 3797: 3787: 3705: 3666: 3615: 3569: 3526: 3481: 3434: 3370: 3330: 3322: 3281: 3273: 3262:"Experimental observations on the development of polarity by hippocampal neurons in culture" 3226: 3191: 3128: 3118: 3051: 3041: 3000: 2992: 2948: 2938: 2853: 2804: 2775: 2767: 2650: 2640: 2596: 2586: 2542: 2534: 2493: 2483: 2429: 2392: 2384: 2343: 2333: 2292: 2282: 2235: 2182: 2174: 2096: 2088: 2047: 2037: 1991: 1800:

can result in widespread lesions to nerve tracts damaging the axons in a condition known as

1612: 1437: 857: 813: 768: 764: 760: 621: 617: 609: 587: 571: 559: 524: 488: 436: 374: 126: 3768:"Laser-based single-axon transection for high-content axon injury and regeneration studies" 2472:"Axon Initial Segment Cytoskeleton: Architecture, Development, and Role in Neuron Polarity" 1264:

groups as Types and uses Roman numerals: Type Ia, Type Ib, Type II, Type III, and Type IV.

5581: 5550: 5545: 5427: 5422: 5246: 4340: 4124: 3919:"Kinesin-5 regulates the growth of the axon by acting as a brake on its microtubule array" 3649:

Bradke F, Dotti CG (March 1999). "The role of local actin instability in axon formation".

2927:"Rapid and Reversible Development of Axonal Varicosities: A New Form of Neural Plasticity" 1876: 1868: 1575: 1403: 1395: 1209: 1145: 1125: 848: 718: 713: 693:. Schwann cells myelinate a single axon. An oligodendrocyte can myelinate up to 50 axons. 690: 464: 417: 309: 260: 203:. Most axons branch, in some cases very profusely. The end branches of an axon are called 5045: 4686: 4304: 2805: 926:

The development of the axon to its target, is one of the six major stages in the overall

4956: 4646: 4373: 4150: 4032: 3783: 3662: 3114: 2849: 2655: 2628: 779:("in passing boutons") and can be in the hundreds or even the thousands along one axon. 373:(μm) across). The largest mammalian axons can reach a diameter of up to 20 μm. The 5871: 5841: 5798: 5618: 5576: 5554: 5474: 5357: 5181: 5086: 5019: 4992: 4663: 4630: 4482: 4457: 4433: 4406: 4382: 4357: 4255: 4230: 4100: 4073: 4049: 4016: 3992: 3967: 3943: 3918: 3894: 3869: 3802: 3767: 3560:

Huang EJ, Reichardt LF (2003). "Trk receptors: roles in neuronal signal transduction".

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Rishal I, Kam N, Perry RB, Shinder V, Fisher EM, Schiavo G, Fainzilber M (June 2012).

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Höfflin F, Jack A, Riedel C, Mack-Bucher J, Roos J, Corcelli C, et al. (2017).

4859: 4711: 4540: 4407:"Endogenous Nmnat2 is an essential survival factor for maintenance of healthy axons" 3727: 3635: 3589: 3546: 3503: 3454: 3390: 3246: 2881: 2672: 2449: 2255: 5766: 5688: 5601: 5482: 5412: 5191: 5114: 4473: 4246: 3885: 3868:

Gensel JC, Nakamura S, Guan Z, van Rooijen N, Ankeny DP, Popovich PG (March 2009).

3854: 2388: 2178: 2092: 1996: 1917: 1888: 1860: 1824: 1708: 1303: 1241: 1086: 980: 940: 873: 838: 686: 660: 613: 520: 484: 440: 413: 401: 347: 321: 304: 299: 256: 4190:"Properties of fast and slow motor units in hind limb and tail muscles of the rat" 3670: 3087:

Rongjing Ge, Hao Qian, Na Chen and Jin-Hui Wang* (2014) Molecular Brain 7(26):1-16

1843:. However, medical sources generally use "nerve fiber" to refer to the axon only. 279: 4456:

Krämer-Albers EM, Gehrig-Burger K, Thiele C, Trotter J, Nave KA (November 2006).

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Leterrier C, Clerc N, Rueda-Boroni F, Montersino A, Dargent B, Castets F (2017).

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can build up in a swelling resulting in a number of varicosities along the axon.

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express UNC-6 to provide global and local netrin cues for guiding migrations in

1929: 1905: 1730: 1726: 1722: 1155: 1110: 1082: 1062: 1015: 987: 963:(also known as UNC-6) a secreted protein, functions in axon formation. When the 931: 886: 877: 869: 823: 792: 655: 644: 492: 456: 448: 366: 343: 264: 252: 236: 204: 5048:

at the University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center – "Slide 3

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Furley AJ, Morton SB, Manalo D, Karagogeos D, Dodd J, Jessell TM (April 1990).

2239: 2026:"Axons emanating from dendrites: phylogenetic repercussions with Cajalian hues" 511: 215:

connection. Axons usually make contact with other neurons at junctions called

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Hong K, Hinck L, Nishiyama M, Poo MM, Tessier-Lavigne M, Stein E (June 1999).

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is the abnormal formation of the myelin sheath. This is implicated in several

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or end-foot which joins the dendrite or cell body of another neuron forming a

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Essential cell biology: an introduction to the molecular biology of the cell

1937: 1070: 991: 756: 682: 597: 575: 409: 408:

is a layer of a fatty insulating substance, which is formed by two types of

185: 5028: 4974: 4851: 4672: 4581: 4532: 4491: 4442: 4391: 4166: 4109: 4058: 4001: 3952: 3903: 3846: 3811: 3678: 3627: 3581: 3495: 3382: 3344: 3277: 3238: 3142: 3065: 3014: 2962: 2873: 2857: 2789: 2664: 2610: 2556: 2507: 2488: 2441: 2406: 2357: 2306: 2247: 2196: 2061: 605:, in both directions between the axon and its terminals and the cell body. 4925: 4305:"Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) - Definition, Epidemiology, Pathophysiology" 4264: 4215: 3934: 3719: 3538: 3446: 3326: 3295: 3203: 3078:

Rongjing Ge, Hao Qian and Jin-Hui Wang* (2011) Molecular Brain 4(19), 1~11

2110: 5530: 5515: 5510: 5234: 5229: 5156: 5151: 4194:

Quarterly Journal of Experimental Physiology and Cognate Medical Sciences

2838:

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences

2811:(11th ed.). Philadelphia: Lippincott William & Wilkins. p. 1840: 1118: 1114: 593: 284: 200: 196: 189: 4918:

10.1002/(SICI)1097-4695(199607)30:3<397::AID-NEU8>3.0.CO;2-#

5793: 5754: 3230: 1836: 1106: 935: 832: 772: 629: 220: 216: 212: 4796:

Origins of neuroscience: a history of explorations into brain function

2996: 2219:

Debanne D, Campanac E, Bialowas A, Carlier E, Alcaraz G (April 2011).

