563:
most efficient transport network. There are maximum central places possible located on the main transport routes connecting the higher order center. The transportation principle involves the minimization of the length of roads connecting central places at all hierarchy levels. In this system of nesting, the lower order centres are all located along the roads linking the higher order centres. This alignment of places along a road leads to minimization of road length. However, for each higher order centre, there are now four centres of immediate lower order, as opposed to three centres under the marketing principle.
661:
199:
351:, who asserted that settlements simply functioned as 'central places' providing economic services to surrounding areas. Christaller explained that a large number of small settlements will be situated relatively close to one another for efficiency, and because people don't want to travel far for everyday needs, like getting bread from a bakery. But people would travel further for more expensive and infrequent purchases or specialized goods and services which would be located in larger settlements that are farther apart.
124:
814:(see K=4 above) usually have six thoroughfares through them—the thoroughfares including highways, rivers, railroads, and canals. They are most efficient and can deliver the lowest cost services because transportation is cheaper. Those having settled on the market principle (K=3 above) have more expensive services and goods, as they were founded at times when transportation was more primitive. In Appalachia, for example, the market principle still prevails and rural medical care is much more expensive.
217:
499:
2196:
590:= 7 administrative principle (or political-social principle), settlements are nested according to sevens. The market areas of the smaller settlements are completely enclosed within the market area of the larger settlement. Since tributary areas cannot be split administratively, they must be allocated exclusively to a single higher-order place. Efficient administration is the control principle in this hierarchy.
550:
25:
2184:
284:
576:
2218:
66:
862:
Smith was able to delineate medical care regions (the range), describe the hierarchy of medical services, the population base required of each medical specialty (threshold), the efficiency of regions, and the importance of how an area was settled to the delivery of medical care, that is, according to
827:
Closure problem. Christaller's original scheme implies an infinite landscape. Although each market has finite size, the total system has no boundaries to it. Neither
Christaller, nor the early related literature provide any guidance as to how the system can be "contained". Openshaw and Veneris (2003)
802:
For example, orthopedic surgeons are found in ski areas, obstetricians in the suburbs, and boutique specialties such as hypnosis, plastic surgery, psychiatry are more likely to be found in high income areas. It was possible to estimate the size of population (threshold) needed to support a specialty,
794:
Christaller also erred in the assumption that cities "emerge". In
California and much of the United States, many cities were situated by the railroads at the time the tracks were laid. In California, towns founded by the railroads were 12 miles apart, the amount of track a section crew could maintain
467:
At the base of the hierarchy pyramid are shopping centres, newsagents etc. which sell low order goods. These centres are small. At the top of the pyramid are centres selling high order goods. These centres are large. Examples for low order goods and services are: newspaper stalls, groceries, bakeries
858:
Openshaw and
Veneris (2003) succeeded in linking these two major regional theories in a clear and theoretically consistent way: using the data they derived from the operationalization of CPT, they experimented with several SIM. Following a thorough investigation via computer simulation, they reached
834:
Calculating inter- and intra-zonal costs/distances. Christaller assumed freedom of movement in all directions, which would imply "airline" distances between centres. At the same time, he provided specific road networks for the CP system, which do not allow for airline distances. This is a major flaw
761:
Newer theoretical developments have shown that it is possible to overcome the static aspect of CPT. Veneris (1984) developed a theoretical model which starts with (a) a system of evenly distributed ("medieval") towns; (b) new economic activities are located in some towns thus causing differentiation
822:
CPT is often criticized as being "unrealistic". However, several studies show that it can describe existing urban systems. An important issue is that
Christaller's original formulation is incorrect in several ways (Smith). These errors become apparent if we try to make CPT "operational", that is if
602:
Economic status of consumers in an area is also important. Consumers of higher economic status tend to be more mobile and therefore bypass centers providing only lower order goods. The application of central place theory must be tempered by an awareness of such factors when planning shopping center
598:
The validity of the place theory may vary with local factors, such as climate, topography, history of development, technological improvement and personal preference of consumers and suppliers. However, it is still possible to discern
Christaller patterns in most distributions of urban centres, even
479:
In the orderly arrangement of an urban hierarchy, seven different principal orders of settlement have been identified by
Christaller, providing different groups of goods and services. Settlement are regularly spaced - equidistant spacing between same order centers, with larger centers farther apart
562:
K' 4 transport principle, the market area of a higher-order place includes a half of the market area of each of the six neighbouring lower-order places, as they are located on the edges of hexagons around the high-order settlements. This generates a hierarchy of central places which results in the
798:
In medical care regions described by Smith, there is a hierarchy of services, with primary care ideally distributed throughout an area, middle sized cities offering secondary care, and metropolitan areas with tertiary care. Income, size of population, population demographics, distance to the next
752:
The central place theory has been criticized for being static; it does not incorporate the temporal aspect in the development of central places. Furthermore, the theory holds up well when it comes to agricultural areas, but not industrial or postindustrial areas due to their diversified nature of
806:
Her work is important for the study of physician location—where physicians choose to practice and where their practices will have a sufficient population size to support them. The income level of the population determines whether sufficient physicians will practice in an area and whether public
445:
The result of these consumer preferences is that a system of centers of various sizes will emerge. Each center will supply particular types of goods forming levels of hierarchy. In the functional hierarchies, generalizations can be made regarding the spacing, size and function of settlements.
