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century India had suffered waves of destructive attacks on many of its cities, and
Islamic armies had taken numerous Hindu slaves to Persia, which – claimed Biruni – contributed to Hindus becoming suspicious of all foreigners, not just Muslims. Hindus considered Muslims violent and impure, and did not want to share anything with them. Over time, Biruni won the welcome of Hindu scholars. Al-Biruni collected books and studied with these Hindu scholars to become fluent in Sanskrit, discover and translate into Arabic the mathematics, science, medicine, astronomy and other fields of arts as practiced in 11th-century India. He was inspired by the arguments offered by Indian scholars who believed earth must be globular in shape, which they felt was the only way to fully explain the difference in daylight hours by latitude, seasons and Earth's relative positions with Moon and stars. At the same time, Biruni was also critical of Indian scribes, who he believed carelessly corrupted Indian documents while making copies of older documents. He also criticized the Hindus on what he saw them do and not do, for example finding them deficient in curiosity about history and religion.
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military history, Biruni did indeed record important dates and noted actual sites of where significant battles occurred. Additionally, he chronicled stories of Indian rulers and told of how they ruled over their people with their beneficial actions and acted in the interests of the nation. His details are brief and mostly just list rulers without referring to their real names, and he did not go on about deeds that each one carried out during their reign, which keeps in line with Biruni's mission to try to stay away from political histories. Biruni also described the geography of India in his work. He documented different bodies of water and other natural phenomena. These descriptions are useful to today's modern historians because they are able to use Biruni's scholarship to locate certain destinations in modern-day India. Historians are able to make some matches while also concluding that certain areas seem to have disappeared and been replaced with different cities. Different forts and landmarks were able to be located, legitimizing Biruni's contributions with their usefulness to even modern history and archeology.
1046:. He assumed the superiority of Islam: "We have here given an account of these things in order that the reader may learn by the comparative treatment of the subject how much superior the institutions of Islam are, and how more plainly this contrast brings out all customs and usages, differing from those of Islam, in their essential foulness." However he was happy on occasion to express admiration for other cultures, and quoted directly from the sacred texts of other religions when reaching his conclusions. He strove to understand them on their own terms rather than trying to prove them wrong. His underlying concept was that all cultures are at least distant relatives of all other cultures because they are all human constructs. "Rather, what Al-Biruni seems to be arguing is that there is a common human element in every culture that makes all cultures distant relatives, however foreign they might seem to one another."
865:, whose arguments Avicenna uses, contradicted himself when he stated that the universe and matter has a start whilst holding on to the idea that matter is pre-eternal. In his letters to Avicenna, he stated the argument of Aristotle, that there is a change in the creator. He further argued that stating there is a change in the creator would mean there is a change in the effect (meaning the universe has change) and that the universe coming into being after not being is such a change (and so arguing there is no change – no beginning – means Aristotle believes the creator is negated). Al-Biruni was proud of the fact that he followed the textual evidence of the religion without being influenced by Greek philosophers such as Aristotle.
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1135:. His scholarship on the topic exhibited great determination and focus, not to mention the excellence in his approach of the in-depth research he performed. He developed a method for converting the dates of the Hindu calendar to the dates of the three different calendars that were common in the Islamic countries of his time period, the Greek, the Arab/Muslim, and the Persian. Biruni also employed astronomy in the determination of his theories, which were complex mathematical equations and scientific calculation that allows one to convert dates and years between the different calendars.
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439:. He studied almost all the sciences of his day and was rewarded abundantly for his tireless research in many fields of knowledge. Royalty and other powerful elements in society funded al-Biruni's research and sought him out with specific projects in mind. Influential in his own right, Al-Biruni was himself influenced by the scholars of other nations, such as the Greeks, from whom he took inspiration when he turned to the study of philosophy. A gifted linguist, he was conversant in
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885:. Al-Biruni's method of using the hydrostatic balance was precise, and he was able to measure the density of many different substances, including precious metals, gems, and even air. He also used this method to determine the radius of the earth, which he did by measuring the angle of elevation of the horizon from the top of a mountain and comparing it to the angle of elevation of the horizon from a nearby plain.
1101:, in which he explored nearly every aspect of Indian life. During his journey through India, military and political history were not Biruni's main focus: he decided rather to document the civilian and scholarly aspects of Hindu life, examining culture, science, and religion. He explored religion within a rich cultural context. He expressed his objectives with simple eloquence: He also translated the
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927:, so the accuracy of his estimate compared to the modern value depends on what conversion is used for cubits. The exact length of a cubit is not clear; with an 18-inch cubit his estimate would be 3,600 miles, whereas with a 22-inch cubit his estimate would be 4,200 miles. One significant problem with this approach is that Al-Biruni was not aware of
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1015:") is now known only from quotations in Bayhaqī's Tārīkh-e Masʿūdī. In addition to this various discussions of historical events and methodology are found in connection with the lists of kings in his al-Āthār al-bāqiya and in the Qānūn as well as elsewhere in the Āthār, in India, and scattered throughout his other works. Al-Biruni's
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acquainted with all things related to India. During this time he wrote his study of India, finishing it around 1030. Along with his writing, Al-Biruni also made sure to extend his study to science while on the expeditions. He sought to find a method to measure the height of the sun, and created a makeshift
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compares it to "a magic island of quiet, impartial research in the midst of a world of clashing swords, burning towns, and plundered temples." Biruni's writing was very poetic, which may diminish some of the historical value of the work for modern times. The lack of description of battle and politics
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I shall not produce the arguments of our antagonists in order to refute such of them, as I believe to be in the wrong. My book is nothing but a simple historic record of facts. I shall place before the reader the theories of the Hindus exactly as they are, and I shall mention in connection with them
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he rotation of the earth does in no way impair the value of astronomy, as all appearances of an astronomic character can quite as well be explained according to this theory as to the other. There are, however, other reasons which make it impossible. This question is most difficult to solve. The most
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captured Rey. Most scholars, including al-Biruni, were taken to Ghazni, the capital of the
Ghaznavid dynasty. Biruni was made court astrologer and accompanied Mahmud on his invasions into India, living there for a few years. He was 44 when he went on the journeys with Mahmud of Ghazni. Biruni became
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The book does not limit itself to tedious records of battle because Biruni found the social culture to be more important. The work includes research on a vast array of topics of Indian culture, including descriptions of their traditions and customs. Although he tried to stay away from political and
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Al-Biruni wrote about the peoples, customs and religions of the Indian subcontinent. According to Akbar S. Ahmed, like modern anthropologists, he engaged in extensive participant observation with a given group of people, learnt their language and studied their primary texts, presenting his findings
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into an educated and an uneducated class. He describes the educated as monotheistic, believing that God is one, eternal, and omnipotent and eschewing all forms of idol worship. He recognizes that uneducated Hindus worshiped a multiplicity of idols yet points out that even some
Muslims (such as the
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An example of Biruni's analysis is his summary of why many Hindus hate
Muslims. Biruni notes in the beginning of his book how the Muslims had a hard time learning about Hindu knowledge and culture. He explains that Hinduism and Islam are totally different from each other. Moreover, Hindus in 11th
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The dispassionate account of
Hinduism given by Biruni was remarkable for its time. He stated that he was fully objective in his writings, remaining unbiased like a proper historian should. Biruni documented everything about India just as it happened. But, he did note how some of the accounts of
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In addition to developing the hydrostatic balance, Al-Biruni also wrote extensively on the topic of density, including the different types of densities and how they are measured. His work on the subject was very influential and was later used by scientists like
Galileo and Newton in their own
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Of the 146 books written by al-Bīrūnī, 95 are devoted to astronomy, mathematics, and related subjects like mathematical geography. He lived during the
Islamic Golden Age, when the Abbasid Caliphs promoted astronomical research, because such research possessed not only a scientific but also a
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and Arabic, showing his mastery over both languages. Bīrūnī's catalogue of his own literary production up to his 65th lunar/63rd solar year (the end of 427/1036) lists 103 titles divided into 12 categories: astronomy, mathematical geography, mathematics, astrological aspects and transits,
815:, describing how to use it to tell the time and as a quadrant for surveying. One particular diagram of an eight-geared device could be considered an ancestor of later Muslim astrolabes and clocks. More recently, Biruni's eclipse data was used by Dunthorne in 1749 to help determine the
919:(present-day Pakistan). He used trigonometry to calculate the radius of the Earth using measurements of the height of a hill and measurement of the dip in the horizon from the top of that hill. His calculated radius for the Earth of 3928.77 miles was 2% higher than the actual
743:, which he criticises. In a later work, he wrote a refutation of astrology, in contradistinction to the legitimate science of astronomy, for which he expresses wholehearted support. Some suggest that his reasons for refuting astrology relate to the methods used by
645:("The remaining traces of past centuries", translated as "Chronology of ancient nations" or "Vestiges of the Past") on historical and scientific chronology, probably around 1000, though he later made some amendments to the book. He also visited the court of the
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with objectivity and neutrality using cross-cultural comparisons. Akhbar S. Ahmed concluded that Al-Biruni can be considered as the first anthropologist, others, however, have argued that he can hardly be considered an anthropologist in the conventional sense.
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must surely have given rise to lands in the vast ocean between Asia and Europe. He also theorized that at least some of the unknown landmass would lie within the known latitudes which humans could inhabit, and therefore would be inhabited.
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and made no allowance for it. He used a dip angle of 34 arc minutes in his calculations, but refraction can typically alter the measured dip angle by about 1/6, making his calculation only accurate to within about 20% of the true value.
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His major work on astrology is primarily an astronomical and mathematical text; he states: "I have begun with
Geometry and proceeded to Arithmetic and the Science of Numbers, then to the structure of the Universe and finally to Judicial
947:(1037), Al-Biruni theorized the existence of a landmass along the vast ocean between Asia and Europe, or what is today known as the Americas. He argued for its existence on the basis of his accurate estimations of the
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Biruni is widely considered to be one of the most important Muslim authorities on the history of religion. He is known as a pioneer in the field of comparative religion in his study of, among other creeds,
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religious dimension: in Islam worship and prayer require a knowledge of the precise directions of sacred locations, which can be determined accurately only through the use of astronomical data.
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makes those parts of the picture completely lost. However, many have used Biruni's work to check facts of history in other works that may have been ambiguous or had their validity questioned.
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1247:), a comparative study of calendars of cultures and civilizations, (including several chapters on Christian cults), which contains mathematical, astronomical, and historical information.
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prominent of both modern and ancient astronomers have deeply studied the question of the moving of the earth, and tried to refute it. We, too, have composed a book on the subject called
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endured – for it is hard to imagine that the commanding figure of Biruni, a repository of so much knowledge, should have appeared in a cultural vacuum. He was sympathetic to the
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information that he was given by natives of the land may not have been reliable in terms of complete accuracy, however, he did try to be as honest as possible in his writing.
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faith practiced in India. He was, for his time, an admirably impartial writer on the customs and creeds of various nations, his scholarly objectivity earning him the title
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Following Al-Biruni's death, his work was neither built upon or referenced by scholars. Centuries later, his writings about India, which had become of interest to the
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mostly translation of
Aryabhatta's work, in which he claims to have resolved the matter of Earth's rotation in a work on astronomy that is no longer extant, his
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Alberuni's India: An
Account of the Religion, Philosophy, Literature, Geography, Chronology, Astronomy, Customs, Laws and Astrology of India about A.D. 1030
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An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines: Conceptions of Nature and Methods used for its Study by the Ikhwān al-Ṣafāʾ, al-Bīrūnī, and Ibn Sīnā"
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to determine the density and purity of metals and precious stones. He classified gems by what he considered their primary physical properties, such as
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for that purpose. Al-Biruni was able to make much progress in his study over the frequent travels that he went on throughout the lands of India.
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Bīrūnī devised a novel method of determining the Earth's radius by means of the observation of the height of a mountain. He carried it out at
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739:] who is not thoroughly conversant with these for sciences." In these earlier chapters he lays the foundations for the final chapter, on
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955:'s size, which he found spanned only two-fifths of the Earth's circumference, reasoning that the geological processes that gave rise to
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astronomical instruments, chronology, comets, an untitled category, astrology, anecdotes, religion, and books he no longer possesses.