1167:

receptor are capable of promoting axon recovery, also however causing

385:

axon is characterized by a single T-shaped branch node from which two

83: 5453: 5408: 5173: 4876:

The Brain, the Nervous System, and Their Diseases [3 volumes]

4282:(2nd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 187–189. 3870:"Macrophages promote axon regeneration with concurrent neurotoxicity" 2865: 2756:"Oligodendroglial membrane dynamics in relation to myelin biogenesis" 1884: 1782: 1766: 1164: 960: 726: 675: 633: 405: 397: 390: 326: 178: 118: 4074:"A frequency-dependent decoding mechanism for axonal length sensing" 3374: 2433: 2135:(4th ed.). Amsterdam: Elsevier/Academic Press. pp. 61–65. 1018:

that dephosphorylate PtdIns leads into the failure of polarization.

4141: 3619: 3311:"Mechanical tension can specify axonal fate in hippocampal neurons" 3028:

Robbins AA, Fox SE, Holmes GL, Scott RC, Barry JM (November 2013).

2163:"The development of the corpus callosum in the healthy human brain" 1775:

causes the multitude of neurological symptoms found in the disease

1163:

activated through a specific inflammatory pathway activated by the

4554:

Tkachev D, Mimmack ML, Huffaker SJ, Ryan M, Bahn S (August 2007).

2575:"Structural and Functional Plasticity at the Axon Initial Segment" 1052: 1031: 1027: 964: 827: 654: 643: 510: 358: 337: 16:

Long projection on a neuron that conducts signals to other neurons

5055: 3309:

Lamoureux P, Ruthel G, Buxbaum RE, Heidemann SR (November 2002).

3217:

Jiang H, Rao Y (May 2005). "Axon formation: fate versus growth".

1965:

Recordings in the hippocampus from different cell types and axons

5400: 5216: 1823:, and is one of the many treatments used for different kinds of 1007: 995: 515:

Detail showing microtubules at axon hillock and initial segment.

188:

protrusions from the cell body of a neuron; the other type is a

5059: 4765: 1944:

100–120 m/s for the fastest myelinated vertebrate axon.)

1941: 1809: 1030:

filament content will become the axon. PGMS concentration and

2979:

Weber MT, Arena JD, Xiao R, Wolf JA, Johnson VE (May 2019).

2754:

Ozgen, H; Baron, W; Hoekstra, D; Kahya, N (September 2016).

141:), such as those for touch and warmth, the axons are called 3160:(5th ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 520–524. 2629:"Activity-dependent regulation of excitable axonal domains" 443:

in the brain. The myelin gives the white appearance to the

2836:

Hess A, Young JZ (November 1952). "The nodes of Ranvier".

3825:

Schwab ME (February 2004). "Nogo and axon regeneration".

3766:

Kunik D, Dion C, Ozaki T, Levin LA, Costantino S (2011).

1940:

and the usual range is between 90 and 200 meters/s (

979:(NTF3) are also involved in axon development and bind to 681:

In the peripheral nervous system axons are myelinated by

558:

The AIS is highly specialized for the fast conduction of

1819:

is an artificial means of guiding axon growth to enable

934:

neurons suggest that neurons initially produce multiple

574:

that anchor them to the cytoskeleton. Interactions with

145:

and the electrical impulse travels along these from the

578:

are important as it is the major organizer in the AIS.

125:, that typically conducts electrical impulses known as 1835:

Some general dictionaries define "nerve fiber" as any

1260:

having the Aα, Aβ, and Aγ nerve fibers, respectively.

755:(also called a terminal bouton or synaptic bouton, or 2733:(4th ed.). New York: Garland. pp. 979–981. 1394:

are innervated by type Ia, Ib and II sensory fibers,

1061:

Growing axons move through their environment via the

951:

The extracellular signals that propagate through the

4560:

The International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology

1761:. Dying back of an axon can also take place in many 396:

There are two types of axons in the nervous system:

117:) is a long, slender projection of a nerve cell, or 5812: 5753: 5746: 5682: 5612: 5569: 5529: 5491: 5473: 5466: 5452: 5399: 5371: 5277: 5268: 5215: 5172: 5165: 5102: 5093: 4127:, Kruse K (May 2019). "Sound of an axon's growth". 1057:

Axon of nine-day-old mouse with growth cone visible

959:, and extracellular matrix and adhesion molecules. 659:Cross section of an axon: (1) Axon (2) Nucleus (3) 491:is provided for in the axoplasm by arrangements of 207:. The swollen end of a telodendron is known as the 64: 52: 47: 30: 3968:"A motor-driven mechanism for cell-length sensing" 4017:"Delayed feedback model of axonal length sensing" 3097:Chen N, Yu J, Qian H, Ge R, Wang JH (July 2010). 2523:"Electrogenic tuning of the axon initial segment" 1769:, being prevented from reaching all of the axon. 1749:that affect both peripheral and central neurons. 4818:Kölliker would give the "axon" its name in 1896. 2373:"The Axon Initial Segment: An Updated Viewpoint" 620:needed for growth to the axon terminal. Ingoing 353:Axons are the primary transmission lines of the 3601: 3599: 3356: 3354: 2521:Clark BD, Goldberg EM, Rudy B (December 2009). 1132:of neuronal axon growth. These cells that help 994:(PMGS), which is involved in the activation of 990:-converting enzyme plasma membrane ganglioside 2161:Luders E, Thompson PM, Toga AW (August 2010). 1899:. Hodgkin and Huxley were awarded jointly the 1752:When an axon is crushed, an active process of 562:. This is achieved by a high concentration of 5071: 1272:Lower motor neurons have two kind of fibers: 1097:superfamily. Another set of molecules called 547:, in which dendrites (and, in some cases the 8: 2701:(2nd ed.). New York: Garland. pp. 2690: 2688: 2686: 2684: 2682: 791:and these have been found in regions of the 632:, and ingoing return traffic is provided by 195:Axons are covered by a membrane known as an 4832:Journal of the History of the Neurosciences 4358:"Wallerian degeneration, wld(s), and nmnat" 4278:Pocock G, Richards CD, et al. (2004). 1390:innervate different types of nerve fibers. 1006:During axonal development, the activity of 612:from the cell body along the axon, carries 5750: 5470: 5463: 5274: 5169: 5099: 5078: 5064: 5056: 2019: 2017: 1012:phosphatidylinositol (3,4,5)-trisphosphate 455:. Bundles of myelinated axons make up the 439:form the bulk of the neural tissue called 263:, formed of some 200 million axons in the 36: 5018: 5008: 4964: 4873:Hellier, Jennifer L. (16 December 2014). 4662: 4571: 4481: 4432: 4422: 4381: 4254: 4205: 4140: 4099: 4089: 4048: 3991: 3942: 3893: 3801: 3791: 3709: 3485: 3334: 3285: 3132: 3122: 3055: 3045: 3004: 2952: 2942: 2779: 2654: 2644: 2622: 2620: 2600: 2590: 2568: 2566: 2546: 2497: 2487: 2396: 2347: 2337: 2296: 2286: 2214: 2212: 2210: 2208: 2206: 2186: 2100: 2051: 2041: 3574:10.1146/annurev.biochem.72.121801.161629 2974: 2972: 2465: 2463: 2461: 2459: 2156: 2154: 2152: 1633: 1581: 1538: 1478: 1408: 1274: 1244:of the different motor fibers, were the 837: 471:, and this has around 20 million axons. 4798:. Oxford University Press. p. 47. 4345:University of California, San Francisco 4015:Karamched BR, Bressloff PC (May 2015). 2013: 1955: 725:) are short unmyelinated segments of a 4356:Coleman MP, Freeman MR (1 June 2010). 2724: 2722: 1808:. It has been shown in studies on the 1398:by type II and III sensory fibers and 651:of a myelinated axon in cross-section. 81: 27: 4986: 4984: 4405:Gilley J, Coleman MP (January 2010). 2920: 2918: 2916: 2633:The Journal of Physiological Sciences 393:within a single region of the brain. 199:; the cytoplasm of an axon is called 7: 3917:Myers KA, Baas PW (September 2007). 2760:Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences 2126: 2124: 2122: 2120: 1631:has two kinds of peripheral fibers: 674:In the nervous system, axons may be 628:. Outgoing transport is provided by 4893:from the original on 14 March 2018. 4374:10.1146/annurev-neuro-060909-153248 4072:Bressloff PC, Karamched BR (2015). 1920:have been extensively studied. The 1406:by type III and IV sensory fibers. 162: 4997:Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience 4939:Salzer JL, Zalc B (October 2016). 4774:American Psychological Association 4078:Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience 2579:Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience 2326:Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience 2275:Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience 1199:The axons of neurons in the human 913:in response to short-term pulses. 165:into three types – 14: 4334:Trauma and Wallerian Degeneration 4315:from the original on 12 June 2018 4188:Andrew BL, Part NJ (April 1972). 3260:Goslin K, Banker G (April 1989). 1232:include both the sensory fibers ( 1069:which contain protrusions called 973:brain-derived neurotrophic factor 928:development of the nervous system 833:Synaptic connections from an axon 365:, which run from the base of the 342:A dissected human brain, showing 4207:10.1113/expphysiol.1972.sp002151 1958: 1928:has the longest known axon. The 278: 5242:Oligodendrocyte progenitor cell 3827:Current Opinion in Neurobiology 3745:(Sixth ed.). p. 947. 2627:Susuki K, Kuba H (March 2016). 1741:. Axonal injury can also cause 1093:, all of which are part of the 184:An axon is one of two types of 4474:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3581-06.2006 4247:10.1113/jphysiol.1980.sp013085 3886:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3992-08.2009 2896:"Medical Definition of bouton" 2470:Jones SL, Svitkina TM (2016). 2389:10.1523/jneurosci.1922-17.2018 2269:Nelson AD, Jenkins PM (2017). 