790:
offered there was more important as a measure of the importance of a city in attracting consumers. In applying CPT to describe the delivery of medical care in
California, Smith counted the number of physician specialties to determine the importance of a city in the delivery of medical care.
652:(higher order); district and local shopping centers supply, increasingly, convenience (lower order) goods. These centers provided for in the new town plan are not free from outside competition. The impacts of surrounding existing centers on the new town centers cannot be ignored.
743:
Another example of the use of CPT was in the delineation of
Medical Care Regions in California. A hierarchy of primary, secondary and tertiary care cities was described, and the population size and income needed to support each medical care specialty in California determined.
785:
According to Margot Smith, Walter
Christaller erred in his development of CPT in 1930 by using size of population and number of telephones in determining the importance of a city. Smith recognized that although population size was important to the area served by a city, the
823:
we try to derive numerical data out of the theoretical schemata. These problems have been identified for by
Veneris (1984) and subsequently by Openshaw and Veneris (2003), who provided also theoretically sound and consistent solutions, based on a K=3, 37-centre CP system:
513:= 3, the market area of a higher-order place (node) occupies one-third of the market area of each of the consecutive lower size place (node) that lies on its neighbour; the lower size nodes (6 in numbers and second larger circles) are located at the corner of a largest
854:
It was once thought that central place theory is not compatible with spatial interaction models (SIM). It is paradoxical however that some times towns or shopping centres are planned with CPT, and subsequently evaluated with SIM.
692:
is a good example of a K=4 Transport Model Central Place, although it is surrounded by 7, rather than 6, settlements. Each satellite is 10–15 miles from Cambridge and each lies on a major road leading out of Cambridge:
606:
Purchasing power and density affect the spacing of centers and hierarchical arrangements. Sufficient densities will allow, for example, a grocery store, a lower order function, to survive in an isolated location.
795:
in the 1850s; larger towns were 60 miles apart, the distance a steam engine could travel before needing water. Older towns were founded a day's horse ride apart by the Spanish priests who founded early missions.
676:
of the Netherlands provide an isotropic plane on which settlements have developed and in certain areas 6 small towns can be seen surrounding a larger town, especially in the Noord-Oostpolder and Flevoland.
463:
The higher the order of the goods and services (more durable, valuable and variable), the larger the range of the goods and services, the longer the distance people are willing to travel to acquire them.
988:
Smith, Margot W. The Distribution of Medical Care in Central California: a Social and Economic Analysis, Thesis, School of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley, 1977 - 1004 pages
640:
Market area studies provide another technique for using central place theory as a retail location planning tool. The hierarchy of shopping centers has been widely used within the planning of "
979:
Smith, Margot W. Physician's Specialties and Medical Trade Areas: An Application of Central Place Theory. Papers and Proceedings of Applied Geography Conferences, Vol. 9, West Point NY 1986.
835:
which neither Christaller, nor early related literature have identified. Openshaw and Veneris (2003) calculate costs/distances which are consistent with the Christallerian principles.
599:
though these patterns will often be distorted by the terrain or imperfect because of suboptimal (with regard to the optimal distribution of centres) historical development decisions.
487:-values which show how much the sphere of influence of the central places takes in — the central place itself counts as 1 and each portion of a satellite counts as its portion:
312:
468:
and post offices. Examples for high order goods and services include jewelry, large shopping malls and arcades. They are supported by a much larger threshold population and demand.
828:
identified three different types of closure, namely (a) isolated state, (b) territorial closure and (c) functional closure. Each closure type implies different population patterns.
803:
and also to link specialties that needed to cooperate and locate near each other, such as hematology, oncology, and pathology, or cardiology, thoracic surgery and pulmonology.
740:
As all of the satellite settlements are on transport links, this is a good example of a K=4 CPT model (although in this case it is K=4.5 due to 7 rather than 6 settlements).
453:
The larger the settlements grow in size, the greater the distance between them, i.e. villages are usually found close together, while cities are spaced much further apart.
831:
Generating trips. Following the basic Christallerian logic and the closure types identified, Openshaw and Veneris (2003) calculate trip patterns between the 27 centres.