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In carrying out his research, al-Biruni used a variety of different techniques dependent upon the particular field of study involved.
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653:. Accepting the definite demise of the Afrighids at the hands of the Ma'munids, he made peace with the latter who then ruled
570:, medicine and philosophy and dabbled not only in the field of physics, but also in those of most of the other sciences. The
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Bosworth, C. E. (1968). "The Political and Dynastic History of the Iranian World (A.D. 1000–1217)". In Boyle, J.A. (ed.).
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3824:. Islamic Philosophy and Occidental Phenomenology in Dialogue. Vol. 5. Netherlands: Springer. pp. 137–146.
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982:"). It lists synonyms for drug names in Syriac, Persian, Greek, Baluchi, Afghan, Kurdi, and some Indian languages.
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2511:. Cultural Heritage and Contemporary Change. Washington, D.C.: The Council for Research in Values and Philosophy.
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Diagram illustrating a method proposed and used by Al-Biruni to estimate the radius and circumference of the Earth
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2773:. Palgrave Series in Islamic Theology, Law, and History. Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 31–70.
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Samian, A.L. (2011). "Reason and Spirit in Al-Biruni's Philosophy of Mathematics". In Tymieniecka, A-T. (ed.).
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Biruni's fame as an Indologist rests primarily on two texts. Biruni wrote an encyclopedic work on India called
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795:, in which we think we have surpassed our predecessors, if not in the words, at all events in the matter.
657:. Their court at Gorganj (also in Khwarezm) was gaining fame for its gathering of brilliant scientists.
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Wilczynski, Jan Z. (1959). "On the Presumed Darwinism of Alberuni Eight Hundred Years before Darwin".
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3196:. Great Muslim Philosophers and Scientists of the Middle Ages. New York: Rosen Publishing Group.
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is named after al-Biruni. In Iran, surveying engineers are celebrated on al-Biruni's birthday.
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Abbasov, Shukhrat; Saidkasymov, Pulat; Shukurov, Bakhtiyer; Khamrayev, Razak (14 April 1975).
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1259:), an encyclopaedia of astronomy, geography, and engineering, dedicated to Mas'ud, son of the
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857:"Other people, besides, hold this foolish persuasion, that time has no terminus quo at all."
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3032:"The Semantic Distinction between the Terms Astronomy and Astrology according to al-Biruni"
1279:), a question and answer style book about mathematics and astronomy, in Arabic and Persian.
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2316:"Permanent mission of the Islamic Republic of Iran to the United Nations office – Vienna"
495:("The Master") in recognition of his remarkable description of early 11th-century India.
3542:(1987) . "al-Biruni". In Houtsma, M. T.; Arnold, T.W.; Basset, R.; Hartmann, R. (eds.).
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3692:(1970). "Al-Biruni". In Gillispie, Charles Coulston; Holmes, Frederic Lawrence (eds.).
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similar theories of the Greeks in order to show the relationship existing between them.
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and also to a conflict between the views of the astrologers and those of the orthodox
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Epître de Beruni contenant le répertoire des ouvrages de Muhammad b. Zakariya ar-Razi
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Al-Biruni spent the first twenty-five years of his life in Khwarezm where he studied
452:
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3555:
2613:
1446:
1428:
1349:
1106:
952:
432:
306:
194:
7589:
3302:
Tapper, Richard (1995). ""Islamic Anthropology" and the "Anthropology of Islam"".
684:
594:
3770:
3507:
3398:
3282:
3191:
3131:
Rozhanskaya, Mariam; Levinova, I. S. (1996). "Statics". In Rushdī, Rāshid (ed.).
3005:
2984:
2872:
2833:
2797:
2732:
2660:
God's Philosophers: How the Medieval World Laid the Foundations of Modern Science
2632:
2506:
2433:
2133:
811:(highest point in the heavens) was mobile, not fixed. He wrote a treatise on the
7872:
7793:
7634:
7619:
7614:
7594:
7574:
7312:
7297:
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6674:
6555:
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5777:
5742:
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5291:
5281:
5246:
5055:
5035:
4914:
4754:
4490:
4439:
4399:
4167:
3829:
3797:
A History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam
3577:
3370:
Verdon, Noémie (2015). "Cartography and Cultural Identity: Conceptualisation of
2778:
2734:
Early Arabic Pharmacology: An Introduction Based on Ancient and Medieval Sources
1456:
1452:
1378:
1297:), a geology manual about minerals and gems. Dedicated to Mawdud, son of Mas'ud.
920:
760:
650:
112:
75:
3376:
Negotiating Cultural Identity: Landscapes in Early Medieval South Asian History
903:
7763:
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7544:
7529:
7509:
7489:
7484:
7479:
7449:
7388:
7337:
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6964:
6866:
6805:
6417:
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4308:
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4288:
3612:
3531:
2897:
2560:
2489:
1397:
1354:
838:
834:
752:
733:], for no one who is worthy of the style and title of Astrologer [
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468:
310:
284:
214:
154:
108:
83:
3715:
3681:
3462:
3431:
3362:
3325:
3062:
2880:
2508:
Understanding Other Religions: Al-Biruni's and Gadamer's "Fusion of Horizons"
2318:. Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Islamic Republic of Iran. Archived from
997:, rather than the common practice of the time of classifying them by colour.
7549:
7403:
7092:
6851:
6551:
6402:
5981:
5869:
5696:
5646:
5601:
5596:
5520:
5271:
5211:
4990:
4769:
4713:
4318:
4293:
4177:
3958:– manuscripts, critical editions, and translations compiled by Jan Hogendijk
3640:
3595:
3498:
3379:
3212:
2832:(1975). "The Exact Sciences". In Frye, R. N.; Fisher, William Bayne (eds.).
2481:
2257:
1260:
1109:
878:
862:
812:
740:
707:
An illustration from al-Biruni's astronomical works, explains the different
606:
590:
567:
524:
424:
210:
206:
202:
150:
53:
27:
2918:
2415:
1095:
Verifying All That the Indians Recount, the Reasonable and the Unreasonable
2399:"Constitutional legitimacy: Sharia law, secularism and the social compact"
1189:
A Critical Study of What India Says, Whether Accepted by Reason or Refused
1099:
The book confirming what pertains to India, whether rational or despicable
471:, in modern-day central-eastern Afghanistan. In 1017, he travelled to the
7695:
7398:
7372:
7307:
7061:
6912:
6856:
5752:
5691:
5510:
5296:
5266:
5231:
5221:
5161:
4980:
4495:
4465:
4409:
4343:
4333:
4258:
4172:
1500:
1420:
1055:
1039:
1035:
1021:
attempted to accurately establish the length of various historical eras.
850:
692:
688:
680:
654:
646:
614:
586:
577:, which was Biruni's mother tongue, survived for several centuries after
528:
448:
436:
409:
393:
386:
302:
276:
2342:
845:
position that the universe had a beginning, being a strong supporter of
7768:
7071:
7066:
6922:
6446:
6197:
5201:
5191:
5126:
5075:
5015:
5005:
4970:
4328:
3333:
3238:
3193:
Al-Biruni: Master Astronomer and Muslim Scholar of the Eleventh Century
2389:
956:
912:
907:
Four directions and Political divisions of Iran by Abū Rayḥān al-Bīrūnī
804:
621:
602:
598:
520:
420:
405:
190:
6315:
3868:
3070:
3031:
2753:
2685:. Vol. 2: The Expansion of Islam in the Middle Periods. Chicago:
2470:"Re-Reading al-Biruni's India: a Case for Intercultural Understanding"
1131:
One of the specific aspects of Hindu life that Biruni studied was the
617:, and there are extant exchanges of views between these two scholars.
7720:
7685:
7660:
7226:
7030:
5176:
5171:
3472:
The Genius of their Age: Ibn Sina, Biruni, and the Lost Enlightenment
1335:
1157:
1050:
924:
808:
610:
486:
464:
179:
158:
104:
3317:
2905:
Kujundzić, E.; Masić, I. (1999). "Al-Biruni—a universal scientist".
2682:
The Venture of Islam: Conscience and History in a World Civilization
2469:
2381:
7891:
3860:
3341:
Vibert, Douglas A. (1973). "Al-Biruni, Persian Scholar, 973–1048".
3054:
2813:
7730:
7177:
5241:
5106:
5030:
3229:
3007:
Beyond Death: The Mystical Teachings of ʻAyn Al-Quḍāt Al-Hamadhānī
1476:
1365:
1043:
934:
902:
842:
702:
673:
629:
578:
169:
124:
58:
An imaginary rendition of Al Biruni on a 1973 Soviet postage stamp
7725:
7700:
3590:. Vol. 2: The Muhammadan Period. London: Trübner & Co.
3281:
Strohmaier, Gotthard (2006). "Biruni". In Meri, Josef W. (ed.).
1404:
1089:
Taḥqīq mā li-l-Hind min maqūlah maqbūlah fī al-ʿaql aw mardhūlah
563:
7230:
6745:
6319:
6072:
The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing
5440:
4826:
4080:
4042:
4029:
3374:
by Arabic and Persian writers". In Ray, Himanshu Prabha (ed.).
2634:
The Geography of Uzbekistan: At the Crossroads of the Silk Road
2368:
Ahmed, Akbar S. (1984). "Al-Beruni: The First Anthropologist".
6134:
4899:
3631:
Glick, Thomas F.; Livesey, Steven John; Wallis, Faith (2005).
3617:(Includes facsimile edition of the Arabic text of al-Biruni's
3152:
Saliba, George (1982). "Al-Biruni". In Strayer, Joseph (ed.).
2798:"The Hindu Calendar as Described in Al-Biruni's Masudic Canon"
2771:
The Contemporary Islamic Governed State: A Reconceptualization
2268:
1896:
1894:
1892:
1419:, it features the statues of four prominent Iranian scholars:
1344:
is one of the most important of the early works of science in
1217:. The work is a compendium of India's religion and philosophy.
1013:
Book of nightly conversation concerning the affairs of Ḵᵛārazm
735:
729:
712:
1783:
1781:
1779:
1777:
351:
2374:
Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland
1499:(India) was a cultural zone coinciding with the present-day
841:, al-Biruni is famous for vehemently defending the majority
3635:
Medieval Science, Technology, and Medicine: An Encyclopedia
1227:
Book of Instruction in the Elements of the Art of Astrology
357:
3955:
3400:
Muslim Perceptions of Other Religions: A Historical Survey
3512:. The Cambridge History of Iran. Vol. 5. Cambridge:
1715:
1713:
1711:
1709:
1707:
1705:
1703:
1701:
519:("outskirts"), as he was born in an outlying district of
342:
333:
4010:
Kitāb istī‘āb al-wujūh al-mumkinah fī ṣan‘at al-asṭurlāb
1521:
1519:
585:
of the region – at least some of the culture of ancient
6773:
Geography and cartography in the medieval Islamic world
2115:
2113:
923:
of 3847.80 miles. His estimate was given as 12,803,337
853:
in a multiple letter correspondence. Al-Biruni stated:
6107:
Book on the Measurement of Plane and Spherical Figures
3822:
Reason, Spirit and the Sacral in the New Enlightenment
2989:. Tempe, Arizona: American Federation of Astrologers.
2204:
2202:
1580:
1578:
1565:
1563:
7844:
3700:. Vol. 2. New York: Scribner. pp. 147–157.
2796:
Kennedy, E.S.; Engle, Susan; Wamstad, Jeanne (1965).
514:
508:
354:
4008:
3991:
3974:
3886:"Bīrūnī: Abū al-Rayḥān Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad al-Bīrūnī"
3723:
Kiple, Kenneth F.; Ornelas, Kriemhild Coneè (2001).