2179:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.5122-09.2010 2093:10.1113/jphysiol.1976.sp011643 1148:. This is also referred to as 802:amyloid-beta precursor protein 463:. The largest of these is the 435:The myelinated axons from the 42:An axon of a multipolar neuron 1: 4362:Annual Review of Neuroscience 3743:Molecular biology of the cell 3671:10.1126/science.283.5409.1931 3562:Annual Review of Biochemistry 3487:10.1016/S0092-8674(00)80804-1 2731:Molecular biology of the cell 2371:Leterrier C (February 2018). 1737:is considered a mild form of 903:voltage-gated sodium channels 564:voltage-gated sodium channels 333:Structure of a typical neuron 4770:APA Dictionary of Psychology 4424:10.1371/journal.pbio.1000300 4303:Dawodu ST (16 August 2017). 3984:10.1016/j.celrep.2012.05.013 3793:10.1371/journal.pone.0026832 3711:10.1016/0092-8674(90)90223-2 3531:10.1016/0896-6273(90)90444-K 3439:10.1016/0092-8674(94)90420-0 3363:Nature Reviews. Neuroscience 3196:10.1016/0012-1606(89)90269-8 3124:10.1371/journal.pone.0011868 3034:Frontiers in Neural Circuits 2807:Langman's medical embryology 2422:Nature Reviews. Neuroscience 1609:anterior spinothalamic tract 1085: – an axonal 1026:The neurite with the lowest 5352:Postganglionic nerve fibers 4462:The Journal of Neuroscience 4229:Russell NJ (January 1980). 3923:The Journal of Cell Biology 3874:The Journal of Neuroscience 3315:The Journal of Cell Biology 3266:The Journal of Cell Biology 2377:The Journal of Neuroscience 2167:The Journal of Neuroscience 1853:Otto Friedrich Karl Deiters 1839:, including both axons and 1806:persistent vegetative state 1571:lateral spinothalamic tract 930:. Studies done on cultured 905:in the axons possess lower 357:, and as bundles they form 5913: 5646: 5347:Preganglionic nerve fibers 4744:Taber's Medical Dictionary 4655:10.1038/s41598-019-51267-w 4159:10.1103/PhysRevE.99.050401 3839:10.1016/j.conb.2004.01.004 2240:10.1152/physrev.00048.2009 1857:Rüdolf Albert von Kölliker 1763:neurodegenerative diseases 1706: 1535:cutaneous mechanoreceptors 1192: 1046: 872:, axonal activity in both 817: 811: 759:). Axon terminals contain 740: 711: 585: 259:tract in the brain is the 18: 5857:Olfactory receptor neuron 5521:Neurofibril/neurofilament 4966:10.1016/j.cub.2016.07.074 4844:10.1080/09647040600638981 4717:Oxford English Dictionary 4596:"Brain Injury, Traumatic" 4573:10.1017/S1461145706007334 4235:The Journal of Physiology 4041:10.1016/j.bpj.2015.03.055 3158:Principles of development 2944:10.3389/fnmol.2021.610857 2772:10.1007/s00018-016-2228-8 2646:10.1007/s12576-015-0413-4 2573:Yamada R, Kuba H (2016). 2081:The Journal of Physiology 2030:Frontiers in Neuroanatomy 1579: 1483: 1481: 1201:peripheral nervous system 1195:Nerve conduction velocity 422:peripheral nervous system 249:peripheral nervous system 76: 35: 5010:10.3389/fncel.2017.00332 4091:10.3389/fncel.2015.00281 3047:10.3389/fncir.2013.00181 2592:10.3389/fncel.2016.00250 2539:10.1177/1073858409341973 2339:10.3389/fncel.2017.00006 2288:10.3389/fncel.2017.00136 2133:Fundamental neuroscience 2075:Yau KW (December 1976). 2043:10.3389/fnana.2014.00133 1629:autonomic nervous system 1370:Intrafusal muscle fibers 1328:Extrafusal muscle fibers 1236:) and the motor fibers ( 798:traumatic brain injuries 4906:Journal of Neurobiology 4515:10.1007/0-387-30172-0_6 3741:Alberts, Bruce (2015). 3156:Wolpert, Lewis (2015). 2900:www.merriam-webster.com 1987:Giant axonal neuropathy 1527:Secondary receptors of 1075:cell adhesion molecules 1002:Intracellular signaling 947:Extracellular signaling 700:, and in the PNS it is 568:cell adhesion molecules 383:cerebellar granule cell 5804:Neuromuscular junction 5667:III or Aδ or fast pain 3278:10.1083/jcb.108.4.1507 2858:10.1098/rspb.1952.0063 2131:Squire, Larry (2013). 1873:Santiago Ramón y Cajal 1817:nerve guidance conduit 1798:traumatic brain injury 1773:Demyelination of axons 1759:Wallerian degeneration 1747:neurological disorders 1531:(flower-spray ending). 1353:Gamma (γ) motor neuron 1311:Alpha (α) motor neuron 1089: – and 1058: 917:Development and growth 843: 835: 671: 652: 541:axonal initial segment 535:Axonal initial segment 516: 497:intermediate filaments 467:that connects the two 379:central nervous system 350: 241:central nervous system 151:neurological disorders 139:pseudounipolar neurons 78:Anatomical terminology 5046:Histology image: 3_09 3935:10.1083/jcb.200702074 3327:10.1083/jcb.200207174 3184:Developmental Biology 2228:Physiological Reviews 2002:Single-unit recording 1922:longfin inshore squid 1865:Louis-Antoine Ranvier 1804:. This can lead to a 1802:diffuse axonal injury 1743:central chromatolysis 1739:diffuse axonal injury 1717:Demyelinating disease 1713:Peripheral neuropathy 1703:Clinical significance 1683:postganglionic fibers 1564:of touch and pressure 1476:(annulospiral ending) 1472:Primary receptors of 1335:Beta (β) motor neuron 1193:Further information: 1056: 1022:Cytoskeletal dynamics 856:concentration causes 841: 831: 818:Further information: 658: 647: 610:anterograde transport 596:is the equivalent of 514: 341: 177:. Groups A and B are 153:that affect both the 143:afferent nerve fibers 21:Axon (disambiguation) 5822:Meissner's corpuscle 5787:Postsynaptic density 5684:Efferent nerve fiber 5672:IV or C or slow pain 5614:Afferent nerve fiber 5440:Satellite glial cell 4123:Folz F, Wettmann L, 2489:10.1155/2016/6808293 2024:Triarhou LC (2014). 