358:. Most notable may be their influence on slope stability. Exfoliation joints following the topography of inclined valley walls, bedrock hill slopes, and cliffs can create rock blocks that are particularly prone to sliding. Especially when the toe of the slope is undercut (naturally or by human activity), sliding along exfoliation joint planes is likely if the joint dip exceeds the joint's frictional angle. Foundation work may also be affected by the presence of exfoliation joints, for example in the case of
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264:, but horizontal stresses can remain in a competent rock mass since the medium is laterally confined. Horizontal stresses become aligned with the current ground surface as the vertical stress drops to zero at this boundary. Thus large surface-parallel compressive stresses can be generated through exhumation that may lead to tensile rock fracture as described below.
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301:. However, not all mineral hydration results in increased volume, while field observations of exfoliation joints show that the joint surfaces have not experienced significant chemical alteration, so this theory can be rejected as an explanation for the origin of large-scale, deeper exfoliation joints.
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from near the tips of preferentially oriented microcracks, which then curve and align with the direction of the principle compressive stress. Fractures formed in this way are sometimes called axial cleavage, longitudinal splitting, or extensional fractures, and are commonly observed in the laboratory
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and exhumation of deeply buried rock to the ground surface allows previously compressed rock to expand radially, creating tensile stress and fracturing the rock in layers parallel to the ground surface. The description of this mechanism has led to alternate terms for exfoliation joints, including
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in rock, where the direction of fracture propagation is parallel to the greatest principle compressive stress and the direction of fracture opening is perpendicular to the free surface. This type of fracturing has been observed in the laboratory since at least 1900 (in both uniaxial and biaxial
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With consideration of the field evidence and observations of occurrence, fracture mode, and secondary forms, high surface-parallel compressive stresses and extensional fracturing (axial cleavage) seems to be the most plausible theory explaining the formation of exfoliation joints.
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or fire-induced temperature fluctuations have been observed to create thin lamination and flaking at the surface of rocks, sometimes labeled exfoliation. However, since diurnal temperature fluctuations only reach a few centimeters depth in rock (due to rock's low
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Despite their common occurrence in many different landscapes, geologists have yet to reach an agreement on a general theory of exfoliation joint formation. Many different theories have been suggested, below is a short overview of the most common.
276:/ contraction. Daily rock surface temperature variations can be quite large, and many have suggested that stresses created during heating cause the near-surface zone of rock to expand and detach in thin slabs (e.g. Wolters, 1969). Large
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pressure release or offloading joints. Though the logic of this theory is appealing, there are many inconsistencies with field and laboratory observations suggesting that it may be incomplete, such as:
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unconfined compressive loading; see
Gramberg, 1989). Tensile cracks can form in a compressive stress field due to the influence of pervasive microcracks in the rock lattice and extension of so-called
35:
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370:, while increased water pressure in joints may result in lifting or sliding of the dam. Finally, exfoliation joints can exert strong directional control on
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Fairhurst, C.; Cook, N.G.W. (1966). "The phenomenon of rock splitting parallel to the direction of maximum compression in the neighbourhood of a surface".
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Bahat, D.; Grossenbacher, K.; Karasaki, K. (January 1999). "Mechanism of exfoliation joint formation in granitic rocks, Yosemite
National Park".
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Laboratory studies show that simple compression and relaxation of rock samples under realistic conditions does not cause fracturing.
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during uniaxial compression tests. High horizontal or surface-parallel compressive stress can result from regional
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Rock expands upon heating and contracts upon cooling and different rock-forming minerals have variable rates of
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theory (outlined below) is as follows (Goodman, 1989): The exhumation of deeply buried rocks relieves vertical
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by penetrating water can cause flaking of thin shells of rock since the volume of some minerals increases upon
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Romani, J.R.; Twidale, C.R. (1999). "Sheet fractures, other stress forms and some engineering implications".
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Bradley, W.C. (1963). "Large-scale exfoliation in massive sandstones of the
Colorado Plateau".
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State
Natural Area, Texas, US. Detached blocks have slid along the steeply-dipping joint plane.
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Hoek, E.; Bieniawski, Z.T. (1965). "Brittle fracture propagation in rock under compression".
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Holzhausen, G.R. (1989). "Origin of sheet structure, 1. Morphology and boundary conditions".
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National Park, helping create the many spectacular domes, including Half Dome shown here.
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Deeper joints have a larger radius of curvature, which tends to round the corners of the
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Exfoliation joints have modified the near-surface portions of massive granitic rocks in
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Exfoliation joints are most commonly found in regions of surface-parallel compressive
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spacing increases with depth from a few centimeters near the surface to a few meters
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Recognizing the presence of exfoliation joints can have important implications in
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Wolters, R. (1969). "Zur
Ursache der Entstehung oberflächenparalleler Klüfte".
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Exfoliation joints can be found in rocks that have never been deeply buried.
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This theory was originally proposed by the pioneering geomorphologist
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or topographic stresses, or by erosion or excavation of overburden.
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Often associated with secondary compressive forms such as arching,
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Proceedings 1st
Congress, International Society of Rock Mechanics
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parallel to the land (or a free) surface can create tensile mode
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A non-conventional view on rock mechanics and fracture mechanics
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Blackwelder, E. (1927). "Fire as an agent in rock weathering".
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deal primarily with the United States and do not represent a
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in rock, often leading to the erosion of concentric slabs.
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Terzaghi, K. (1962). "Dam foundation on sheeted granite".
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Maximum depth of observed occurrence is around 100 meters.
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10.1130/0016-7606(1963)74[519:LEIMSO]2.0.CO;2
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Brunner, F.K.; Scheidegger, A.E. (1973). "Exfoliation".