3618:
1550:
1548:
1546:
1440:
1339:
1314:
1306:
1220:
1198:
1181:
1161:
1113:
1087:
1006:
973:
777:
771:
679:
school, al-Biruni nevertheless also associated with
640:
490:
476:
348:
339:
336:
16:
11th-century Persian scholar and polymath (973-1050)
7739:
7648:
7432:
7381:
7265:
7205:
7131:
7111:
7080:
7039:
6998:
6957:
6931:
6895:
6819:
6788:
6779:
6723:
6707:
6684:
6665:
6640:
6633:
6471:
6360:
6351:
6268:
6242:
6216:
6165:
6144:
6059:
6015:
5959:
5923:
5842:
5796:
5715:
5579:
5483:
5474:
5395:
5364:
5305:
5094:
4961:
4897:
4837:
4783:
4747:
4686:
4625:
4524:
4453:
4372:
4241:
4145:
4104:
3961:Digitized facsimiles of works by al-Biruni at the
3607:. Tehran: Iranian National Heritage Society Press.
3587:
The History of India, as told by Its own Historians
3343:
Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada
3177:"Bīrūnī, Abū Rayḥān:iii. Mathematics and Astronomy"
2455:"Bīrūnī, Abū Rayḥān v. Pharmacology and Mineralogy"
2181:
1924:
1752:
1750:
1748:
1746:
1744:
1742:
1740:
1208:
345:
258:
228:
185:
175:
165:
140:
130:
120:
91:
68:
63:
37:
3889:
3794:
3724:
3693:
3659:
3658:Karamati, Younes; Melvin-Koushki, Matthew (2021).
3632:
3543:
3440:
3255:
3160:. Vol. 2. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons.
3153:
3030:
2957:
2858:
2705:
2657:
2527:
1308:Kitab al-Āthār al-Bāqīyah ‘an al-Qurūn al-Khālīyah
1115:Tarjamat ketāb Bātanjalī fi’l-ḵalāṣ men al-ertebāk
683:theologians. He was however, very critical of the
3422:Watt, William Montgomery; Said, Hakim M. (1979).
1194:تحقيق ما للهند من مقولة معقولة في العقل أو مرذولة
873:Al-Biruni contributed to the introduction of the
695:for his views on the eternality of the universe.
431:, and also distinguished himself as a historian,
3424:Al-Bīrūnī and the Study of Non-Islamic Religions
3118:"Bīrūnī, Abū Rayḥān: vi. History and Chronology"
2555:. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co.
475:and wrote a treatise on Indian culture entitled
2193:
2169:
2157:
1900:
1835:
1120:
855:
531:. The city, now called Beruniy, is part of the
6731:Institute for Research in Fundamental Sciences
2860:"Al-Biruni and the Political History of India"
2579:"Bīrūnī, Abū Rayḥān: vii. History of Religion"
2435:A Concise History of Afghanistan in 25 Volumes
1996:
1787:
593:, who were overthrown by the rival dynasty of
7242:
6757:
6331:
5452:
4054:
3772:Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science
3134:Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science
1411:—placed in the central Memorial Plaza of the
1348:, and is a rich source for Persian prose and
1254:
381:; 973 – after 1050), known as
8:
8028:Scientists who worked on qibla determination
2056:
1320:
1300:A history of Mahmud of Ghazni and his father
1292:
1274:
1242:
1192:
642:al-Athar al-Baqqiya 'an al-Qorun al-Khaliyya
639:). There he wrote his first important work,
3993:Kitāb al-tafhīm li-awā’īl ṣinā‘at al-tanjīm
2754:"Al-Biruni: Father of Comparative Religion"
1731:
1680:
1222:Kitab al-tafhim li-awa’il sina‘at al-tanjim
7249:
7235:
7227:
6785:
6764:
6750:
6742:
6637:
6357:
6338:
6324:
6316:
5480:
5459:
5445:
5437:
4841:
4834:
4823:
4090:
4077:
4061:
4047:
4039:
4026:
3378:. Archaeology and Religion in South Asia.
2540:(1): 91 – via Gale Academic OneFile.
1859:
1719:
1656:
1338:, the scientific language of his age, but
1005:Biruni's main essay on political history,
400:. He has been called variously "Father of
52:
34:
8053:Astronomers of the medieval Islamic world
8003:Geographers of the medieval Islamic world
6193:Constantinople observatory of Taqi ad-Din
5468:Mathematics in the medieval Islamic world
3888:. In Hockey, Thomas; et al. (eds.).
3284:Medieval Islamic Civilization: A-K, index
3228:
2943:"Chorasmia: iii. The Chorasmian Language"
2414:
2294:United Nations Information Service Vienna
1984:
1847:
1668:
1632:
8083:Psychology in the medieval Islamic world
8008:Alchemists of the medieval Islamic world
4031:Articles and topics related to Al-Biruni
3892:Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers
3258:Historical Eclipses and Earth's Rotation
2220:
2119:
2044:
2032:
1948:
1912:
1768:
1584:
1569:
849:, specifically refuting the philosopher
8063:Inventors of the medieval Islamic world
7851:
4070:Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world
3769:Rashed, Roshdi; Morelon, Régis (2019).
3487:Ali, Wahshat Khan Bahadur Reza (1951).
2526:Berjak, Rafik; Muzaffar, Iqbal (2003).
2020:
1692:
1525:
1515:
1488:
899:History of geodesy § Islamic world
326:Abu Rayhan Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Biruni
300:
270:
6114:Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity
4867:Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity
4213:Khalid ibn Abd al‐Malik al‐Marwarrudhi
3137:. Psychology Press. pp. 274–298.
3088:"Bīrūnī, Abū Rayḥān: ii. Bibliography"
2892:(in French). Paris: J.P. Maisonneuve.
2232:
2104:
2080:
2068:
1960:
1936:
1883:
1823:
1811:
1799:
1620:
1554:
1537:
1156:Most of the works of Al-Biruni are in
711:, with respect to the position of the
7948:11th-century Persian-language writers
6397:Khayyam's Solution of Cubic Equations
4888:The Remaining Signs of Past Centuries
3550:. Vol. 2 (1st ed.). Brill.
2244:
2092:
2008:
1644:
1596:
1238:The Remaining Signs of Past Centuries
980:Book on the Pharmacopoeia of Medicine
793:Miftah-ilm-alhai'a (Key to Astronomy)
503:Al-Biruni's name is derived from the
234:The Remaining Signs of Past Centuries
7:
7953:11th-century Arabic-language writers
2928:"Bīrūnī, Abū Rayḥān: viii. Indology"
2529:"Ibn Sina--Al-Biruni correspondence"
2474:Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations
2438:. Vol. 1. Trafford Publishing.
2208:
1972:
1871:
1756:
1608:
1439:A film about the life of Al-Biruni,
803:, Biruni observed that, contrary to
799:In his major astronomical work, the
766:He wrote an extensive commentary on
620:In 998, he went to the court of the
7983:10th-century Iranian mathematicians
3956:The works of Abu Rayhan (al-)Biruni
3754:. Astan Quds Razavi Publishing Co.
3727:The Cambridge World History of Food
3103:"Bīrūnī, Abū Rayḥān: iv. Geography"
1358:in a detailed and skilled fashion.
1293:
1275:
1255:
1243:
1193:
378:
370:
8058:Scholars from the Ghaznavid Empire
3696:Dictionary of Scientific Biography
3397:Waardenburg, Jacques, ed. (1999).
2966:State University of New York Press
2964:(2nd ed.). Albany, New York:
2752:Kamaruzzaman, Kamar Oniah (2003).
2545:al-Biruni; Sachau, Eduard (1910).
1334:Biruni wrote most of his works in
1008:Kitāb al-musāmara fī aḵbār Ḵᵛārazm
566:, theology, grammar, mathematics,
14:
7973:11th-century Iranian philosophers
3217:International Journal of Sciences
2182:Kennedy, Engle & Wamstad 1965
1469:in the Turkish television series
597:in 995. He left his homeland for
8048:11th-century Iranian astronomers
7998:11th-century Iranian geographers
7978:Medieval Iranian pharmacologists
7914:
7902:
7890:
7878:
7866:
7854:
6847:Abu Muhammad al-Hasan al-Hamdani
6624:
6453:Najm al-Din al-Qazwini al-Katibi
6050:
3449:; Matringe, Denis; Nawas, John;
3254:Stephenson, F. Richard (2008) .
2679:Hodgson, Marshall G. S. (1974).
1455:portrayed Al-Biruni in the 1988
1285:, a work on drugs and medicines.
1244:الآثار الباقية عن القرون الخالية
1160:although he seemingly wrote the
329:
7993:11th-century Iranian historians
7988:11th-century Iranian scientists
4592:Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr al‐Farisi
3047:The University of Chicago Press
2802:Journal of Near Eastern Studies
2708:The Lost Art of Finding Our Way
1925:Rozhanskaya & Levinova 1996
1409:United Nations Office in Vienna
1372:United Nations Office in Vienna
1207:); English translations called
691:and Zurqan. He also repudiated
634:
463:. He spent much of his life in
8088:Astronomical instrument makers
6862:Khashkhash Ibn Saeed Ibn Aswad
6393:Khayyam-Saccheri quadrilateral
5081:Schema for horizontal sundials
4597:Abu Ali al-Hasan al-Marrakushi
4122:Muḥammad ibn Ibrāhīm al-Fazārī
3906:10.1007/978-0-387-30400-7_1433
3752:Calendar-Making in the History
3603:Ghorbani, Abolghassem (1974).
3556:10.1163/2214-871X_ei1_SIM_1392
3490:Al-Biruni Commemoration Volume
3457:(3rd ed.). Brill Online.
3004:Papan-Matin, Firoozeh (2010).
2986:Classical Scientific Astrology
2609:"Rediscovering Arabic Science"
2432:Alikuzai, Hamid Wahed (2013).
823:Refutation of Eternal Universe
46:ابوریحان محمد بن احمد البیرونی
1:
8068:Transoxanian Islamic scholars
6086:Principles of Hindu Reckoning
3674:Encyclopaedia Islamica Online
3582:"1. Táríkhu-l Hind of Bírúní"
3509:The Saljuq and Mongol Periods
3156:Dictionary of the Middle Ages
2956:Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (1993).
2835:The Cambridge History of Iran
1018:Chronology of Ancient Nations
637: 977–981, 997–1012
613:. There he corresponded with
419:Al-Biruni was well versed in
95:
7968:Medieval Iranian astrologers
6715:Iranian Mathematical Society
5339:Constantinople (Taqi al-Din)
3470:Starr, S. Frederick (2023).
2873:10.1163/18778372-02502601007
2769:Kaminski, Joseph J. (2017).
2712:. Cambridge, Massachusetts:
2592:Bosworth, C. Edmund (2000).
2453:Anawati, Georges C. (2000).
1862:, pp. 45, 457, 491–493.
833:Like later adherents of the
741:astrological prognostication
7098:Mir Ahmed Nasrallah Thattvi
6276:Hindu–Arabic numeral system
6208:University of al-Qarawiyyin
5328:University of al-Qarawiyyin
4532:Ibn al-Banna' al-Marrakushi
4009:
3992:
3975:
3830:10.1007/978-90-481-9612-8_9
3619:
3211:Sparavigna, Amelia (2013).
2926:Lawrence, Bruce B. (2000).
2779:10.1007/978-3-319-57012-9_2
2687:University of Chicago Press
2607:Covington, Richard (2007).
2577:de Blois, François (2000).
2194:al-Biruni & Sachau 1910
2170:al-Biruni & Sachau 1910
2158:al-Biruni & Sachau 1910
1901:al-Biruni & Sachau 1910
1836:al-Biruni & Sachau 1910
1465:. He has been portrayed by
1441:
1413:Vienna International Center
1370:The statue of Al-Biruni in
1340:
1315:
1307:
1221:
1209:
1199:
1182:
1162:
1114:
1088:
1007:
975:Kitab al-saydala fi al-tibb
974:
964:Pharmacology and mineralogy
778:
772:
687:, particularly criticising
641:
546:His name was most commonly
515:
509:
491:
477:
8119:
7963:People from Karakalpakstan
7150:Book of Roads and Kingdoms
7142:Book of Roads and Kingdoms
6178:Al-Mustansiriya University
6157:Islamic geometric patterns
5905:Shams al-Din al-Samarqandi
4572:Shams al-Din al-Samarqandi
3750:Naba’i, Abulfadl (2019) .
3733:Cambridge University Press
3514:Cambridge University Press
3493:. Calcutta: Iran Society.