1897:Hodgkin–Huxley model 1664:preganglionic fibers 1410:Sensory fiber types 1206:conductance velocity 1099:extracellular matrix 957:neurotrophic factors 953:extracellular matrix 731:saltatory conduction 702:myelin basic protein 622:retrograde transport 469:cerebral hemispheres 430:saltatory conduction 223:. At a synapse, the 175:group C nerve fibers 171:group B nerve fibers 167:group A nerve fibers 115:spelling differences 19:For other uses, see 5827:Merkel nerve ending 4957:2016CBio...26.R971S 4647:2019NatSR...914626W 4151:2019PhRvE..99e0401F 4033:2015BpJ...108.2408K 4021:Biophysical Journal 3784:2011PLoSO...626832K 3663:1999Sci...283.1931B 3608:Nature Neuroscience 3219:Nature Neuroscience 3115:2010PLoSO...511868C 2850:1952RSPSB.140..301H 2803:Sadler, T. (2010). 1982:Ganglionic eminence 1754:axonal degeneration 1636: 1411: 1297:Conduction velocity 1277: 1246:lower motor neurons 1138:speed of conduction 969:nerve growth factor 789:axonal varicosities 783:Axonal varicosities 767:for release at the 698:proteolipid protein 447:in contrast to the 161:. Nerve fibers are 5862:Photoreceptor cell 5832:Pacinian corpuscle 5763:Electrical synapse 5717:Lower motor neuron 5712:Upper motor neuron 5433:Internodal segment 5373:Connective tissues 5343:Autonomic ganglion 4635:Scientific Reports 4339:2 May 2006 at the 3231:10.1038/nn0505-544 2931:Front Mol Neurosci 2729:Alberts B (2002). 2695:Alberts B (2004). 2527:The Neuroscientist 2142:978-0-12-385-870-2 1924:, often used as a 1887:, fiber size etc. 1777:multiple sclerosis 1634: 1562:Free nerve endings 1504:Golgi tendon organ 1409: 1276:Motor fiber types 1275: 1258:gamma motor neuron 1250:alpha motor neuron 1248: – 1103:adhesion molecules 1059: 844: 836: 777:en passant boutons 723:myelin sheath gaps 672: 653: 517: 351: 230:en passant boutons 5884: 5883: 5880: 5879: 5847:Free nerve ending 5814:Sensory receptors 5742: 5741: 5657:Ib or Golgi or Aα 5565: 5564: 5448: 5447: 5325:Ramus communicans 5264: 5263: 5260: 5259: 5130:Commissural fiber 5125:Association fiber 5120:Projection fibers 4951:(20): R971–R975. 4794:Finger S (1994). 4524:978-0-387-30171-6 4507:N-Acetylaspartate 4289:978-0-19-858527-5 4129:Physical Review E 3167:978-0-19-967814-3 2997:10.1111/bpa.12677 2822:978-0-7817-9069-7 2740:978-0-8153-4072-0 2712:978-0-8153-3481-1 2476:Neural Plasticity 2221:"Axon physiology" 1977:Electrophysiology 1952:Additional images 1851:German anatomist 1821:neuroregeneration 1700: 1699: 1620: 1619: 1438:sensory receptors 1388:sensory receptors 1375: 1374: 1254:beta motor neuron 1175:Length regulation 1150:neuroregeneration 911:refractory period 858:synaptic vesicles 808:Action potentials 761:synaptic vesicles 618:membrane proteins 572:scaffold proteins 525:action potentials 253:placental mammals 127:action potentials 98:(from Greek ἄξων 92: 91: 87: 5904: 5777:Synaptic vesicle 5772:Chemical synapse 5751: 5471: 5464: 5275: 5170: 5100: 5080: 5073: 5066: 5057: 5033: 5032: 5022: 5012: 4988: 4979: 4978: 4968: 4936: 4930: 4929: 4901: 4895: 4894: 4870: 4864: 4863: 4827: 4821: 4820: 4791: 4785: 4784: 4782: 4780: 4762: 4756: 4755: 4753: 4751: 4735: 4729: 4728: 4726: 4724: 4708: 4702: 4701: 4699: 4697: 4683: 4677: 4676: 4666: 4626: 4620: 4619: 4617: 4615: 4606:. Archived from 4592: 4586: 4585: 4575: 4551: 4545: 4544: 4502: 4496: 4495: 4485: 4468:(45): 11743–52. 4453: 4447: 4446: 4436: 4426: 4402: 4396: 4395: 4385: 4353: 4347: 4331: 4325: 4324: 4322: 4320: 4300: 4294: 4293: 4280:Human Physiology 4275: 4269: 4268: 4258: 4226: 4220: 4219: 4209: 4185: 4179: 4178: 4144: 4120: 4114: 4113: 4103: 4093: 4069: 4063: 4062: 4052: 4012: 4006: 4005: 3995: 3963: 3957: 3956: 3946: 3914: 3908: 3907: 3897: 3865: 3859: 3858: 3822: 3816: 3815: 3805: 3795: 3763: 3757: 3756: 3738: 3732: 3731: 3713: 3689: 3683: 3682: 3657:(5409): 1931–4. 3646: 3640: 3639: 3603: 3594: 3593: 3557: 3551: 3550: 3514: 3508: 3507: 3489: 3465: 3459: 3458: 3422: 3416: 3401: 3395: 3394: 3358: 3349: 3348: 3338: 3306: 3300: 3299: 3289: 3257: 3251: 3250: 3214: 3208: 3207: 3178: 3172: 3171: 3153: 3147: 3146: 3136: 3126: 3094: 3088: 3085: 3079: 3076: 3070: 3069: 3059: 3049: 3025: 3019: 3018: 3008: 2976: 2967: 2966: 2956: 2946: 2922: 2911: 2910: 2908: 2906: 2892: 2886: 2885: 2833: 2827: 2826: 2810: 2800: 2794: 2793: 2783: 2766:(17): 3291–310. 2751: 2745: 2744: 2726: 2717: 2716: 2692: 2677: 2676: 2658: 2648: 2624: 2615: 2614: 2604: 2594: 2570: 2561: 2560: 2550: 2518: 2512: 2511: 2501: 2491: 2467: 2454: 2453: 2417: 2411: 2410: 2400: 2383:(9): 2135–2145. 2368: 2362: 2361: 2351: 2341: 2317: 2311: 2310: 2300: 2290: 2266: 2260: 2259: 2225: 2216: 2201: 2200: 2190: 2173:(33): 10985–90. 2158: 2147: 2146: 2128: 2115: 2114: 2104: 2072: 2066: 2065: 2055: 2045: 2021: 1992:Neuronal tracing 1962: 1869:nodes of Ranvier 1837:neuronal process 1787:leukodystrophies 1637: 1613:Warmth receptors 1450:thermoreceptors 1412: 1396:mechanoreceptors 1382: 1381: 1278: 814:Action potential 765:neurotransmitter 719:Nodes of Ranvier 708:Nodes of Ranvier 588:Axonal transport 582:Axonal transport 489:axonal transport 437:cortical neurons 426:nodes of Ranvier 418:oligodendrocytes 375:squid giant axon 282: 84:edit on Wikidata 40: 28: 5912: 5911: 5907: 5906: 5905: 5903: 5902: 5901: 5887: 5886: 5885: 5876: 5808: 5738: 5687: 5678: 5662:II or Aβ and Aγ 5617: 5608: 5561: 5551:Apical dendrite 5546:Dendritic spine 5525: 5487: 5457: 5444: 5428:Node of Ranvier 5423:Myelin incisure 5395: 5367: 5256: 5247:Oligodendrocyte 5230:Ependymal cells 5211: 5161: 5089: 5084: 5042: 5037: 5036: 4990: 4989: 4982: 4945:Current Biology 4938: 4937: 4933: 4903: 4902: 4898: 4887: 4872: 4871: 4867: 4829: 4828: 4824: 4806: 4793: 4792: 4788: 4778: 4776: 4764: 4763: 4759: 4749: 4747: 4737: 4736: 4732: 4722: 4720: 4710: 4709: 4705: 4695: 4693: 4691:Merriam-Webster 4685: 4684: 4680: 4628: 4627: 4623: 4613: 4611: 4594: 4593: 4589: 4553: 4552: 4548: 4525: 4504: 4503: 4499: 4455: 4454: 4450: 4417:(1): e1000300. 