810:
The distribution of medical care in California followed patterns having to do with the settlement of cities. Cities and their hinterlands having characteristics of the
2028:
1684:
982:
Smith, Margot W. A Guide to the Delineation of Medical Care Regions, Medical Trade Areas and Hospital Service Areas. Public Health Reports, 94:3:247 May 1979
441:
Range is the maximum distance consumers are prepared to travel to acquire goods - at some point the cost or inconvenience will outweigh the need for the good.
973:
Openshaw S, Veneris Y, 2003, "Numerical experiments with central place theory and spatial interaction modelling" Environment and Planning A 35(8) 1389–1403 (
305:
272:
476:
He deduced that settlements would tend to form in a triangular/hexagonal lattice, as it is the most efficient pattern to serve areas without any overlap.
459:
As a settlement increases in size, the number of higher-order services will also increase, i.e. a greater degree of specialization occurs in the services.
762:
and evolution into a hierarchical ("industrial") city system; (c) further differentiation leads into a post-hierarchical ("postindustrial") city system.
1975:
1256:
1048:
1011:
985:
Smith, Margot W. The Economics of Physician Location, Western Regional Conference, American Association of Geographers, Chicago, Illinois, 1979
517:
around low value the high-order settlement. Each high-order settlement gets one-third of each satellite settlement (which are 6 in total), thus
898:
298:
2075:
38:
2008:
1327:
1472:
185:
167:
145:
105:
52:
450:
The larger the settlements are in size, the fewer in number they will be, i.e. there are many small villages, but few large cities.
402:
Consumers visit the nearest central places that provide the function which they demand. They minimize the distance to be travelled
1078:
343:. It was introduced in 1933 to explain the spatial distribution of cities across the landscape. The theory was first analyzed by
1021:
2085:
1853:
1724:
1279:
991:
Veneris, Y, 1984, Informational Revolution, Cybernetics and Urban Modelling, PhD Thesis, University of Newcastle upon Tyne, UK.
799:
service center, all had an influence on the number and kind of specialists located in a population center. (Smith, 1977, 1979)
2080:
1968:
1350:
1129:
1813:
766:
660:
1963:
1429:
1322:
1284:
1041:
198:
2044:
2023:
1998:
1006:
903:
409:
Therefore, the trade areas of these central places who provide a particular good or service must all be of equal size
2049:
2018:
1449:
1332:
1307:
1073:
2254:
2221:
2211:
1180:
1083:
1068:
44:
2264:
2259:
2249:
2070:
2054:
2013:
1958:
1888:
1833:
1659:
1237:
1227:
1222:
480:
than smaller centers. Settlements have hexagonal market areas, and are most efficient in number and functions.
438:
is the minimum market (population or income) needed to bring about the selling of a particular good or service.
405:
no provider of goods or services is able to earn excess profit (each supplier has a monopoly over a hinterland)
138:
132:
83:
76:
777:'s "tree" city, while (c) is similar to his "lattice" system (following his dictum "the city is not a tree").
2244:
2200:
2162:
2147:
2003:
1893:
1502:
1389:
1317:
1299:
1289:
1034:
873:
733:
2206:
2142:
1898:
1620:
1457:
1266:
1174:
721:
267:
149:
2117:
1928:
1734:
1674:
1569:
878:
774:
688:
in the UK also provide a large expanse of flat land with no natural barriers to settlement development.
340:
1679:
1669:
1615:
1399:
1342:
1274:
435:
251:
1699:
1636:
1610:
1419:
1404:
697:
765:
This evolution can be modelled by means of the three major CPT theories: stage (a) is a system of
1918:
1600:
1139:
709:
703:
348:
2112:
1938:
1743:
1563:
1394:
1384:
1312:
1248:
1201:
1169:
1144:
1134:
1109:
335:
that seeks to explain the number, size and range of market services in a commercial system or
420:
These assumptions generally mean that the theory has no utility beyond abstract discussions.
2137:
1823:
1534:
1487:
1434:
1185:
1016:
845:
665:
336:
2167:
2127:
1873:
1828:
1758:
1482:
1477:
953:
645:
216:
1798:
770:
456:
As a settlement increases in size, the range and number of its functions will increase .
1878:
1858:
1838:
1818:
1808:
1803:
1748:
1645:
1641:
1630:
1462:
1439:
1379:
1057:
888:
715:
668:
shows settlements in different levels that are consistent with the Central place theory
371:
87:
1001:
2238:
2188:
2157:
2152:
2122:
1933:
1883:
1788:
1719:
1709:
1694:
1625:
1579:
1558:
1519:
1492:
1232:
1191:
893:
849:
769:"isolated states"; stage (b) is a Christallerian hierarchical system; stage (c) is a
621:
288:
413:
there is only one type of transport and this would be equally easy in all directions
2107:
1868:
1863:
1753:
1739:
1704:
1655:
1551:
1510:
1424:
1414:
1196:
649:
575:
498:
549:
974:
1923:
1848:
1729:
1714:
1689:
1539:
1529:
685:
627:
389:
perfect competition and all sellers are economic people maximizing their profits
246:
231:
82:
The references used may be made clearer with a different or consistent style of
359:
To develop the theory, Christaller made the following simplifying assumptions:
1843:
1524:
1099:
928:
Goodall, B. (1987) The Penguin Dictionary of Human Geography. London: Penguin.