3474:. Oxford University Press.
3264:Cambridge University Press
3213:"The Science of Al-Biruni"
2983:Noonan, George C. (2005).
2840:Cambridge University Press
2838:. Vol. 4. Cambridge:
2704:Huth, John Edward (2013).
2617:. Vol. 58, no. 3
1997:Kujundzić & Masić 1999
1788:Berjak & Muzaffar 2003
1407:donated a pavilion to the
1078:
896:
826:
25:
21:Al-Biruni (disambiguation)
18:
8098:Muslim critics of atheism
6622:
6389:Khayyam-Pascal's triangle
6048:
5413:Medieval European science
4844:
4833:
4822:
4673:Sadr al-Shari'a al-Asghar
4430:Ibrahim ibn Said al-Sahli
4093:
4089:
4076:
4036:
3803:New York University Press
3305:Anthropological Quarterly
2941:MacKenzie, D. N. (2000).
2888:Kraus, Paul, ed. (1936).
2490:10.1080/09596410500059623
1472:Alparslan: Büyük Selçuklu
1392:are named in his honour.
1175:Selection of extant works
1093:(variously translated as
293:
263:
213:, mathematics, medicine,
51:
44:
7047:Abd-al-Razzāq Samarqandī
6571:The Bridges Organization
6523:Langlands–Shahidi method
6498:Firoozbakht's conjecture
6413:Nizam al-Din al-Nisapuri
5931:Nizam al-Din al-Nisapuri
5890:Muhyi al-Din al-Maghribi
4663:Nizam al-Din al-Nisapuri
4557:Muhyi al-Din al-Maghribi
4198:Ali ibn Isa al-Asturlabi
3928:Yasin, Mohammed (1975).
3287:. Taylor & Francis.
3190:Scheppler, Bill (2006).
3116:Pingree, David (2000c).
3101:Pingree, David (2000b).
3086:Pingree, David (2000a).
2714:Harvard University Press
2631:Gulyamova, Lola (2022).
2138:Encyclopaedia Britannica
1294:الجماهر في معرفة الجواهر
817:acceleration of the Moon
485:"), after exploring the
26:Not to be confused with
8038:Iranian anthropologists
7829:Ahmad ibn Nizam al-Mulk
7809:Minhaj al-Siraj Juzjani
6562:Ebadollah S. Mahmoodian
6300:History of trigonometry
6295:Trigonometric functions
6289:Western Arabic numerals
6285:Eastern Arabic numerals
5850:Ibn al‐Ha'im al‐Ishbili
4765:Baha' al-din al-'Amili
4739:'Abd al-'Aziz al-Wafa'i
4617:Fakhr al-Din al-Akhlati
4537:Ibn al‐Ha'im al‐Ishbili
3405:Oxford University Press
3175:Saliba, George (2000).
2830:Kennedy, Edward Stewart
1271:Understanding Astrology
861:He further stated that
253:Understanding Astrology
7759:Abu'l-Ma'ali Nasrallah
7754:Abu'l-Hasan Isfarayini
7440:Abu Dawud al-Sijistani
7165:Kitab al-Rawd al-Mitar
7052:Ghiyāth al-dīn Naqqāsh
6508:Havel–Hakimi algorithm
6224:Babylonian mathematics
5915:Kamāl al-Dīn al-Fārisī
5900:Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi
5895:al-Hasan al-Marrakushi
5819:Al-Samawal al-Maghribi
5748:Abu Mansur al-Baghdadi
5491:'Abd al-Hamīd ibn Turk
5046:Navigational astrolabe
4801:Al Achsasi al Mouakket
4567:Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi
4486:Al-Samawal al-Maghribi
4435:Ibn Mu'adh al-Jayyani
4364:Abu al-Hasan al-Ahwazi
3940:: 207–213 – via
3546:Encyclopaedia of Islam
3455:Encyclopaedia of Islam
2758:Intellectual Discourse
2731:Levey, Martin (1973).
2656:Hannam, James (2009).
2505:Ataman, Kemal (2008).
2468:Ataman, Kemal (2005).
2416:10.15742/ilrev.v1n2.84
1445:, was released in the
1374:
1352:. The book covers the
1321:
1303:A history of Khawarezm
1276:التفهيم لصناعة التنجيم
1125:
1001:History and chronology
940:
929:atmospheric refraction
908:
893:Geography and geodesy
859:
797:
716:
523:, the capital of the
467:, then capital of the
144:Khwarezm, Central Asia
7656:Abu Sa'id Abu'l-Khayr
7540:Ibn Tayfour Sajawandi
7368:Sharaf al-Din al-Tusi
7278:Abu Ma'shar al-Balkhi
6949:Abu'l Abbas al-Hijazi
6597:Mohammad Mehdi Zahedi
6582:Gholamhossein Mosaheb
6428:Ayn al-Quzat Hamadani
6250:Byzantine mathematics
6038:Ibn Hamza al-Maghribi
5865:Alam al-Din al-Hanafi
5829:Sharaf al-Din al-Tusi
5382:Hellenistic astronomy
5353:Samarkand (Ulugh Beg)
5147:Deferent and epicycle
4547:Alam al-Din al-Hanafi
4516:Sharaf al-Din al-Tusi
4158:Abu Ma'shar al-Balkhi
4017:14 March 2023 at the
4000:14 March 2023 at the
3983:26 March 2023 at the
3884:Yano, Michio (2007).
3620:Maqālīd 'ilm al-hay'a
3439:Yano, Michio (2013).
1423:, Abu Rayhan Biruni,
1369:
949:Earth's circumference
938:
906:
829:Eternity of the world
827:Further information:
788:
706:
564:Islamic jurisprudence
404:", "Father of modern
199:comparative sociology
8093:People from Khwarazm
8023:Islamic philosophers
7764:Abu Muslim Khorasani
7470:Abu Qasim Samarqandi
7460:Abu Layth Samarqandi
7358:Nasir al-Din al-Tusi
7333:Abu Ja'far al-Khazin
6980:Ibn Said al-Maghribi
6539:Ramin Takloo-Bighash
6529:Hamid Naderi Yeganeh
6458:Nasir al-Din al-Tusi
6408:Muhammad Baqir Yazdi
6370:Abu al-Wafa' Buzjani
6255:European mathematics
6203:Maragheh observatory
6028:Muhammad Baqir Yazdi
6007:Ibn Ghazi al-Miknasi
5880:Nasir al-Din al-Tusi
5788:Muhammad al-Baghdadi
5372:Babylonian astronomy
5187:Gravitational energy
4562:Nasir al-Din al-Tusi
4552:Najm al‐Din al‐Misri
4233:Yahya ibn Abi Mansur
4132:Mashallah ibn Athari
4117:Al-Fadl ibn Naubakht
3930:"Al-Biruni in India"
3900:. pp. 131–133.
3182:Encyclopædia Iranica
3123:Encyclopædia Iranica
3108:Encyclopædia Iranica
3093:Encyclopædia Iranica
2948:Encyclopædia Iranica
2933:Encyclopædia Iranica
2599:Encyclopædia Iranica
2594:"Bīrūnī, Abū Rayḥān"
2584:Encyclopædia Iranica
2460:Encyclopædia Iranica
2403:Indonesia Law Review
2397:Akhtar, Zia (2011).
2343:"Abu Raykhan Beruni"
2322:on 14 September 2019
1769:Watt & Said 1979
1495:Al-Biruni's idea of
1316:Risālah li-al-Bīrūnī
1197:), popularly called
1025:History of religions
575:Khwarezmian language
483:The History of India
402:Comparative Religion
379:أبو الريحان البيروني
39:Abu Rayhan al-Biruni
19:For other uses, see
8043:Historians of India
7184:The Meadows of Gold
6801:Abu Hanifa Dinawari
6577:Siavash Shahshahani
6494:Farideh Firoozbakht
6346:Mathematics in Iran
6173:Al-Azhar University
6100:The Book of Healing
5506:Al-Ḥajjāj ibn Yūsuf
5313:Al-Azhar University
5132:Celestial mechanics
4922:Book of Fixed Stars
4881:The Book of Healing
4860:Aja'ib al-Makhluqat
4602:Ibn Ishaq al-Tunisi
4577:Zakariya al-Qazwini
4188:Al-Ḥajjāj ibn Yūsuf
4183:Abu Hanifa Dinawari
3976:al-Qanūn al-Masʿūdī
3898:Springer Publishers
3574:Elliot, Henry Miers
3355:1973JRASC..67..209D
2857:Khan, M.S. (1976).
2534:Islam & Science
1975:, pp. 216–217.
1814:, pp. 248–251.
1771:, pp. 414–419.
1183:Taḥqīq mā li-l-Hind
987:hydrostatic balance
883:hydrostatic balance
773:Taḥqīq mā li-l-Hind
727:Astrology [
533:autonomous republic
473:Indian subcontinent
315:Zakariya al-Qazwini
273:Abū Ḥanīfa Dīnawarī
8018:Explorers of India
7749:Abu'l-Fadl Bayhaqi
7630:Tha'labi Nishapuri
7445:Abu Barakat Nasafi
7273:Abu Hatam Isfizari
7021:Hamdallah Mustawfi
6944:Muhammad al-Idrisi
6918:Mahmud al-Kashgari
6842:Abu Zayd al-Balkhi
6379:al-Kashi's theorem
6305:History of algebra
6260:Indian mathematics
6234:Indian mathematics
6183:House of Knowledge
5637:Brethren of Purity
5531:Banū Mūsā brothers
5377:Egyptian astronomy
5318:House of Knowledge
4996:Astronomical clock
4806:Muhammad al-Rudani
4203:Banū Mūsā brothers
4153:Abu Ali al-Khayyat
3445:. In Fleet, Kate;
3239:10.18483/ijSci.364
3081:– via JSTOR.
3029:Pines, S. (1964).
1442:Abu Raykhan Beruni
1435:In popular culture
1381:, were revisited.
1375:
1049:Al-Biruni divides
941:
909:
779:Miftah-ilm-alhai'a
717:
709:phases of the Moon
398:Islamic Golden Age
267:Influenced by
135:Islamic Golden Age
8013:Explorers of Asia
7930:
7929:
7842:
7841:
7804:Khalid ibn Barmak
7779:Ata-Malik Juvayni
7742:political figures
7649:Poets and artists
7505:Fatima Samarqandi
7409:Haji Bektash Veli
7288:Abu Ubayd Juzjani
7224:
7223:
7127:
7126:
7088:Sulaiman Al Mahri
6908:Abu Saʿīd Gardēzī
6887:Qudama ibn Ja'far
6811:Sulaiman al-Tajir
6739:
6738:
6703:
6702:
6694:Maryam Mirzakhani
6650:Maryam Mirzakhani
6620:
6619:
6602:Mohsen Hashtroodi
6548:Fuzzy mathematics
6479:Maryam Mirzakhani
6313:
6312:
6229:Greek mathematics
6152:Alhazen's problem
6046:
6045:
5667:Ibrahim ibn Sinan
5617:Sinān ibn al-Fatḥ
5434:
5433:
5430:
5429:
5426:
5425:
5408:Chinese astronomy
5403:Byzantine science
5277:Temporal finitism
5207:Islamic cosmology
5137:Celestial spheres
4957:
4956:
4849:Arabic star names
4818:
4817:
4814:
4813:
4678:Fathullah Shirazi
4612:Al-Ashraf Umar II
4324:Ibrahim ibn Sinan
4127:Ibrāhīm al-Fazārī
3915:978-1-4419-9918-4
3839:978-90-481-9612-8
3812:978-0-8147-8023-7
3782:978-0-415-12410-2
3761:978-600-02-0665-9
3742:978-0-521-40216-3
3666:Madelung, Wilferd
3650:978-0-415-96930-7
3625:Keys of Astronomy
3565:978-90-04-08265-6
3414:978-0-19-535576-5
3389:978-1-317-34130-7
3294:978-0-415-96691-7
3273:978-0-521-05633-5
3203:978-1-4042-0512-3
3167:978-06841-9-073-0
3144:978-0-415-12411-9
3021:978-90-04-17413-9
2996:978-0-86690-049-2
2975:978-07914-1-515-3
2867:. 25/26: 86–115.