4404: 4403: 4399: 4355: 4354: 4350: 4341:Wayback Machine 4332: 4328: 4318: 4316: 4302: 4301: 4297: 4290: 4277: 4276: 4272: 4228: 4227: 4223: 4187: 4186: 4182: 4135:(5–1): 050401. 4122: 4121: 4117: 4071: 4070: 4066: 4014: 4013: 4009: 3965: 3964: 3960: 3916: 3915: 3911: 3880:(12): 3956–68. 3867: 3866: 3862: 3824: 3823: 3819: 3765: 3764: 3760: 3753: 3740: 3739: 3735: 3691: 3690: 3686: 3648: 3647: 3643: 3605: 3604: 3597: 3559: 3558: 3554: 3516: 3515: 3511: 3467: 3466: 3462: 3424: 3423: 3419: 3408:pioneer neurons 3402: 3398: 3375:10.1038/nrn2056 3360: 3359: 3352: 3308: 3307: 3303: 3259: 3258: 3254: 3216: 3215: 3211: 3180: 3179: 3175: 3168: 3155: 3154: 3150: 3096: 3095: 3091: 3086: 3082: 3077: 3073: 3027: 3026: 3022: 2978: 2977: 2970: 2924: 2923: 2914: 2904: 2902: 2894: 2893: 2889: 2844:(900): 301–20. 2835: 2834: 2830: 2823: 2802: 2801: 2797: 2753: 2752: 2748: 2741: 2728: 2727: 2720: 2713: 2694: 2693: 2680: 2626: 2625: 2618: 2572: 2571: 2564: 2520: 2519: 2515: 2469: 2468: 2457: 2434:10.1038/nrn2852 2419: 2418: 2414: 2370: 2369: 2365: 2319: 2318: 2314: 2268: 2267: 2263: 2223: 2218: 2217: 2204: 2160: 2159: 2150: 2143: 2130: 2129: 2118: 2074: 2073: 2069: 2023: 2022: 2015: 2010: 1973: 1966: 1963: 1954: 1938:Penaeid shrimps 1914: 1877:Joseph Erlanger 1849: 1833: 1719: 1707:Main articles: 1705: 1658:velocity (m/s) 1657: 1649: 1644: 1643:Erlanger-Gasser 1625: 1611: 1576:thermoreceptors 1573: 1565: 1532: 1449: 1448:Nociceptors and 1432: 1424: 1419: 1418:Erlanger-Gasser 1404:thermoreceptors 1384: 1379: 1378: 1299:(meters/second) 1298: 1290: 1285: 1284:Erlanger-Gasser 1270: 1197: 1191: 1177: 1171:in the neuron. 1146:guidepost cells 1126:guidepost cells 1051: 1045: 1024: 1004: 949: 924: 919: 883:pyramidal cells 826: 816: 810: 785: 763:that store the 745: 739: 727:myelinated axon 721:(also known as 716: 714:Node of Ranvier 710: 691:oligodendrocyte 642: 590: 584: 537: 509: 481: 465:corpus callosum 387:parallel fibers 336: 335: 334: 331: 330: 329: 324: 319: 314: 311: 307: 302: 297: 292: 287: 273: 261:corpus callosum 159:central neurons 135:sensory neurons 131:nerve cell body 88: 43: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 5910: 5908: 5900: 5899: 5897:Neurohistology 5889: 5888: 5882: 5881: 5878: 5877: 5875: 5874: 5872:Taste receptor 5869: 5864: 5859: 5854: 5849: 5844: 5842:Muscle spindle 5839: 5837:Ruffini ending 5834: 5829: 5824: 5818: 5816: 5810: 5809: 5807: 5806: 5801: 5799:Ribbon synapse 5796: 5791: 5790: 5789: 5784: 5779: 5769: 5759: 5757: 5748: 5744: 5743: 5740: 5739: 5737: 5736: 5735: 5734: 5729: 5724: 5714: 5709: 5704: 5699: 5693: 5691: 5680: 5679: 5677: 5676: 5675: 5674: 5669: 5664: 5659: 5654: 5644: 5639: 5634: 5629: 5623: 5621: 5619:Sensory neuron 5610: 5609: 5607: 5606: 5605: 5604: 5594: 5589: 5587:Pseudounipolar 5584: 5579: 5573: 5571: 5567: 5566: 5563: 5562: 5560: 5559: 5558: 5557: 5555:Basal dendrite 5548: 5543: 5535: 5533: 5527: 5526: 5524: 5523: 5518: 5513: 5508: 5506:Axon terminals 5503: 5497: 5495: 5489: 5488: 5486: 5485: 5479: 5477: 5468: 5461: 5450: 5449: 5446: 5445: 5443: 5442: 5437: 5436: 5435: 5430: 5425: 5420: 5405: 5403: 5397: 5396: 5394: 5393: 5388: 5383: 5377: 5375: 5369: 5368: 5366: 5365: 5360: 5358:Nerve fascicle 5355: 5349: 5340: 5339: 5338: 5333: 5321: 5320: 5319: 5314: 5304: 5303: 5302: 5297: 5292: 5281: 5279: 5272: 5266: 5265: 5262: 5261: 5258: 5257: 5255: 5254: 5249: 5244: 5239: 5238: 5237: 5227: 5221: 5219: 5213: 5212: 5210: 5209: 5204: 5199: 5194: 5189: 5184: 5178: 5176: 5167: 5163: 5162: 5160: 5159: 5154: 5149: 5148: 5147: 5142: 5137: 5132: 5127: 5122: 5112: 5106: 5104: 5097: 5091: 5090: 5087:Nervous tissue 5085: 5083: 5082: 5075: 5068: 5060: 5054: 5053: 5041: 5040:External links 5038: 5035: 5034: 4980: 4931: 4912:(3): 397–409. 4896: 4885: 4865: 4822: 4804: 4786: 4757: 4730: 4703: 4678: 4621: 4610:on 26 May 2011 4600:Medcyclopaedia 4587: 4546: 4523: 4497: 4448: 4397: 4348: 4326: 4295: 4288: 4270: 4221: 4180: 4115: 4064: 4027:(9): 2408–19. 4007: 3958: 3929:(6): 1081–91. 3909: 3860: 3817: 3778:(11): e26832. 3758: 3751: 3733: 3684: 3641: 3620:10.1038/nn1442 3595: 3552: 3509: 3460: 3417: 3396: 3369:(3): 194–205. 3350: 3321:(3): 499–508. 3301: 3272:(4): 1507–16. 3252: 3209: 3173: 3166: 3148: 3089: 3080: 3071: 3020: 2991:(3): 437–450. 2968: 2912: 2887: 2828: 2821: 2795: 2746: 2739: 2718: 2711: 2678: 2616: 2562: 2513: 2455: 2412: 2363: 2312: 2261: 2234:(2): 555–602. 2202: 2148: 2141: 2116: 2067: 2012: 2011: 2009: 2006: 2005: 2004: 1999: 1994: 1989: 1984: 1979: 1972: 1969: 1968: 1967: 1964: 1957: 1953: 1950: 1934:jet propulsion 1926:model organism 1913: 1910: 1881:Herbert Gasser 1848: 1845: 1832: 1829: 1789:, and also in 1783:Dysmyelination 1704: 1701: 1698: 1697: 1694: 1691: 1688: 1685: 1679: 1678: 1675: 1672: 1669: 1666: 1660: 1659: 1654: 1651: 1646: 1645:Classification 1641: 1624: 1621: 1618: 1617: 1615: 1602: 1599: 1596: 1593: 1588: 1584: 1583: 1580: 1578: 1559: 1556: 1553: 1550: 1545: 1541: 1540: 1537: 1529:muscle spindle 1525: 1522: 1519: 1516: 1513: 1507: 1506: 1501: 1498: 1495: 1492: 1489: 1485: 1484: 1482: 1480: 1477: 1474:muscle spindle 1470: 1467: 1464: 1461: 1458: 1452: 1451: 1446: 1445:Mechanoceptors 1443: 1442:Proprioceptors 1440: 1434: 1433:velocity (m/s) 1429: 1426: 1421: 1420:Classification 1416: 1392:Proprioceptors 1383: 1376: 1373: 1372: 1367: 1364: 1361: 1358: 1355: 1349: 1348: 1346: 1344: 1342: 1340: 1337: 1331: 1330: 1325: 1322: 1319: 1316: 1313: 1307: 1306: 1300: 1295: 1292: 1287: 