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One possible extension of this theory to match with the
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and climate zones, not unique to glaciated landscapes.
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Jahns, R.H. (1943). "Sheet structures in granites".
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32:The examples and perspective in this article
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366:foundation can create a significant leakage
1000:International Journal of Fracture Mechanics
760:(1973). "On the origin of sheet jointing".
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305:Compressive stress and extensional fracture
229:in 1904. The basis of this theory is that
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469:"Geologic history of the Yosemite Valley"
70:Learn how and when to remove this message
533:United States Geological Survey Bulletin
529:"The commercial granites of New England"
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721:Geological Society of America Bulletin
7:
1371:List of tectonic plate interactions
846:Rock Mechanics and Rock Engineering
762:Rock Mechanics and Rock Engineering
473:U.S. Geological Survey Professional
362:. Exfoliation joints underlying a
86:Exfoliation joints wrapping around
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205:Removal of overburden and rebound
102:Exfoliation joints in granite at
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511:. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
374:flow and contaminant transport.
350:Engineering geology significance
213:Exfoliation joints exposed in a
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828:10.1016/S0169-555X(99)00070-7
667:10.1016/s0191-8141(98)00069-8
647:Journal of Structural Geology
191:, and A-tents (buckled slabs)
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695:. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
46:, discuss the issue on the
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1456:Thick-skinned deformation
1461:Thin-skinned deformation
1237:Stereographic projection
166:Occur in many different
16:Type of weathering joint
1227:Orthographic projection
1210:Measurement conventions
1156:Lamé's stress ellipsoid
125:General characteristics
507:Goodman, R.E. (1993).
356:geological engineering
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219:Yosemite National Park
141:into sub-planar slabs.
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1738:Paleostress inversion
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1301:Extensional tectonics
1281:Continental collision
1151:Deformation mechanism
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157:as material is eroded
117:are surface-parallel
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1815:Geological processes
1316:Fold and thrust belt
1102:at Wikimedia Commons
283:thermal conductivity
268:Thermoelastic strain
179:compressive strength
52:create a new article
44:improve this article
1748:Section restoration
1624:Rock microstructure
1286:Convergent boundary
1186:Strain partitioning
1171:Overburden pressure
1161:Mohr–Coulomb theory
1062:1962Getq...12..199T
944:1973RMFMR...5...43B
901:1927JG.....35..134B
858:1969RMFMR...1...53W
820:1999Geomo..31...13V
774:1973RMFMR...5..163T
659:1999JSG....21...85B
621:1989EngGe..27..225H
609:Engineering Geology
571:1943JG.....51...71J
527:Dale, T.N. (1923).
509:Engineering Geology
438:1904GSAB...15...29G
384:Exfoliating granite
289:Chemical weathering
1820:Structural geology
1725:Kinematic analysis
1381:Mountain formation
1296:Divergent boundary
1261:Accretionary wedge
1137:Structural geology
1100:Exfoliation joints
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952:10.1007/bf01246756
889:Journal of Geology
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691:Mandl, G. (2005).
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321:Large compressive
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227:Grove Karl Gilbert
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1196:Stress field
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1050:Geotechnique
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115:sheet joints
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60:October 2015
57:
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1743:Paleostress
1629:Slickenside
1604:Crenulation
1557:Fault trace
1552:Fault scarp
1542:Disturbance
1527:Cataclasite
1416:Rift valley
1336:Half-graben
1306:Fault block
1291:DĂ©collement
693:Rock Joints
372:groundwater
335:wing cracks
168:lithologies
137:Divide the
1809:Categories
1771:Pure shear
1758:Shear zone
1715:Competence
1599:Compaction
1476:Fracturing
1271:Autochthon
1266:Allochthon
1037:: 687–692.
984:9061918065
396:References
295:weathering
235:overburden
132:topography
1707:Boudinage
1687:Monocline
1682:Homocline
1662:Anticline
1644:Tectonite
1634:Stylolite
1609:Fissility
1586:lineation
1582:Foliation
1446:Syneclise
1391:Obduction
1361:Inversion
1253:tectonics
1078:0016-8505
1020:198179354
960:1434-453X
917:129709077
874:129174541
790:129852438
675:0191-8141
587:129646638
330:fractures
299:hydration
196:Formation
175:isotropic
155:landscape
88:Half Dome
48:talk page
1794:Category
1766:Mylonite
1697:Vergence
1692:Syncline
1594:Cleavage
1519:Faulting
467:(1930).
420:(1904).
378:See also
340:tectonic
326:stresses
323:tectonic
315:Yosemite
293:Mineral
215:road cut
189:buckling
161:Fracture
42:You may
1825:Erosion
1667:Chevron
1654:Folding
1499:Fissure
1451:Terrane
1396:Orogeny
1376:MĂ©lange
1311:Fenster
1201:Tension
1058:Bibcode
940:Bibcode
897:Bibcode
854:Bibcode
816:Bibcode
770:Bibcode
655:Bibcode
617:Bibcode
567:Bibcode
434:Bibcode
278:diurnal
231:erosion
1441:Suture
1426:Saddle
1366:Klippe
1331:Graben
1191:Stress
1181:Strain
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368:hazard
262:stress
250:stress
1776:Shear
1504:Joint
1386:Nappe
1346:Horst
1341:Horse
1016:S2CID
913:S2CID
870:S2CID
786:S2CID
583:S2CID
145:Joint
50:, or
1677:Dome
1584:and
1509:Vein
1489:Dike
1421:Rift
1232:Rake
1074:ISSN
979:ISBN
956:ISSN
697:ISBN
671:ISSN
360:dams
139:rock
1066:doi
1008:doi
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