2849:978-0-521-20093-6
2788:978-33195-7-011-2
2744:978-90-04-03796-0
2737:. Brill Archive.
2723:978-0-674-07282-4
2696:978-0-226-34677-9
2671:978-1-84831-150-3
2648:978-30310-7-873-6
2518:978-1-56518-252-3
2445:978-1-4907-1446-2
2261:(Radio broadcast)
2057:Kamaruzzaman 2003
1459:historical drama
1417:Scholars Pavilion
1388:and the asteroid
1384:The lunar crater
1205:The Book on India
1062:concepts of God.
875:scientific method
847:creatio ex nihilo
747:being based upon
672:Belonging to the
601:, then under the
323:
322:
249:The Mas'udi Canon
155:Ghaznavid dynasty
8110:
8103:Critics of deism
8073:Iranian chemists
7919:
7918:
7907:
7906:
7905:
7895:
7894:
7883:
7882:
7881:
7871:
7870:
7869:
7859:
7858:
7857:
7850:
7834:Shihab al-Nasawi
7819:Tahir ibn Husayn
7691:Farrukhi Sistani
7666:Aruzi Samarqandi
7465:Abu Mu'in Nasafi
7433:Islamic scholars
7251:
7244:
7237:
7228:
7172:Mu'jam Al-Buldan
7158:Tabula Rogeriana
7152:(ibn Khordadbeh)
6837:Ahmad ibn Fadlan
6832:Ahmad ibn Rustah
6786:
6766:
6759:
6752:
6743:
6638:
6634:Prize Recipients
6628:
6587:Amin Shokrollahi
6519:Freydoon Shahidi
6375:Jamshid al-Kashi
6358:
6340:
6333:
6326:
6317:
6128:Tabula Rogeriana
6054:
6002:Sibt al-Maridini
5662:Sinan ibn Thabit
5571:Abu Said Gorgani
5561:Thābit ibn Qurra
5551:Ishaq ibn Hunayn
5536:Hunayn ibn Ishaq
5481:
5461:
5454:
5447:
5438:
5418:Indian astronomy
5387:Indian astronomy
5355:
5348:
5341:
5262:Sublunary sphere
5252:Specific gravity
5152:Earth's rotation
5041:Mural instrument
4986:Armillary sphere
4909:Alfonsine tables
4874:Tabula Rogeriana
4854:Islamic calendar
4842:
4835:
4824:
4719:Sibt al-Maridini
4704:Jamshid al-Kashi
4425:Said al-Andalusi
4228:Thābit ibn Qurra
4163:Abu Said Gorgani
4137:Yaʿqūb ibn Ṭāriq
4091:
4078:
4063:
4056:
4049:
4040:
4027:
4012:
3995:
3978:
3945:
3942:Internet Archive
3919:
3895:
3880:
3843:
3816:
3800:
3786:
3765:
3746:
3730:
3719:
3699:
3685:
3676:. Brill Online.
3663:
3654:
3638:
3622:
3616:
3599:
3569:
3549:
3535:
3502:
3475:
3466:
3444:
3435:
3418:
3393:
3366:
3337:
3298:
3277:
3261:
3250:
3232:
3207:
3186:
3171:
3159:
3148:
3127:
3112:
3097:
3082:
3034:
3025:
3012:Brill Publishers
3000:
2979:
2963:
2952:
2937:
2922:
2907:Medical Archives
2901:
2884:
2862:
2853:
2825:
2792:
2765:
2748:
2727:
2711:
2700:
2675:
2664:. London: Icon.
2663:
2652:
2626:
2624:
2622:
2603:
2588:
2564:
2541:
2531:
2522:
2501:
2464:
2449:
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2354:
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2331:
2329:
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2312:
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2301:
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2280:
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2277:
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2262:
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2236:
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2197:
2191:
2185:
2179:
2173:
2167:
2161:
2155:
2149:
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2146:
2144:
2129:
2123:
2117:
2108:
2102:
2096:
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2084:
2078:
2072:
2066:
2060:
2054:
2048:
2042:
2036:
2030:
2024:
2018:
2012:
2006:
2000:
1994:
1988:
1982:
1976:
1970:
1964:
1958:
1952:
1946:
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1934:
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1845:
1839:
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1827:
1821:
1815:
1809:
1803:
1797:
1791:
1785:
1772:
1766:
1760:
1754:
1735:
1732:Waardenburg 1999
1729:
1723:
1717:
1696:
1690:
1684:
1681:Papan-Matin 2010
1678:
1672:
1666:
1660:
1654:
1648:
1642:
1636:
1630:
1624:
1618:
1612:
1606:
1600:
1599:, pp. 9–10.
1594:
1588:
1582:
1573:
1567:
1558:
1552:
1541:
1535:
1529:
1523:
1504:
1493:
1444:
1343:
1324:
1322:Epître de Berūnī
1318:
1310:
1296:
1295:
1278:
1277:
1265:Mahmud of Ghazni
1258:
1257:
1246:
1245:
1224:
1215:Alberuni's India
1212:
1202:
1196:
1195:
1185:
1165:
1117:
1112:with the title
1091:
1081:Alberuni's India
1038:, Christianity,
1010:
991:specific gravity
977:
837:school, such as
784:Key to Astronomy
781:
775:
768:Indian astronomy
662:Mahmud of Ghazni
644:
638:
636:
518:
512:
494:
480:
451:, and also knew
429:natural sciences
380:
372:
364:
363:
360:
359:
356:
353:
350:
347:
344:
341:
338:
335:
186:Main interest(s)
109:Ghaznavid Empire
100:
97:
56:
35:
8118:
8117:
8113:
8112:
8111:
8109:
8108:
8107:
7933:
7932:
7931:
7926:
7925:
7913:
7903:
7901:
7889:
7879:
7877:
7867:
7865:
7855:
7853:
7845:
7843:
7838:
7789:Abu Ali Bal'ami
7774:Ali-Shir Nava'i
7741:
7735:
7676:Attar Nishapuri
7644:
7525:Hakim Nishapuri
7455:Abu Hafs Nasafi
7428:
7377:
7293:Abu Zayd Balkhi
7261:
7255:
7225:
7220:
7201:
7196:Kitab al-Kharaj
7123:
7107:
7076:
7057:Ahmad ibn Mājid
7035:
6994:
6975:Yaqut al-Hamawi
6953:
6927:
6891:
6815:
6775:
6770:
6740:
6735:
6719:
6699:
6680:
6661:
6629:
6616:
6612:Amir Ali Ahmadi
6534:Esmail Babolian
6467:
6362:
6347:
6344:
6314:
6309:
6281:Arabic numerals
6264:
6238:
6212:
6188:House of Wisdom
6161:
6140:
6062:
6055:
6042:
6011:
5955:
5941:Ibn al-Durayhim
5919:
5838:
5804:Jabir ibn Aflah
5792:
5723:Abu Nasr Mansur
5711:
5607:Ahmad ibn Yusuf
5575:
5470:
5465:
5435:
5422:
5391:
5360:
5351:
5344:
5337:
5323:House of Wisdom
5301:
5257:Spherical Earth
5090:
5021:Equatorial ring
5001:Celestial globe
4976:Analog computer
4953:
4948:Sullam al-sama'
4893:
4829:
4810:
4779:
4743:
4682:
4621:
4520:
4506:Jabir ibn Aflah
4449:
4380:Abu Nasr Mansur
4368:
4349:Abolfadl Harawi
4284:Ahmad ibn Yusuf
4237:
4141:
4112:Ahmad Nahavandi
4100:
4085:
4072:
4067:
4032:
4019:Wayback Machine
4002:Wayback Machine
3985:Wayback Machine
3963:British Library
3952:
3934:Islamic Culture
3927:
3916:
3883:
3846:
3840:
3819:
3813:
3789:
3783:
3768:
3762:
3749:
3743:
3722:
3708:
3688:
3670:Daftary, Farhad
3657:
3651:
3630:
3602:
3572:
3566:
3538:
3524:
3505:
3486:
3483:
3481:Further reading
3478:
3469:
3451:Rowson, Everett
3438:
3421:
3415:
3396:
3390:
3369:
3340:
3318:10.2307/3318074
3301:
3295:
3280:
3274:
3253:
3210:
3204:
3189:
3174:
3168:
3151:
3145:
3130:
3115:
3100:
3085:
3028:
3022:
3003:
2997:
2982:
2976:
2955:
2940:
2925:
2909:(in Croatian).
2904:
2887:
2856:
2850:
2828:
2795:
2789:
2768:
2751:
2745:
2730:
2724:
2703:
2697:
2678:
2672:
2655:
2649:
2639:Springer Nature
2630:
2620:
2618:
2606:
2591:
2576:
2544:
2525:
2519:
2504:
2467:
2452:
2446:
2431:
2396:
2382:10.2307/3033407
2367:
2363:
2358:
2348:
2346:
2340:
2339:
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2325:
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2314:
2313:
2309:
2299:
2297:
2288:
2287:
2283:
2273:
2271:
2260:
2256:
2255:
2251:
2243:
2239:
2231:
2227:
2219:
2215:
2207:
2200:
2192:
2188:
2180:
2176:
2168:
2164:
2156:
2152:
2142:
2140:
2132:George Saliba.