1286:Classification 1282: 1269: 1266: 1190: 1189:Classification 1187: 1182:motor proteins 1176: 1173: 1128:assist in the 1095:immunoglobulin 1047:Main article: 1044: 1041: 1023: 1020: 1003: 1000: 977:neurotrophin-3 948: 945: 923: 920: 918: 915: 849:all-or-nothing 812:Main article: 809: 806: 784: 781: 741:Main article: 738: 737:Axon terminals 735: 712:Main article: 709: 706: 641: 638: 626:motor proteins 603:neurofilaments 586:Main article: 583: 580: 560:nerve impulses 536: 533: 508: 505: 501:neurofilaments 480: 477: 355:nervous system 332: 325: 320: 315: 308: 303: 298: 293: 288: 283: 277: 276: 275: 274: 272: 269: 129:away from the 90: 89: 80: 74: 73: 68: 62: 61: 56: 50: 49: 45: 44: 41: 33: 32: 15: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5909: 5898: 5895: 5894: 5892: 5873: 5870: 5868: 5865: 5863: 5860: 5858: 5855: 5853: 5850: 5848: 5845: 5843: 5840: 5838: 5835: 5833: 5830: 5828: 5825: 5823: 5820: 5819: 5817: 5815: 5811: 5805: 5802: 5800: 5797: 5795: 5792: 5788: 5785: 5783: 5780: 5778: 5775: 5774: 5773: 5770: 5768: 5764: 5761: 5760: 5758: 5756: 5752: 5749: 5745: 5733: 5732:γ motorneuron 5730: 5728: 5727:β motorneuron 5725: 5723: 5722:α motorneuron 5720: 5719: 5718: 5715: 5713: 5710: 5708: 5705: 5703: 5700: 5698: 5695: 5694: 5692: 5690: 5685: 5681: 5673: 5670: 5668: 5665: 5663: 5660: 5658: 5655: 5653: 5650: 5649: 5648: 5645: 5643: 5640: 5638: 5635: 5633: 5630: 5628: 5625: 5624: 5622: 5620: 5615: 5611: 5603: 5600: 5599: 5598: 5595: 5593: 5590: 5588: 5585: 5583: 5580: 5578: 5575: 5574: 5572: 5568: 5556: 5552: 5549: 5547: 5544: 5542: 5539: 5538: 5537: 5536: 5534: 5532: 5528: 5522: 5519: 5517: 5514: 5512: 5509: 5507: 5504: 5502: 5499: 5498: 5496: 5494: 5490: 5484: 5481: 5480: 5478: 5476: 5472: 5469: 5465: 5462: 5460: 5455: 5451: 5441: 5438: 5434: 5431: 5429: 5426: 5424: 5421: 5419: 5416: 5415: 5414: 5410: 5407: 5406: 5404: 5402: 5398: 5392: 5389: 5387: 5384: 5382: 5379: 5378: 5376: 5374: 5370: 5364: 5361: 5359: 5356: 5353: 5350: 5348: 5344: 5341: 5337: 5334: 5332: 5329: 5328: 5327: 5326: 5322: 5318: 5315: 5313: 5310: 5309: 5308: 5305: 5301: 5298: 5296: 5293: 5291: 5288: 5287: 5286: 5283: 5282: 5280: 5276: 5273: 5271: 5267: 5253: 5250: 5248: 5245: 5243: 5240: 5236: 5233: 5232: 5231: 5228: 5226: 5223: 5222: 5220: 5218: 5214: 5208: 5205: 5203: 5200: 5198: 5195: 5193: 5190: 5188: 5185: 5183: 5180: 5179: 5177: 5175: 5171: 5168: 5164: 5158: 5155: 5153: 5150: 5146: 5143: 5141: 5138: 5136: 5133: 5131: 5128: 5126: 5123: 5121: 5118: 5117: 5116: 5113: 5111: 5108: 5107: 5105: 5101: 5098: 5096: 5092: 5088: 5081: 5076: 5074: 5069: 5067: 5062: 5061: 5058: 5051: 5047: 5044: 5043: 5039: 5030: 5026: 5021: 5016: 5011: 5006: 5002: 4998: 4994: 4987: 4985: 4981: 4976: 4972: 4967: 4962: 4958: 4954: 4950: 4946: 4942: 4941:"Myelination" 4935: 4932: 4927: 4923: 4919: 4915: 4911: 4907: 4900: 4897: 4892: 4888: 4886:9781610693387 4882: 4878: 4877: 4869: 4866: 4861: 4857: 4853: 4849: 4845: 4841: 4838:(4): 341–57. 4837: 4833: 4826: 4823: 4819: 4815: 4811: 4807: 4805:9780195146943 4801: 4797: 4790: 4787: 4775: 4771: 4767: 4766:"nerve fiber" 4761: 4758: 4746: 4745: 4740: 4739:"nerve fiber" 4734: 4731: 4719: 4718: 4713: 4712:"nerve fibre" 4707: 4704: 4692: 4688: 4687:"nerve fiber" 4682: 4679: 4674: 4670: 4665: 4660: 4656: 4652: 4648: 4644: 4640: 4636: 4632: 4625: 4622: 4609: 4605: 4601: 4597: 4591: 4588: 4583: 4579: 4574: 4569: 4566:(4): 557–63. 4565: 4561: 4557: 4550: 4547: 4542: 4538: 4534: 4530: 4526: 4520: 4516: 4512: 4508: 4501: 4498: 4493: 4489: 4484: 4479: 4475: 4471: 4467: 4463: 4459: 4452: 4449: 4444: 4440: 4435: 4430: 4425: 4420: 4416: 4412: 4408: 4401: 4398: 4393: 4389: 4384: 4379: 4375: 4371: 4368:(1): 245–67. 4367: 4363: 4359: 4352: 4349: 4346: 4342: 4338: 4335: 4330: 4327: 4314: 4310: 4306: 4299: 4296: 4291: 4285: 4281: 4274: 4271: 4266: 4262: 4257: 4252: 4248: 4244: 4240: 4236: 4232: 4225: 4222: 4217: 4213: 4208: 4203: 4200:(2): 213–25. 4199: 4195: 4191: 4184: 4181: 4176: 4172: 4168: 4164: 4160: 4156: 4152: 4148: 4143: 4138: 4134: 4130: 4126: 4119: 4116: 4111: 4107: 4102: 4097: 4092: 4087: 4083: 4079: 4075: 4068: 4065: 4060: 4056: 4051: 4046: 4042: 4038: 4034: 4030: 4026: 4022: 4018: 4011: 4008: 4003: 3999: 3994: 3989: 3985: 3981: 3978:(6): 608–16. 3977: 3973: 3969: 3962: 3959: 3954: 3950: 3945: 3940: 3936: 3932: 3928: 3924: 3920: 3913: 3910: 3905: 3901: 3896: 3891: 3887: 3883: 3879: 3875: 3871: 3864: 3861: 3856: 3852: 3848: 3844: 3840: 3836: 3833:(1): 118–24. 3832: 3828: 3821: 3818: 3813: 3809: 3804: 3799: 3794: 3789: 3785: 3781: 3777: 3773: 3769: 3762: 3759: 3754: 3752:9780815344643 3748: 3744: 3737: 3734: 3729: 3725: 3721: 3717: 3712: 3707: 3704:(1): 157–70. 3703: 3699: 3695: 3688: 3685: 3680: 3676: 3672: 3668: 3664: 3660: 3656: 3652: 3645: 3642: 3637: 3633: 3629: 3625: 3621: 3617: 3614:(5): 606–15. 3613: 3609: 3602: 3600: 3596: 3591: 3587: 3583: 3579: 3575: 3571: 3567: 3563: 3556: 3553: 3548: 3544: 3540: 3536: 3532: 3528: 3524: 3520: 3513: 3510: 3505: 3501: 3497: 3493: 3488: 3483: 3480:(7): 927–41. 3479: 3475: 3471: 3464: 3461: 3456: 3452: 3448: 3444: 3440: 3436: 3433:(3): 409–24. 3432: 3428: 3421: 3418: 3415: 3414: 3409: 3405: 3400: 3397: 3392: 3388: 3384: 3380: 3376: 3372: 3368: 3364: 3357: 3355: 3351: 3346: 3342: 3337: 3332: 3328: 3324: 3320: 3316: 3312: 3305: 3302: 3297: 3293: 3288: 3283: 3279: 3275: 3271: 3267: 3263: 3256: 3253: 3248: 3244: 3240: 3236: 3232: 3228: 3224: 3220: 3213: 3210: 3205: 3201: 3197: 3193: 3190:(2): 446–54. 3189: 3185: 3177: 3174: 3169: 3163: 3159: 3152: 3149: 3144: 3140: 3135: 3130: 3125: 3120: 3116: 3112: 3109:(7): e11868. 