633:
236:
636:: high mobility afforded by the automobile allows overlapping of market areas
2132:
1762:
1605:
689:
644:". In this new town, the hierarchy of business centers is evident. One main
367:
329:
617:: industrial areas can provide little in the way of a consuming population
1584:
1574:
1546:
1514:
1467:
1206:
1124:
1119:
727:
681:
641:
614:
396:
380:
all settlements are equidistant and exist in a triangular lattice pattern
241:
208:
1664:
883:
673:
514:
344:
1767:
1650:
1114:
332:
753:
various services or their varied distribution of natural resources.
1409:
659:
574:
548:
497:
399:
have a similar purchasing power and demand for goods and services.
392:
consumers are of the same income level and same shopping behaviour
197:
1026:
1104:
773:
post-hierarchical system. Furthermore, stage (b) corresponds to
1030:
117:
59:
18:
781:
The importance of a city and other theoretical considerations
416:
transport cost is directly proportional to distance travelled
807:
subsidy is needed to maintain the health of the population.
630:: this limits the extent of market areas in all directions
538:= 3 marketing network the distance traveled is minimized.
1007:
Walter Christaller: Hierarchical Patterns of Urbanization
624:: this can limit the extent of a center's market area
16:
Geographical theory of spatial distribution of cities
483:
The different layouts predicted by Christaller have
2098:
2063:
2037:
1991:
1984:
1951:
1911:
1787:
1780:
1593:
1501:
1448:
1372:
1363:
1341:
1298:
1265:
1247:
1215:
1162:
1153:
1092:
840:
Central place theory and spatial interaction models
859:important theoretical and practical conclusions.
863:traffic, market or administrative principles.
1042:
1002:Walter Christaller's Theory of Central Places
757:Newer developments: a dynamic concept for CPT
610:Factors shaping the extent of market areas:
306:
8:
924:
922:
920:
370:(all flat), homogeneous, limitless surface (
706:- A1303 (now bypassed by A14/A11) northeast
53:Learn how and when to remove these messages
1988:
1784:
1369:
1159:
1049:
1035:
1027:
313:
299:
204:
521: = 1 + 6 Ă—
186:Learn how and when to remove this message
168:Learn how and when to remove this message
106:Learn how and when to remove this message
1257:Regional Planning Association of America
423:The theory then relied on two concepts:
131:This article includes a list of general
916:
818:Making central place theory operational
259:
223:
207:
899:Boundary problem (in spatial analysis)
509:According to the marketing principle
7:
2217:
1328:Professional transportation planner
1012:Christaller's Central Place Theory
545:= 4 transporting/traffic principle
137:it lacks sufficient corresponding
14:
34:This article has multiple issues.
2216:
2195:
2194:
2182:
377:an evenly distributed population
282:
215:
122:
64:
23:
1725:Transferable development rights
1280:Environmental impact assessment
42:or discuss these issues on the
1351:Community economic development
1130:Planning and zoning commission
1:
1964:Planning Accreditation Board
1323:Transit-oriented development
1285:Recreation resource planning
571:= 7 administrative principle
383:evenly distributed resources
273:Cities by population density
904:Unified settlement planning
788:number of kinds of services
2281:
1976:Professional organizations
1333:Urban freight distribution
1308:Transportation forecasting
1017:Christaller - Course notes
843:
2212:List of planning journals
2176:
1181:History of urban planning
1064:
2148:Marine spatial planning
1660:Healthy community design
1238:Village design statement
1228:Preservation development
1223:Conservation development
942:. Routledge. p. 73.
940:Encyclopedia of the City
386:distance decay mechanism
2163:Real estate development
1894:List of urban theorists
1390:City Beautiful movement
1318:Rational planning model
1300:Transportation planning
1290:Sustainable development
954:"Ăšstav pro archeologii"
874:Demographic gravitation
494:= 3 marketing principle
152:more precise citations.
2207:List of planned cities
2143:Landscape architecture
1899:List of urban planners
1621:Conservation community
1458:Collaborative planning
1267:Environmental planning
1175:Comprehensive planning
669:
583:
557:
506:
202:
2118:Development economics
1969:Real estate education
1929:James Howard Kunstler
1854:Konstantinos Doxiadis
1735:Urban growth boundary
1675:Mixed-use development
1570:Intentional community
1022:Central Places Theory
938:Caves, R. W. (2004).