2131:
2130:
2126:
2118:
2111:
2103:
2099:
2091:
2087:
2079:
2075:
2067:
2063:
2055:
2051:
2043:
2039:
2031:
2027:
2019:
2015:
2007:
2003:
1995:
1991:
1983:
1979:
1971:
1967:
1959:
1955:
1947:
1943:
1935:
1931:
1923:
1919:
1911:
1907:
1899:
1890:
1882:
1878:
1870:
1866:
1860:Stephenson 2008
1858:
1854:
1846:
1842:
1834:
1830:
1822:
1818:
1810:
1806:
1798:
1794:
1786:
1775:
1767:
1763:
1755:
1738:
1730:
1726:
1720:Sparavigna 2013
1718:
1699:
1691:
1687:
1679:
1675:
1667:
1663:
1657:Strohmaier 2006
1655:
1651:
1643:
1639:
1631:
1627:
1619:
1615:
1607:
1603:
1595:
1591:
1583:
1576:
1568:
1561:
1553:
1544:
1536:
1532:
1524:
1517:
1513:
1508:
1507:
1494:
1490:
1485:
1437:
1364:
1332:
1251:The Mas'udi Law
1177:
1163:Kitab al-Tafhim
1154:
1083:
1077:
1068:
1060:anthropomorphic
1058:) have adopted
1027:
1003:
968:Biruni wrote a
966:
945:Codex Masudicus
917:Pind Dadan Khan
901:
895:
871:
831:
825:
701:
633:
560:
501:
423:, mathematics,
371:ابوریحان بیرونی
332:
328:
319:
299:
298:
289:
281:Abu Nasr Mansur
269:
268:
229:Notable work(s)
147:Ziyarid dynasty
145:
116:
102:
98:
87:
73:
59:
47:
40:
31:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
8116:
8114:
8106:
8105:
8100:
8095:
8090:
8085:
8080:
8075:
8070:
8065:
8060:
8055:
8050:
8045:
8040:
8035:
8030:
8025:
8020:
8015:
8010:
8005:
8000:
7995:
7990:
7985:
7980:
7975:
7970:
7965:
7960:
7955:
7950:
7945:
7935:
7934:
7928:
7927:
7924:
7923:
7911:
7899:
7887:
7875:
7863:
7840:
7839:
7837:
7836:
7831:
7826:
7821:
7816:
7811:
7806:
7801:
7799:Ibn Khordadbeh
7796:
7791:
7786:
7781:
7776:
7771:
7766:
7761:
7756:
7751:
7745:
7743:
7740:Historians and
7737:
7736:
7734:
7733:
7728:
7723:
7718:
7713:
7708:
7703:
7698:
7693:
7688:
7683:
7678:
7673:
7668:
7663:
7658:
7652:
7650:
7646:
7645:
7643:
7642:
7637:
7632:
7627:
7622:
7617:
7612:
7607:
7602:
7597:
7592:
7587:
7582:
7577:
7572:
7567:
7562:
7557:
7552:
7547:
7542:
7537:
7532:
7527:
7522:
7520:Hakim Tirmidhi
7517:
7512:
7507:
7502:
7497:
7492:
7487:
7482:
7477:
7472:
7467:
7462:
7457:
7452:
7447:
7442:
7436:
7434:
7430:
7429:
7427:
7426:
7421:
7416:
7411:
7406:
7401:
7396:
7391:
7385:
7383:
7379:
7378:
7376:
7375:
7370:
7365:
7360:
7355:
7350:
7345:
7340:
7335:
7330:
7325:
7320:
7315:
7310:
7305:
7300:
7295:
7290:
7285:
7280:
7275:
7269:
7267:
7263:
7262:
7256:
7254:
7253:
7246:
7239:
7231:
7222:
7221:
7219:
7218:
7209:
7207:
7203:
7202:
7200:
7199:
7192:
7187:
7180:
7175:
7168:
7161:
7154:
7146:
7137:
7135:
7129:
7128:
7125:
7124:
7122:
7121:
7115:
7113:
7109:
7108:
7106:
7105:
7100:
7095:
7090:
7084:
7082:
7078:
7077:
7075:
7074:
7069:
7064:
7059:
7054:
7049:
7043:
7041:
7037:
7036:
7034:
7033:
7028:
7023:
7018:
7013:
7008:
7002:
7000:
6996:
6995:
6993:
6992:
6990:Ibn al-Mujawir
6987:
6982:
6977:
6972:
6967:
6961:
6959:
6955:
6954:
6952:
6951:
6946:
6941:
6935:
6933:
6929:
6928:
6926:
6925:
6920:
6915:
6910:
6905:
6899:
6897:
6893:
6892:
6890:
6889:
6884:
6879:
6874:
6869:
6864:
6859:
6854:
6849:
6844:
6839:
6834:
6829:
6827:Ibn Khordadbeh
6823:
6821:
6817:
6816:
6814:
6813:
6808:
6803:
6798:
6792:
6790:
6783:
6777:
6776:
6771:
6769:
6768:
6761:
6754:
6746:
6737:
6736:
6734:
6733:
6727:
6725:
6721:
6720:
6718:
6717:
6711:
6709:
6705:
6704:
6701:
6700:
6698:
6697:
6690:
6688:
6682:
6681:
6679:
6678:
6671:
6669:
6663:
6662:
6660:
6659:
6656:Caucher Birkar
6653:
6646:
6644:
6635:
6631:
6630:
6623:
6621:
6618:
6617:
6615:
6614:
6609:
6607:Hossein Zakeri
6604:
6599:
6594:
6589:
6584:
6579:
6574:
6564:
6559:
6544:Lotfi A. Zadeh
6541:
6536:
6531:
6526:
6516:
6514:Siamak Yassemi
6511:
6501:
6491:
6486:
6484:Caucher Birkar
6481:
6475:
6473:
6469:
6468:
6466:
6465:
6460:
6455:
6450:
6440:
6435:
6430:
6425:
6423:Kushyar Gilani
6420:
6415:
6410:
6405:
6400:
6382:
6372:
6366:
6364:
6355:
6353:Mathematicians
6349:
6348:
6345:
6343:
6342:
6335:
6328:
6320:
6311:
6310:
6308:
6307:
6302:
6297:
6292:
6278:
6272:
6270:
6266:
6265:
6263:
6262:
6257:
6252:
6246:
6244:
6240:
6239:
6237:
6236:
6231:
6226:
6220:
6218:
6214:
6213:
6211:
6210:
6205:
6200:
6195:
6190:
6185:
6180:
6175:
6169:
6167:
6163:
6162:
6160:
6159:
6154:
6148:
6146:
6142:
6141:
6139:
6138:
6131:
6124:
6121:Toledan Tables
6117:
6110:
6103:
6096:
6093:Book of Optics
6089:
6082:
6075:
6067:
6065:
6057:
6056:
6049:
6047:
6044:
6043:
6041:
6040:
6035:
6030:
6025:
6019:
6017:
6013:
6012:
6010:
6009:
6004:
5999:
5994:
5989:
5984:
5979:
5974:
5969:
5963:
5961:
5957:
5956:
5954:
5953:
5948:
5943:
5938:
5933:
5927:
5925:
5921:
5920:
5918:
5917:
5912:
5907:
5902:
5897:
5892:
5887:
5882:
5877:
5872:
5867:
5862:
5857:
5852:
5846:
5844:
5840:
5839:
5837:
5836:
5834:Ibn al-Yasamin
5831:
5826:
5821:
5816:
5811:
5806:
5800:
5798:
5794:
5793:
5791:
5790:
5785:
5780:
5775:
5770:
5765:
5760:
5755:
5750:
5745:
5740:
5735:
5733:Kushyar Gilani
5730:
5725:
5719:
5717:
5713:
5712:
5710:
5709:
5704:
5699:
5694:
5689:
5684:
5679:
5677:Nazif ibn Yumn
5674:
5669:
5664:
5659:
5654:
5649:
5644:
5639:
5634:
5629:
5624:
5619:
5614:
5609:
5604:
5599:
5594:
5589:
5583:
5581:
5577:
5576:
5574:
5573:
5568:
5563:
5558:
5556:Na'im ibn Musa
5553:
5548:
5546:Yusuf al-Khuri
5543:
5538:
5533:
5528:
5523:
5518:
5516:Qusta ibn Luqa
5513:
5508:
5503:
5498:
5493:
5487:
5485:
5478:
5476:Mathematicians
5472:
5471:
5466:
5464:
5463:
5456:
5449:
5441:
5432:
5431:
5428:
5427:
5424:
5423:
5421:
5420:
5415:
5410:
5405:
5399:
5397:
5393:
5392:
5390:
5389:
5384:
5379:
5374:
5368:
5366:
5362:
5361:
5359:
5358:
5357:
5356:
5349:
5342:
5330:
5325:
5320:
5315:
5309:
5307:
5303:
5302:
5300:
5299:
5294:
5289:
5284:
5279:
5274:
5269:
5264:
5259:
5254:
5249:
5244:
5239:
5234:
5229:
5224:
5219:
5214:
5209:
5204:
5199:
5194:
5189:
5184:
5179:
5174:
5169:
5167:Elliptic orbit
5164:
5159:
5154:
5149:
5144:
5142:Circular orbit
5139:
5134:
5129:
5124:
5119:
5114:
5109:
5104:
5098:
5096:
5092:
5091:
5089:
5088:
5083:
5078:
5073:
5068:
5063:
5058:
5053:
5048:
5043:
5038:
5033:
5028:
5023:
5018:
5013:
5008:
5003:
4998:
4993:
4988:
4983:
4978:
4973:
4967:
4965:
4959:
4958:
4955:
4954:
4952:
4951:
4944:
4937:
4930:
4928:Toledan Tables
4925:
4918:
4911:
4905:
4903:
4895:
4894:
4892:
4891:
4884:
4877:
4870:
4863:
4856:
4851:
4845:
4839:
4831:
4830:
4827:
4820:
4819:
4816:
4815:
4812:
4811:
4809:
4808:
4803:
4798:
4793:
4791:Yang Guangxian
4787:
4785:
4781:
4780:
4778:
4777:
4772:
4767:
4762:
4757:
4751:
4749:
4745:
4744:
4742:
4741:
4736:
4731:
4726:
4721:
4716:
4711:
4706:
4701:
4696:
4690:
4688:
4684:
4683:
4681:
4680:
4675:
4670:
4665:
4660:
4655:
4650:
4645:
4640:
4635:
4629:
4627:
4623:
4622:
4620:
4619:
4614:
4609:
4604:
4599:
4594:
4589:
4584:
4579:
4574:
4569:
4564:
4559:
4554:
4549:
4544:
4539:
4534:
4528:
4526:
4522:
4521:
4519:
4518:
4513:
4508:
4503:
4498:
4493:
4488:
4483:
4478:
4473:
4468:
4463:
4457:
4455:
4451:
4450:
4448:
4447:
4445:Ali ibn Khalaf
4442:
4437:
4432:
4427:
4422:
4420:Kushyar Gilani
4417:
4412:
4407:
4402:
4397:
4392:
4390:Ali ibn Ridwan
4387:
4382:
4376:
4374:
4370:
4369:
4367:
4366:
4361:
4356:
4354:Haseb-i Tabari
4351:
4346:
4341:
4336:
4331:
4326:
4321:
4316:
4311:
4306:
4301:
4296:
4291:
4286:
4281:
4276:
4271:
4266:
4261:
4256:
4251:
4245:
4243:
4239:
4238:
4236:
4235:
4230:
4225:
4223:Sahl ibn Bishr
4220:
4215:
4210:
4205:
4200:
4195:
4190:
4185:
4180:
4175:
4170:
4165:
4160:
4155:
4149:
4147:
4143:
4142:
4140:
4139:
4134:
4129:
4124:
4119:
4114:
4108:
4106:
4102:
4101:
4099:
4098:
4094:
4087:
4086:
4081:
4074:
4073:
4068:
4066:
4065:
4058:
4051:
4043:
4037:
4034:
4033:
4030:
4024:
4023:
4022:
4021:
4004:
3987:
3967:
3966:
3959:
3951:
3950:External links
3948:
3947:
3946:
3925:
3914:
3881:
3861:10.1086/348801
3855:(4): 459–466.
3844:
3838:
3817:
3811:
3791:Saliba, George
3787:
3781:
3766:
3760:
3747:
3741:
3720:
3706:
3686:
3655:
3649:
3628:
3600:
3570:
3564:
3540:Brockelmann, C
3536:
3522:
3503:
3482:
3479:
3477:
3476:
3467:
3447:Krämer, Gudrun
3436:
3419:
3413:
3394:
3388:
3367:
3338:
3312:(3): 185–193.
3299:
3293:
3278:
3272:
3251:
3208:
3202:
3187:
3172:
3166:
3149:
3143:
3128:
3113:
3098:
3083:
3055:10.1086/349868
3045:(3). Chicago:
3026:
3020:
3001:
2995:
2980:
2974:
2953:
2938:
2923:
2913:(2): 117–120.
2902:
2885:
2854:
2848:
2826:
2814:10.1086/371821
2808:(3): 274–284.
2793:
2787:
2766:
2749:
2743:
2728:
2722:
2701:
2695:
2676:
2670:
2653:
2647:
2628:
2604:
2589:
2574:
2547:Sachau, Eduard
2542:
2523:
2517:
2502:
2465:
2450:
2444:
2429:
2409:(1): 107–127.
2394:
2364:
2362:
2359:
2357:
2356:
2333:
2307:
2281:
2249:
2237:
2225:
2213:
2211:, p. 111.
2198:
2186:
2174:
2162:
2150:
2124:
2109:
2097:
2085:
2073:
2061:
2049:
2037:
2025:
2013:
2011:, p. 145.
2001:
1989:
1985:Scheppler 2006
1977:
1965:
1963:, p. 211.
1953:
1941:
1929:
1917:
1915:, p. 154.
1905:
1888:
1876:
1864:
1852:
1848:Covington 2007
1840:
1838:, p. 277.
1828:
1816:
1804:
1792:
1773:
1761:
1736:
1724:
1697:
1685:
1683:, p. 111.
1673:
1669:MacKenzie 2000
1661:
1659:, p. 112.
1649:
1637:
1633:Gulyamova 2022
1625:
1613:
1601:
1589:
1574:
1559:
1542:
1530:
1528:, p. 394.