3108: 3104: 3100: 3093: 3090: 3084: 3081: 3075: 3072: 3067: 3063: 3058: 3053: 3048: 3043: 3039: 3035: 3031: 3024: 3021: 3016: 3012: 3007: 3002: 2998: 2994: 2990: 2986: 2982: 2975: 2973: 2969: 2964: 2960: 2955: 2950: 2945: 2940: 2936: 2932: 2928: 2925:Gu C (2021). 2921: 2919: 2917: 2913: 2901: 2897: 2891: 2888: 2883: 2879: 2875: 2871: 2867: 2863: 2859: 2855: 2851: 2847: 2843: 2839: 2832: 2829: 2824: 2818: 2814: 2809: 2808: 2799: 2796: 2791: 2787: 2782: 2777: 2773: 2769: 2765: 2761: 2757: 2750: 2747: 2742: 2736: 2732: 2725: 2723: 2719: 2714: 2708: 2704: 2700: 2699: 2691: 2689: 2687: 2685: 2683: 2679: 2674: 2670: 2666: 2662: 2657: 2652: 2647: 2642: 2639:(2): 99–104. 2638: 2634: 2630: 2623: 2621: 2617: 2612: 2608: 2603: 2598: 2593: 2588: 2584: 2580: 2576: 2569: 2567: 2563: 2558: 2554: 2549: 2544: 2540: 2536: 2533:(6): 651–68. 2532: 2528: 2524: 2517: 2514: 2509: 2505: 2500: 2495: 2490: 2485: 2481: 2477: 2473: 2466: 2464: 2462: 2460: 2456: 2451: 2447: 2443: 2439: 2435: 2431: 2428:(8): 552–62. 2427: 2423: 2416: 2413: 2408: 2404: 2399: 2394: 2390: 2386: 2382: 2378: 2374: 2367: 2364: 2359: 2355: 2350: 2345: 2340: 2335: 2331: 2327: 2323: 2316: 2313: 2308: 2304: 2299: 2294: 2289: 2284: 2280: 2276: 2272: 2265: 2262: 2257: 2253: 2249: 2245: 2241: 2237: 2233: 2229: 2222: 2215: 2213: 2211: 2209: 2207: 2203: 2198: 2194: 2189: 2184: 2180: 2176: 2172: 2168: 2164: 2157: 2155: 2153: 2149: 2144: 2138: 2134: 2127: 2125: 2123: 2121: 2117: 2112: 2108: 2103: 2098: 2094: 2090: 2087:(3): 513–38. 2086: 2082: 2078: 2071: 2068: 2063: 2059: 2054: 2049: 2044: 2039: 2035: 2031: 2027: 2020: 2018: 2014: 2007: 2003: 2000: 1998: 1995: 1993: 1990: 1988: 1985: 1983: 1980: 1978: 1975: 1974: 1970: 1961: 1956: 1951: 1949: 1945: 1943: 1939: 1935: 1931: 1927: 1923: 1919: 1918:invertebrates 1916:The axons in 1912:Other animals 1911: 1909: 1907: 1902: 1898: 1894: 1893:Andrew Huxley 1890: 1886: 1882: 1878: 1874: 1870: 1866: 1862: 1858: 1854: 1846: 1844: 1842: 1838: 1830: 1828: 1826: 1822: 1818: 1813: 1811: 1807: 1803: 1799: 1794: 1792: 1791:schizophrenia 1788: 1784: 1780: 1778: 1774: 1770: 1768: 1764: 1760: 1755: 1750: 1748: 1744: 1740: 1736: 1732: 1728: 1724: 1718: 1714: 1710: 1702: 1695: 1692: 1689: 1686: 1684: 1681: 1680: 1676: 1673: 1670: 1667: 1665: 1662: 1661: 1655: 1652: 1647: 1642: 1639: 1638: 1632: 1630: 1622: 1616: 1614: 1610: 1606: 1603: 1600: 1597: 1594: 1592: 1589: 1586: 1585: 1577: 1572: 1568: 1563: 1560: 1557: 1554: 1551: 1549: 1546: 1543: 1542: 1536: 1530: 1526: 1523: 1520: 1517: 1514: 1512: 1509: 1508: 1505: 1502: 1499: 1496: 1493: 1490: 1487: 1486: 1475: 1471: 1468: 1465: 1462: 1459: 1457: 1454: 1453: 1447: 1444: 1441: 1439: 1435: 1430: 1427: 1422: 1417: 1414: 1413: 1407: 1405: 1401: 1397: 1393: 1389: 1377: 1371: 1368: 1365: 1362: 1359: 1356: 1354: 1351: 1350: 1347: 1345: 1343: 1341: 1338: 1336: 1333: 1332: 1329: 1326: 1323: 1320: 1317: 1314: 1312: 1309: 1308: 1305: 1304:muscle fibers 1301: 1296: 1293: 1288: 1283: 1280: 1279: 1273: 1267: 1265: 1261: 1259: 1255: 1251: 1247: 1243: 1242:motor neurons 1239: 1235: 1231: 1227: 1223: 1218: 1215: 1211: 1207: 1202: 1196: 1188: 1186: 1183: 1174: 1172: 1170: 1169:neurotoxicity 1166: 1162: 1157: 1153: 1151: 1147: 1141: 1139: 1135: 1134:axon guidance 1131: 1127: 1124:Cells called 1122: 1120: 1116: 1112: 1108: 1104: 1100: 1096: 1092: 1088: 1084: 1080: 1076: 1072: 1068: 1067:lamellipodium 1064: 1055: 1050: 1049:Axon guidance 1042: 1040: 1038: 1037:Rho-signaling 1033: 1029: 1021: 1019: 1017: 1013: 1009: 1001: 999: 997: 993: 989: 984: 982: 981:Trk receptors 978: 974: 970: 966: 962: 958: 954: 946: 944: 942: 937: 933: 929: 921: 916: 914: 912: 908: 904: 898: 895: 894:digital codes 890: 888: 884: 879: 875: 871: 865: 863: 859: 853: 850: 840: 834: 830: 825: 821: 820:Neural coding 815: 807: 805: 803: 799: 794: 790: 782: 780: 778: 774: 770: 766: 762: 758: 754: 753:axon terminal 750: 744: 743:Axon terminal 736: 734: 732: 728: 724: 720: 715: 707: 705: 703: 699: 694: 692: 688: 687:Schwann cells 684: 679: 677: 670: 666: 665:Myelin sheath 662: 657: 650: 646: 639: 637: 635: 631: 627: 623: 619: 615: 611: 606: 604: 599: 595: 589: 581: 579: 577: 573: 569: 565: 561: 556: 552: 550: 546: 545:cell polarity 542: 534: 532: 530: 526: 522: 513: 506: 504: 502: 498: 494: 490: 486: 479:Axonal region 478: 476: 472: 470: 466: 462: 458: 454: 450: 446: 442: 438: 433: 431: 427: 423: 419: 415: 414:Schwann cells 411: 407: 403: 399: 394: 392: 388: 384: 380: 376: 372: 368: 364: 363:sciatic nerve 360: 356: 349: 345: 340: 328: 327:Myelin sheath 323: 318: 317:Axon terminal 313: 306: 301: 296: 291: 286: 281: 270: 268: 266: 262: 258: 254: 250: 246: 242: 238: 233: 231: 226: 222: 218: 214: 210: 209:axon terminal 206: 202: 198: 193: 191: 187: 182: 180: 176: 172: 168: 164: 160: 156: 152: 148: 144: 140: 136: 132: 128: 124: 120: 116: 112: 109: 105: 101: 97: 85: 79: 75: 72: 69: 67: 63: 60: 57: 55: 51: 46: 39: 34: 29: 26: 22: 5767:Gap junction 5689:Motor neuron 5492: 5483:Axon hillock 5459:nerve fibers 5413:Schwann cell 5323: 5306: 5284: 5202:Medium spiny 5115:White matter 5103:Tissue Types 5000: 4996: 4948: 4944: 4934: 4909: 4905: 4899: 4879:. ABC-CLIO. 4875: 4868: 4835: 4831: 4825: 4817: 4795: 4789: 4777:. Retrieved 4769: 4760: 4748:. Retrieved 4742: 4733: 4721:. Retrieved 4715: 4706: 4694:. Retrieved 4690: 4681: 4641:(1): 14626. 4638: 4634: 4624: 4612:. Retrieved 4608:the original 4599: 4590: 4563: 4559: 4549: 4506: 4500: 4465: 4461: 4451: 4414: 4411:PLOS Biology 4410: 4400: 4365: 4361: 4351: 4329: 4317:. 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