879:The City (Weber book)
844:Further information:
775:Christopher Alexander
663:
578:
552:
501:
224:Definitions of cities
201:
1670:Leapfrog development
1616:Complete Communities
1473:Intelligent urbanism
1400:Garden city movement
1343:Economic development
1275:Environmental design
672:The newly reclaimed
664:Satellite images of
326:Central place theory
252:Settlement hierarchy
2076:Communist countries
1700:Planning Permission
1637:Filtering (housing)
1611:Cluster development
1420:Settlement movement
1405:Indigenous planning
355:Building the theory
1959:Planning education
1919:Elizabeth Farrelly
1763:High-rise urbanism
1601:Affordable housing
1140:World Urbanism Day
670:
584:
558:
507:
349:Walter Christaller
341:residential system
203:
2232:
2231:
2189:Cities portal
2113:Civil engineering
2094:
2093:
1947:
1946:
1776:
1775:
1744:Peri-urbanisation
1564:Planned community
1395:Dark-sky movement
1385:Car-free movement
1359:
1358:
1313:Trip distribution
1249:Regional planning
1202:Urban green space
1170:Land-use planning
1145:Labor market area
1135:Growth management
1110:Metropolitan area
812:traffic principle
712:- A1307 southeast
534:However, in this
337:human settlements
323:
322:
289:Cities portal
196:
195:
188:
178:
177:
170:
116:
115:
108:
57:
2272:
2255:Regional science
2220:
2219:
2198:
2197:
2187:
2186:
2185:
2138:Land development
1989:
1824:Donald Appleyard
1785:
1535:Mining community
1488:Radical planning
1435:Transition towns
1370:
1186:Spatial planning
1160:
1051:
1044:
1037:
1028:
961:
960:
958:
950:
944:
943:
935:
929:
926:
846:Spatial analysis
666:American Midwest
648:provides mostly
603:space location.
531: = 3.
530:
529:
525:
362:All areas have:
315:
308:
301:
287:
286:
285:
219:
205:
191:
184:
173:
166:
162:
159:
153:
148:this article by
139:inline citations
126:
125:
118:
111:
104:
100:
97:
91:
68:
67:
60:
49:
27:
26:
19:
2280:
2279:
2275:
2274:
2273:
2271:
2270:
2269:
2265:Human geography
2260:Urban geography
2250:Urban economics
2235:
2234:
2233:
2228:
2183:
2181:
2172:
2168:Social sciences
2128:Urban economics
2100:
2090:
2059:
2033:
1980:
1943:
1907:
1874:Peter Calthorpe
1829:Ebenezer Howard
1790:
1772:
1759:Verticalization
1589:
1497:
1483:Market urbanism
1478:Livable streets
1444:
1365:
1355:
1337:
1294:
1261:
1243:
1211:
1155:
1149:
1088:
1060:
1055:
998:
970:
965:
964:
956:
952:
951:
947:
937:
936:
932:
927:
918:
913:
908:
869:
852:
842:
820:
783:
759:
750:
736:- A14 northwest
724:- A10 southwest
658:
646:shopping center
596:
573:
547:
527:
523:
522:
496:
474:
357:
319:
283:
281:
192:
181:
180:
179:
174:
163:
157:
154:
144:Please help to
143:
127:
123:
112:
101:
95:
92:
81:
75:has an unclear
69:
65:
28:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2278:
2276:
2268:
2267:
2262:
2257:
2252:
2247:
2245:Urban planning
2237:
2236:
2230:
2229:
2227:
2226:
2214:
2209:
2204:
2192:
2177:
2174:
2173:
2171:
2170:
2165:
2160:
2155:
2150:
2145:
2140:
2135:
2130:
2125:
2120:
2115:
2110:
2104:
2102:
2096:
2095:
2092:
2091:
2089:
2088:
2083:
2078:
2073:
2067:
2065:
2061:
2060:
2058:
2057:
2052:
2047:
2041:
2039:
2035:
2034:
2032:
2031:
2029:United Kingdom
2026:
2021:
2016:
2011:
2009:Czech Republic
2006:
2001:
1995:
1993:
1986:
1982:
1981:
1979:
1978:
1973:
1972:
1971:
1966:
1955:
1953:
1949:
1948:
1945:
1944:
1942:
1941:
1939:Randal O'Toole
1936:
1931:
1926:
1921:
1915:
1913:
1909:
1908:
1906:
1905:
1902:
1901:
1896:
1891:
1886:
1881:
1879:Patrick Geddes
1876:
1871:
1866:
1861:
1859:Kevin A. Lynch
1856:
1851:
1846:
1841:
1839:Guy Benveniste
1836:
1831:
1826:
1821:
1819:Daniel Burnham
1816:
1814:Colin Buchanan
1811:
1809:Clarence Stein
1806:
1804:Clarence Perry
1801:
1795:
1793:
1782:
1778:
1777:
1774:
1773:
1771:
1770:
1765:
1756:
1751:
1749:Urban vitality
1746:
1737:
1732:
1727:
1722:
1717:
1712:
1707:
1702:
1697:
1692:
1687:
1682:
1677:
1672:
1667:
1662:
1656:Healthy cities
1653:
1648:
1646:Brusselization
1642:Gentrification
1639:
1634:
1631:Eminent domain
1628:
1623:
1618:
1613:
1608:
1603:
1597:
1595:
1591:
1590:
1588:
1587:
1582:
1577:
1572:
1567:
1561:
1556:
1555:
1554:
1544:
1543:
1542:
1532:
1527:
1522:
1517:
1507:
1505:
1503:Cities by type
1499:
1498:
1496:
1495:
1490:
1485:
1480:
1475:
1470:
1465:
1463:Context theory
1460:
1454:
1452:
1446:
1445:
1443:
1442:
1437:
1432:
1427:
1422:
1417:
1412:
1407:
1402:
1397:
1392:
1387:
1382:
1380:Athens Charter
1376:
1374:
1367:
1361:
1360:
1357:
1356:
1354:
1353:
1347:
1345:
1339:
1338:
1336:
1335:
1330:
1325:
1320:
1315:
1310:
1304:
1302:
1296:
1295:
1293:
1292:
1287:
1282:
1277:
1271:
1269:
1263:
1262:
1260:
1259:
1253:
1251:
1245:
1244:
1242:
1241:
1235:
1230:
1225:
1219:
1217:
1213:
1212:
1210:
1209:
1204:
1199:
1194:
1189:
1183:
1178:
1172:
1166:
1164:
1157:
1151:
1150:
1148:
1147:
1142:
1137:
1132:
1127:
1122:
1117:
1112:
1107:
1102:
1096:
1094:
1090:
1089:
1087:
1086:
1081:
1076:
1071:
1065:
1062:
1061:
1058:Urban planning
1056:
1054:
1053:
1046:
1039:
1031:
1025:
1024:
1019:
1014:
1009:
1004:
997:
996:External links
994:
993:
992:
989:
986:
983:
980:
977:
969:
966:
963:
962:
945:
930:
915:
914:
912:
909:
907:
906:
901:
896:
891:
889:Penrose tiling
886:
881:
876:
870:
868:
865:
841:
838:
837:
836:
832:
829:
819:
816:
782:
779:
758:
755:
749:
746:
738:
737:
731:
725:
719:
716:Saffron Walden
713:
707:
701:
657:
654:
638:
637:
631:
625:
618:
595:
592:
572:
566:
546:
540:
495:
489:
473:
470:
461:
460:
457:
454:
451:
443:
442:
439:
418:
417:
414:
407:
406:
403:
400:
393:
390:
387:
384:
381:
378:
375:
372:abstract space
356:
353:
321:
320:
318:
317:
310:
303:
295:
292:
291:
278:
277:
276:
275:
270:
268:Largest cities
262:
261:
257:
256:
255:
254:
249:
244:
239:
234:
226:
225:
221:
220:
212:
211:
194:
193:
176:
175:
130:
128:
121:
114:
113:
77:citation style
72:
70:
63:
58:
32:
31:
29:
22:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2277:
2266:
2263:
2261:
2258:
2256:
2253:
2251:
2248:
2246:
2243:
2242:
2240:
2225:
2224:
2215:
2213:
2210:
2208:
2205:
2203:
2202:
2193:
2191:
2190:
2179:
2178:
2175:
2169:
2166:
2164:
2161:
2159:
2158:Public policy
2156:
2154:
2153:Public health
2151:
2149:
2146:
2144:
2141:
2139:
2136:
2134:
2131:
2129:
2126:
2124:
2123:Urban ecology
2121:
2119:
2116:
2114:
2111:
2109:
2106:
2105:
2103:
2097:
2087:
2086:Ancient Egypt
2084:
2082:
2079:
2077:
2074:
2072:
2069:
2068:
2066:
2062:
2056:
2053:
2051:
2048:
2046:
2043:
2042:
2040:
2036:
2030:
2027:
2025:
2022:
2020:
2017:
2015:
2012:
2010:
2007:
2005:
2002:
2000:
1997:
1996:
1994:
1990:
1987:
1983:
1977:
1974:
1970:
1967:
1965:
1962:
1961:
1960:
1957:
1956:
1954:
1950:
1940:
1937:
1935:
1934:Lewis Mumford
1932:
1930:
1927:
1925:
1922:
1920:
1917:
1916:
1914:
1910:
1904:
1903:
1900:
1897:
1895:
1892:
1890:
1887:
1885:
1884:Raymond Unwin
1882:
1880:
1877:
1875:
1872:
1870:
1867:
1865:
1862:
1860:
1857:
1855:
1852:
1850:
1847:
1845:
1842:
1840:
1837:
1835:
1832:
1830:
1827:
1825:
1822:
1820:
1817:
1815:
1812:
1810:
1807:
1805:
1802:
1800:
1797:
1796:
1794:
1792:
1791:practitioners
1786:
1783:
1779:
1769:
1766:
1764:
1760:
1757:
1755:
1752:
1750:
1747:
1745:
1741:
1738:
1736:
1733:
1731:
1728:
1726:
1723:
1721:
1720:Tract housing
1718:
1716:
1713:
1711:
1710:Temporary use
1708:
1706:
1703:
1701:
1698:
1696:
1695:Planning gain
1693:
1691:
1688:
1686:
1683:
1681:
1678:
1676:
1673:
1671:
1668:
1666:
1663:
1661:
1657:
1654:
1652:
1649:
1647:
1643:
1640:
1638:
1635:
1632:
1629:
1627:
1626:Creative city
1624:
1622:
1619:
1617:
1614:
1612:
1609:
1607:
1604:
1602:
1599:
1598:
1596:
1592:
1586:
1583:
1581:
1580:Urban village
1578:
1576:
1573:
1571:
1568:
1565:
1562:
1560:
1559:Model village
1557:
1553:
1550:
1549:
1548:
1545:
1541:
1538:
1537:
1536:
1533:
1531:
1528:
1526:
1523:
1521:
1520:Commuter town
1518:
1516:
1512:
1509:
1508:
1506:
1504:
1500:
1494:
1493:Urban renewal
1491:
1489:
1486:
1484:
1481:
1479:
1476:
1474:
1471:
1469:
1466:
1464:
1461:
1459:
1456:
1455:
1453:
1451:
1447:
1441:
1438:
1436:
1433:
1431:
1430:Structuralism
1428:
1426:
1423:
1421:
1418:
1416:
1413:
1411:
1408:
1406:
1403:
1401:
1398:
1396:
1393:
1391:
1388:
1386:
1383:
1381:
1378:
1377:
1375:
1371:
1368:
1362:
1352:
1349:
1348:
1346:
1344:
1340:
1334:
1331:
1329:
1326:
1324:
1321:
1319:
1316:
1314:
1311:
1309:
1306:
1305:
1303:
1301:
1297:
1291:
1288:
1286:
1283:
1281:
1278:
1276:
1273:
1272:
1270:
1268:
1264:
1258:
1255:
1254:
1252:
1250:
1246:
1239:
1236:
1234:
1233:Rural housing
1231:
1229:
1226:
1224:
1221:
1220:
1218:
1214:
1208:
1205:
1203:
1200:
1198:
1195:
1193:
1192:Redevelopment
1190:
1187:
1184:
1182:
1179:
1176:
1173:
1171:
1168:
1167:
1165:
1161:
1158:
1152:
1146:
1143:
1141:
1138:
1136:
1133:
1131:
1128:
1126:
1123:
1121:
1118:
1116:
1113:
1111:
1108:
1106:
1103:
1101:
1098:
1097:
1095:
1091:
1085:
1082:
1080:
1077:
1075:
1072:
1070:
1067:
1066:
1063:
1059:
1052:
1047:
1045:
1040:
1038:
1033:
1032:
1029:
1023:
1020:
1018:
1015:
1013:
1010:
1008:
1005:
1003:
1000:
999:
995:
990:
987:
984:
981:
978:
975:
972:
971:
967:
955:
949:
946:
941:
934:
931:
925:
923:
921:
917:
910:
905:
902:
900:
897:
895:
892:
890:
887:
885:
882:
880:
877:
875:
872:
871:
866:
864:
860:
856:
851:
850:Gravity model
847:
839:
833:
830:
826:
825:
824:
817:
815:
813:
808:
804:
800:
796:
792:
789:
780:
778:
776:
772:
768:
763:
756:
754:
747:
745:
741:
735:
732:
729:
726:
723:
720:
718:- A1301 south
717:
714:
711:
708:
705:
702:
699:
696:
695:
694:
691:
687:
683:
678:
675:
667:
662:
655:
653:
651:
650:durable goods
647:
643:
635:
632:
629:
626:
623:
622:accessibility
619:
616:
613:
612:
611:
608:
604:
600:
593:
591:
589:
586:According to
582:= 7 principle
581:
577:
570:
567:
565:
564:
560:According to
556:= 4 principle
555:
551:
544:
541:
539:
537:
532:
520:
516:
512:
505:= 3 principle
504:
500:
493:
490:
488:
486:
481:
477:
471:
469:
465:
458:
455:
452:
449:
448:
447:
440:
437:
434:
433:
432:
430:
426:
421:
415:
412:
411:
410:
404:
401:
398:
394:
391:
388:
385:
382:
379:
376:
373:
369:
366:an unbounded
365:
364:
363:
360:
354:
352:
350:
346:
342:
338:
334:
331:
327:
316:
311:
309:
304:
302:
297:
296:
294:
293:
290:
280:
279:
274:
271:
269:
266:
265:
264:
263:
258:
253:
250:
248:
245:
243:
240:
238:
235:
233:
230:
229:
228:
227:
222:
218:
214:
213:
210:
206:
200:
190:
187:
172:
169:
161:
151:
147:
141:
140:
134:
129:
120:
119:
110:
107:
99:
96:February 2016
89:
85:
79:
78:
73:This article
71:
62:
61:
56:
54:
47:
46:
41:
40:
35:
30:
21:
20:
2222:
2199:
2180:
2108:Architecture
2081:Nazi Germany
1889:Thomas Adams
1869:Loretta Lees
1864:Le Corbusier
1834:Edmund Bacon
1799:Andrés Duany
1754:Urbanization
1740:Urban sprawl
1705:Rural flight
1685:Permeability
1680:Model cities
1552:Logging camp
1511:Company town
1425:Smart growth
1415:New Urbanism
1197:Urban design
948:
939:
933:
861:
857:
853:
821:
811:
809:
805:
801:
797:
793:
787:
784:
764:
760:
751:
742:
739:
679:
671:
639:
609:
605:
601:
597:
587:
585:
579:
568:
561:
559:
553:
542:
535:
533:
518:
510:
508:
502:
491:
484:
482:
478:
475:
466:
462:
444:
428:
424:
422:
419:
408:
361:
358:
330:geographical
328:is an urban
325:
324:
182:
164:
155:
136:
102:
93:
74:
50:
43:
37:
36:Please help
33:
2101:disciplines
1924:Jane Jacobs
1849:James Rouse
1730:Urban decay
1715:Third place
1690:Placemaking
1540:Pit village
1530:Global city
730:- A428 west
700:- A10 north
686:East Anglia
628:Competition
472:Predictions
347:geographer
247:Megalopolis
232:Conurbation
150:introducing
2239:Categories
1844:Ian McHarg
1789:Theorists/
1566:(New town)
1525:Ghost town
1364:Concepts/
1100:Urban area
968:References
894:Zipf's law
767:von ThĂĽnen
634:Technology
594:Evaluation
237:Metropolis
133:references
88:footnoting
39:improve it
2133:Geography
2045:Barcelona
2024:Singapore
1999:Australia
1992:Countries
1606:Cityscape
1373:Movements
748:Criticism
710:Haverhill
704:Newmarket
690:Cambridge
642:new towns
436:Threshold
425:threshold
397:consumers
368:isotropic
158:July 2023
45:talk page
2201:Category
2050:Shanghai
1952:Training
1594:Concepts
1585:Boomtown
1575:Arcology
1547:Man camp
1515:Monotown
1468:Ekistics
1450:Theories
1366:theories
1207:Urbanism
1156:branches
1125:Planning
1120:Land use
1074:Theories
867:See also
771:Löschian
728:St Neots
656:Examples
615:Land use
242:Megacity
209:Ekistics
84:citation
2223:Commons
2099:Related
1912:Critics
1665:LEED-ND
1163:General
1093:General
1084:Outline
1069:History
884:Fractal
734:St Ives
722:Royston
674:polders
526:⁄
515:hexagon
146:improve
2071:Africa
2055:Sydney
2038:Cities
2019:Serbia
2014:Russia
1985:Places
1781:People
1768:Zoning
1651:Infill
1115:Suburb
345:German
333:theory
135:, but
2064:Other
2004:China
1440:YIMBY
1410:NIMBY
1216:Rural
1188:(Eur)
1154:Major
1079:Index
957:(PDF)
911:Notes
620:Poor
429:range
339:in a
260:Lists
1633:(US)
1240:(UK)
1177:(US)
1105:City
848:and
682:Fens
680:The
427:and
395:all
86:and
698:Ely
684:of
431:.
2241::
1761:/
1742:/
1658:/
1644:/
1513:/
919:^
48:.
1050:e
1043:t
1036:v
976:)
959:.
588:K
580:K
569:K
554:K
543:K
536:K
528:3
524:1
519:K
511:K
503:K
492:K
485:K
374:)
314:e
307:t
300:v
189:)
183:(
171:)
165:(
160:)
156:(
142:.
109:)
103:(
98:)
94:(
90:.
80:.
55:)
51:(
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