1514:
1512:
1509:
1506:
1505:
1487:
1486:
1484:
1481:
1467:Cüneyt Uzunlar
1462:Bharat Ek Khoj
1436:
1433:
1403:In June 2009,
1390:9936 Al-Biruni
1363:
1360:
1331:
1328:
1327:
1326:
1312:
1304:
1301:
1298:
1286:
1280:
1268:
1248:
1234:
1218:
1176:
1173:
1153:
1150:
1133:Hindu calendar
1079:Main article:
1076:
1073:
1067:
1064:
1032:Zoroastrianism
1026:
1023:
1002:
999:
965:
962:
894:
891:
870:
867:
824:
821:
700:
697:
559:
556:
537:Karakalpakstan
500:
497:
478:Tārīkh al-Hind
447:, Arabic, and
414:anthropologist
412:and the first
408:", Founder of
321:
320:
318:
317:
296:
295:
294:
291:
290:
288:
287:
266:
265:
264:
261:
260:
256:
255:
230:
226:
225:
187:
183:
182:
177:
173:
172:
167:
163:
162:
142:
138:
137:
132:
128:
127:
122:
118:
117:
103:
93:
89:
88:
74:
70:
66:
65:
61:
60:
57:
49:
48:
45:
42:
41:
38:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
8115:
8104:
8101:
8099:
8096:
8094:
8091:
8089:
8086:
8084:
8081:
8079:
8076:
8074:
8071:
8069:
8066:
8064:
8061:
8059:
8056:
8054:
8051:
8049:
8046:
8044:
8041:
8039:
8036:
8034:
8031:
8029:
8026:
8024:
8021:
8019:
8016:
8014:
8011:
8009:
8006:
8004:
8001:
7999:
7996:
7994:
7991:
7989:
7986:
7984:
7981:
7979:
7976:
7974:
7971:
7969:
7966:
7964:
7961:
7959:
7956:
7954:
7951:
7949:
7946:
7944:
7941:
7940:
7938:
7922:
7917:
7912:
7910:
7900:
7898:
7893:
7888:
7886:
7876:
7874:
7864:
7862:
7852:
7848:
7835:
7832:
7830:
7827:
7825:
7824:Yahya Barmaki
7822:
7820:
7817:
7815:
7814:Nizam al-Mulk
7812:
7810:
7807:
7805:
7802:
7800:
7797:
7795:
7792:
7790:
7787:
7785:
7782:
7780:
7777:
7775:
7772:
7770:
7767:
7765:
7762:
7760:
7757:
7755:
7752:
7750:
7747:
7746:
7744:
7738:
7732:
7729:
7727:
7724:
7722:
7719:
7717:
7714:
7712:
7711:Nasir Khusraw
7709:
7707:
7704:
7702:
7699:
7697:
7694:
7692:
7689:
7687:
7684:
7682:
7679:
7677:
7674:
7672:
7669:
7667:
7664:
7662:
7659:
7657:
7654:
7653:
7651:
7647:
7641:
7638:
7636:
7633:
7631:
7628:
7626:
7623:
7621:
7618:
7616:
7613:
7611:
7608:
7606:
7603:
7601:
7598:
7596:
7593:
7591:
7588:
7586:
7583:
7581:
7578:
7576:
7575:Mulla al-Qari
7573:
7571:
7568:
7566:
7563:
7561:
7558:
7556:
7553:
7551:
7548:
7546:
7543:
7541:
7538:
7536:
7533:
7531:
7528:
7526:
7523:
7521:
7518:
7516:
7513:
7511:
7508:
7506:
7503:
7501:
7498:
7496:
7493:
7491:
7488:
7486:
7483:
7481:
7478:
7476:
7473:
7471:
7468:
7466:
7463:
7461:
7458:
7456:
7453:
7451:
7448:
7446:
7443:
7441:
7438:
7437:
7435:
7431:
7425:
7422:
7420:
7417:
7415:
7414:Nasir Khusraw
7412:
7410:
7407:
7405:
7402:
7400:
7397:
7395:
7392:
7390:
7387:
7386:
7384:
7380:
7374:
7371:
7369:
7366:
7364:
7361:
7359:
7356:
7354:
7351:
7349:
7346:
7344:
7341:
7339:
7336:
7334:
7331:
7329:
7326:
7324:
7323:Hasib Marwazi
7321:
7319:
7316:
7314:
7311:
7309:
7306:
7304:
7301:
7299:
7296:
7294:
7291:
7289:
7286:
7284:
7281:
7279:
7276:
7274:
7271:
7270:
7268:
7264:
7260:
7252:
7247:
7245:
7240:
7238:
7233:
7232:
7229:
7217:
7215:
7211:
7210:
7208:
7204:
7198:
7197:
7193:
7191:
7190:Piri Reis map
7188:
7186:
7185:
7181:
7179:
7176:
7174:
7173:
7169:
7167:
7166:
7162:
7160:
7159:
7155:
7153:
7151:
7147:
7145:
7143:
7139:
7138:
7136:
7134:
7130:
7120:
7119:Evliya Çelebi
7117:
7116:
7114:
7110:
7104:
7101:
7099:
7096:
7094:
7091:
7089:
7086:
7085:
7083:
7079:
7073:
7070:
7068:
7065:
7063:
7060:
7058:
7055:
7053:
7050:
7048:
7045:
7044:
7042:
7038:
7032:
7029:
7027:
7024:
7022:
7019:
7017:
7014:
7012:
7009:
7007:
7004:
7003:
7001:
6997:
6991:
6988:
6986:
6983:
6981:
6978:
6976:
6973:
6971:
6970:Saadi Shirazi
6968:
6966:
6963:
6962:
6960:
6956:
6950:
6947:
6945:
6942:
6940:
6937:
6936:
6934:
6930:
6924:
6921:
6919:
6916:
6914:
6911:
6909:
6906:
6904:
6901:
6900:
6898:
6894:
6888:
6885:
6883:
6882:Al-Ramhormuzi
6880:
6878:
6875:
6873:
6870:
6868:
6865:
6863:
6860:
6858:
6855:
6853:
6850:
6848:
6845:
6843:
6840:
6838:
6835:
6833:
6830:
6828:
6825:
6824:
6822:
6818:
6812:
6809:
6807:
6804:
6802:
6799:
6797:
6794:
6793:
6791:
6787:
6784:
6782:
6778:
6774:
6767:
6762:
6760:
6755:
6753:
6748:
6747:
6744:
6732:
6729:
6728:
6726:
6722:
6716:
6713:
6712:
6710:
6708:Organizations
6706:
6695:
6692:
6691:
6689:
6687:
6683:
6676:
6673:
6672:
6670:
6668:
6664:
6657:
6654:
6651:
6648:
6647:
6645:
6643:
6639:
6636:
6632:
6627:
6613:
6610:
6608:
6605:
6603:
6600:
6598:
6595:
6593:
6590:
6588:
6585:
6583:
6580:
6578:
6575:
6572:
6568:
6567:Reza Sarhangi
6565:
6563:
6560:
6557:
6553:
6549:
6545:
6542:
6540:
6537:
6535:
6532:
6530:
6527:
6524:
6520:
6517:
6515:
6512:
6509:
6505:
6502:
6499:
6495:
6492:
6490:
6487:
6485:
6482:
6480:
6477:
6476:
6474:
6470:
6464:
6461:
6459:
6456:
6454:
6451:
6448:
6444:
6441:
6439:
6436:
6434:
6431:
6429:
6426:
6424:
6421:
6419:
6416:
6414:
6411:
6409:
6406:
6404:
6401:
6398:
6394:
6390:
6386:
6383:
6380:
6376:
6373:
6371:
6368:
6367:
6365:
6359:
6356:
6354:
6350:
6341:
6336:
6334:
6329:
6327:
6322:
6321:
6318:
6306:
6303:
6301:
6298:
6296:
6293:
6290:
6286:
6282:
6279:
6277:
6274:
6273:
6271:
6267:
6261:
6258:
6256:
6253:
6251:
6248:
6247:
6245:
6241:
6235:
6232:
6230:
6227:
6225:
6222:
6221:
6219:
6215:
6209:
6206:
6204:
6201:
6199:
6196:
6194:
6191:
6189:
6186:
6184:
6181:
6179:
6176:
6174:
6171:
6170:
6168:
6164:
6158:
6155:
6153:
6150:
6149:
6147:
6143:
6137:
6136:
6132:
6130:
6129:
6125:
6123:
6122:
6118:
6116:
6115:
6111:
6109:
6108:
6104:
6102:
6101:
6097:
6095:
6094:
6090:
6088:
6087:
6083:
6081:
6080:
6076:
6074:
6073:
6069:
6068:
6066:
6064:
6058:
6053:
6039:
6036:
6034:
6031:
6029:
6026:
6024:
6021:
6020:
6018:
6014:
6008:
6005:
6003:
6000:
5998:
5995:
5993:
5990:
5988:
5985:
5983:
5980:
5978:
5975:
5973:
5970:
5968:
5965:
5964:
5962:
5958:
5952:
5949:
5947:
5944:
5942:
5939:
5937:
5936:Ibn al-Shatir
5934:
5932:
5929:
5928:
5926:
5922:
5916:
5913:
5911:
5910:Ibn al-Banna'
5908:
5906:
5903:
5901:
5898:
5896:
5893:
5891:
5888:
5886:
5883:
5881:
5878:
5876:
5873:
5871:
5868:
5866:
5863:
5861:
5858:
5856:
5855:Ahmad al-Buni
5853:
5851:
5848:
5847:
5845:
5841:
5835:
5832:
5830:
5827:
5825:
5822:
5820:
5817:
5815:
5812:
5810:
5807:
5805:
5802:
5801:
5799:
5795:
5789:
5786:
5784:
5781:
5779:
5776:
5774:
5771:
5769:
5766:
5764:
5761:
5759:
5756:
5754:
5751:
5749:
5746:
5744:
5741:
5739:
5736:
5734:
5731:
5729:
5726:
5724:
5721:
5720:
5718:
5714:
5708:
5705:
5703:
5700:
5698:
5695:
5693:
5690:
5688:
5685:
5683:
5680:
5678:
5675:
5673:
5670:
5668:
5665:
5663:
5660:
5658:
5655:
5653:
5650:
5648:
5645:
5643:
5640:
5638:
5635:
5633:
5630:
5628:
5625:
5623:
5620:
5618:
5615:
5613:
5610:
5608:
5605:
5603:
5600:
5598:
5595:
5593:
5590:
5588:
5585:
5584:
5582:
5578:
5572:
5569:
5567:
5564:
5562:
5559:
5557:
5554:
5552:
5549:
5547:
5544:
5542:
5539:
5537:
5534:
5532:
5529:
5527:
5524:
5522:
5519:
5517:
5514:
5512:
5509:
5507:
5504:
5502:
5499:
5497:
5496:Sanad ibn Ali
5494:
5492:
5489:
5488:
5486:
5482:
5479:
5477:
5473:
5469:
5462:
5457:
5455:
5450:
5448:
5443:
5442:
5439:
5419:
5416:
5414:
5411:
5409:
5406:
5404:
5401:
5400:
5398:
5394:
5388:
5385:
5383:
5380:
5378:
5375:
5373:
5370:
5369:
5367:
5363:
5354:
5350:
5347:
5343:
5340:
5336:
5335:
5334:
5333:Observatories
5331:
5329:
5326:
5324:
5321:
5319:
5316:
5314:
5311:
5310:
5308:
5304:
5298:
5295:
5293:
5290:
5288:
5287:Triangulation
5285:
5283:
5280:
5278:
5275:
5273:
5270:
5268:
5265:
5263:
5260:
5258:
5255:
5253:
5250:
5248:
5245:
5243:
5240:
5238:
5235:
5233:
5230:
5228:
5225:
5223:
5220:
5218:
5215:
5213:
5210:
5208:
5205:
5203:
5200:
5198:
5197:Heliocentrism
5195:
5193:
5190:
5188:
5185:
5183:
5180:
5178:
5175:
5173:
5170:
5168:
5165:
5163:
5160:
5158:
5155:
5153:
5150:
5148:
5145:
5143:
5140:
5138:
5135:
5133:
5130:
5128:
5125:
5123:
5120:
5118:
5115:
5113:
5110:
5108:
5105:
5103:
5100:
5099:
5097:
5093:
5087:
5084:
5082:
5079:
5077:
5074:
5072:
5071:Shadow square
5069:
5067:
5064:
5062:
5059:
5057:
5054:
5052:
5049:
5047:
5044:
5042:
5039:
5037:
5034:
5032:
5029:
5027:
5024:
5022:
5019:
5017:
5014:
5012:
5009:
5007:
5004:
5002:
4999:
4997:
4994:
4992:
4989:
4987:
4984:
4982:
4979:
4977:
4974:
4972:
4969:
4968:
4966:
4964:
4960:
4950:
4949:
4945:
4943:
4942:
4941:Zij-i Sultani
4938:
4936:
4935:
4934:Zij-i Ilkhani
4931:
4929:
4926:
4924:
4923:
4919:
4917:
4916:
4912:
4910:
4907:
4906:
4904:
4902:
4901:
4896:
4890:
4889:
4885:
4883:
4882:
4878:
4876:
4875:
4871:
4869:
4868:
4864:
4862:
4861:
4857:
4855:
4852:
4850:
4847:
4846:
4843:
4840:
4836:
4832:
4825:
4821:
4807:
4804:
4802:
4799:
4797:
4794:
4792:
4789:
4788:
4786:
4782:
4776:
4773:
4771:
4768:
4766:
4763:
4761:
4758:
4756:
4753:
4752:
4750:
4746:
4740:
4737:
4735:
4732:
4730:
4727:
4725:
4722:
4720:
4717:
4715:
4712:
4710:
4709:Kadızade Rumi
4707:
4705:
4702:
4700:
4697:
4695:
4692:
4691:
4689:
4685:
4679:
4676:
4674:
4671:
4669:
4666:
4664:
4661:
4659:
4656:
4654:
4651:
4649:
4646:
4644:
4641:
4639:
4636:
4634:
4633:Ibn al-Shatir
4631:
4630:
4628:
4624:
4618:
4615:
4613:
4610:
4608:
4607:Ibn al‐Raqqam
4605:
4603:
4600:
4598:
4595:
4593:
4590:
4588:
4585:
4583:
4580:
4578:
4575:
4573:
4570:
4568:
4565:
4563:
4560:
4558:
4555:
4553:
4550:
4548:
4545:
4543:
4540:
4538:
4535:
4533:
4530:
4529:
4527:
4523:
4517:
4514:
4512:
4509:
4507:
4504:
4502:
4501:Ibn al-Kammad
4499:
4497:
4494:
4492:
4489:
4487:
4484:
4482:
4479:
4477:
4474:
4472:
4469:
4467:
4464:
4462:
4459:
4458:
4456:
4452:
4446:
4443:
4441:
4438:
4436:
4433:
4431:
4428:
4426:
4423:
4421:
4418:
4416:
4415:Ibn al-Saffar
4413:
4411:
4408:
4406:
4403:
4401:
4398:
4396:
4393:
4391:
4388:
4386:
4383:
4381:
4378:
4377:
4375:
4371:
4365:
4362:
4360:
4357:
4355:
4352:
4350:
4347:
4345:
4342:
4340:
4337:
4335:
4332:
4330:
4327:
4325:
4322:
4320:
4317:
4315:
4312:
4310:
4307:
4305:
4302:
4300:
4297:
4295:
4292:
4290:
4287:
4285:
4282:
4280:
4277:
4275:
4272:
4270:
4267:
4265:
4262:
4260:
4257:
4255:
4252:
4250:
4247:
4246:
4244:
4240:
4234:
4231:
4229:
4226:
4224:
4221:
4219:
4216:
4214:
4211:
4209:
4206:
4204:
4201:
4199:
4196:
4194:
4191:
4189:
4186:
4184:
4181:
4179:
4176:
4174:
4171:
4169:
4166:
4164:
4161:
4159:
4156:
4154:
4151:
4150:
4148:
4144:
4138:
4135:
4133:
4130:
4128:
4125:
4123:
4120:
4118:
4115:
4113:
4110:
4109:
4107:
4103:
4096:
4095:
4092:
4088:
4084:
4079:
4075:
4071:
4064:
4059:
4057:
4052:
4050:
4045:
4044:
4041:
4035:
4028:
4020:
4016:
4013:
4011:
4005:
4003:
3999:
3996:
3994:
3988:
3986:
3982:
3979:
3977:
3971:
3970:
3969:
3968:
3964:
3960:
3957:
3954:
3953:
3949:
3943:
3939:
3935:
3931:
3926:
3923:
3917:
3911:
3907:
3903:
3899:
3894:
3893:
3887:
3882:
3878:
3874:
3870:
3866:
3862:
3858:
3854:
3850:
3845:
3841:
3835:
3831:
3827:
3823:
3818:
3814:
3808:
3804:
3799:
3798:
3792:
3788:
3784:
3778:
3775:. Routledge.
3774:
3773:
3767:
3763:
3757:
3753:
3748:
3744:
3738:
3734:
3731:. Cambridge:
3729:
3728:
3721:
3717:
3713:
3709:
3707:9780684101149
3703:
3698:
3697:
3691:
3690:Kennedy, E.S.
3687:
3683:
3679:
3675:
3671:
3667:
3662:
3656:
3652:
3646:
3642:
3637:
3636:
3629:
3626:
3621:
3614:
3610:
3606:
3605:Bīrūnī nāmeh
3601:
3597:
3593:
3589:
3588:
3583:
3579:
3575:
3571:
3567:
3561:
3557:
3553:
3548:
3547:
3541:
3537:
3533:
3529:
3525:
3523:9780521069366
3519:
3515:
3511:
3510:
3504:
3500:
3496:
3492:
3491:
3485:
3484:
3480:
3473:
3468:
3464:
3460:
3456:
3452:
3448:
3443:
3437:
3433:
3429:
3425:
3420:
3416:
3410:
3406:
3402:
3401:
3395:
3391:
3385:
3381:
3377:
3373:
3368:
3364:
3360:
3356:
3352:
3348:
3344:
3339:
3335:
3331:
3327:
3323:
3319:
3315:
3311:
3307:
3306:
3300:
3296:
3290:
3286:
3285:
3279:
3275:
3269:
3265:
3262:. Cambridge:
3260:
3259:
3252:
3248:
3244:
3240:
3236:
3231:
3226:
3223:(12): 52–60.
3222:
3218:
3214:
3209:
3205:
3199:
3195:
3194:
3188:
3184:
3183:
3178:
3173:
3169:
3163:
3158:
3157:
3150:
3146:
3140:
3136:
3135:
3129:
3125:
3124:
3119:
3114:
3110:
3109:
3104:
3099:
3095:
3094:
3089:
3084:
3080:
3076:
3072:
3068:
3064:
3060:
3056:
3052:
3048:
3044:
3040:
3039:
3033:
3027:
3023:
3017:
3013:
3009:
3008:
3002:
2998:
2992:
2988:
2987:
2981:
2977:
2971:
2967:
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2949:
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2920:
2916:
2912:
2908:
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2899:
2895:
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2878:
2874:
2870:
2866:
2861:
2855:
2851:
2845:
2841:
2837:
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2831:
2827:
2823:
2819:
2815:
2811:
2807:
2803:
2799:
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2784:
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2776:
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2767:
2763:
2759:
2755:
2750:
2746:
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2729:
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2715:
2710:
2709:
2702:
2698:
2692:
2688:
2684:
2683:
2677:
2673:
2667:
2662:
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2654:
2650:
2644:
2640:
2636:
2635:
2629:
2616:
2615:
2610:
2605:
2601:
2600:
2595:
2590:
2586:
2585:
2580:
2575:
2572:
2568:
2562:
2558:
2554:
2553:
2548:
2543:
2539:
2535:
2530:
2524:
2520:
2514:
2510:
2509:
2503:
2499:
2495:
2491:
2487:
2483:
2479:
2475:
2471:
2466:
2462:
2461:
2456:
2451:
2447:
2441:
2437:
2436:
2430:
2426:
2422:
2417:
2412:
2408:
2404:
2400:
2395:
2391:
2387:
2383:
2379:
2375:
2371:
2366:
2365:
2360:
2344:
2337:
2334:
2321:
2317:
2311:
2308:
2296:. 5 June 2009
2295:
2291:
2285:
2282:
2270:
2266:
2259:
2253:
2250:
2246:
2241:
2238:
2235:, p. 37.
2234:
2229:
2226:
2222:
2221:Pingree 2000a
2217:
2214:
2210:
2205:
2203:
2199:
2196:, p. 26.
2195:
2190:
2187:
2183:
2178:
2175:
2172:, p. 17.
2171:
2166:
2163:
2159:
2154:
2151:
2139:
2135:
2128:
2125:
2121:
2120:Lawrence 2000
2116:
2114:
2110:
2106:
2101:
2098:
2094:
2089:
2086:
2082:
2077:
2074:
2071:, p. 60.
2070:
2065:
2062:
2058:
2053:
2050:
2046:
2045:de Blois 2000
2041:
2038:
2034:
2033:Pingree 2000c
2029:
2026:
2022:
2017:
2014:
2010:
2005:
2002:
1998:
1993:
1990:
1986:
1981:
1978:
1974:
1969:
1966:
1962:
1957:
1954:
1950:
1949:Pingree 2000b
1945:
1942:
1938:
1933:
1930:
1926:
1921:
1918:
1914:
1913:Alikuzai 2013
1909:
1906:
1902:
1897:
1895:
1893:
1889:
1885:
1880:
1877:
1873:
1868:
1865:
1861:
1856:
1853:
1849:
1844:
1841:
1837:
1832:
1829:
1826:, p. 32.
1825:
1820:
1817:
1813:
1808:
1805:
1801:
1796:
1793:
1789:
1784:
1782:
1780:
1778:
1774:
1770:
1765:
1762:
1758:
1753:
1751:
1749:
1747:
1745:
1743:
1741:
1737:
1734:, p. 27.
1733:
1728:
1725:
1721:
1716:
1714:
1712:
1710:
1708:
1706:
1704:
1702:
1698:
1695:, p. 68.
1694:
1689:
1686:
1682:
1677:
1674:
1670:
1665:
1662:
1658:
1653:
1650:
1647:, pp. 1.
1646:
1641:
1638:
1635:, p. 42.
1634:
1629:
1626:
1623:, p. 52.
1622:
1617:
1614:
1610:
1605:
1602:
1598:
1593:
1590:
1586:
1585:Bosworth 2000
1581:
1579:
1575:
1571:
1570:Kaminski 2017
1566:
1564:
1560:
1556:
1551:
1549:
1547:
1543:
1540:, p. 58.
1539:
1534:
1531:
1527:
1522:
1520:
1516:
1510:
1502:
1498:
1492:
1489:
1482:
1480:
1478:
1474:
1473:
1468:
1464:
1463:
1458:
1454:
1450:
1448:
1443:
1434:
1432:
1430:
1427:(Rhazes) and
1426:
1425:Zakariya Razi
1422:
1418:
1414:
1410:
1406:
1401:
1399:
1395:
1394:Biruni Island
1391:
1387:
1382:
1380:
1373:
1368:
1361:
1359:
1357:
1356:
1351:
1347:
1342:
1337:
1329:
1323:
1317:
1313:
1309:
1305:
1302:
1299:
1290:
1287:
1284:
1281:
1272:
1269:
1266:
1262:
1252:
1249:
1240:
1239:
1235:
1232:
1228:
1223:
1219:
1216:
1211:
1206:
1201:
1200:Kitāb al-Hind
1190:
1186:
1184:
1179:
1178:
1174:
1172:
1169:
1164:
1159:
1151:
1149:
1146:
1145:Eduard Sachau
1140:
1136:
1134:
1129:
1124:
1119:
1116:
1111:
1108:
1104:
1100:
1096:
1092:
1090:
1082:
1074:
1072:
1065:
1063:
1061:
1057:
1052:
1047:
1045:
1041:
1037:
1033:
1024:
1022:
1020:
1019:
1014:
1009:
1000:
998:
996:
992:
988:
983:
981:
976:
971:
970:pharmacopoeia
963:
961:
958:
954:
950:
946:
937:
933:
930:
926:
922:
918:
914:
905:
900:
892:
890:
886:
884:
880:
876:
868:
866:
864:
858:
854:
852:
848:
844:
840:
836:
830:
822:
820:
818:
814:
810:
806:
802:
796:
794:
787:
785:
780:
774:
769:
764:
762:
758:
754:
750:
749:pseudoscience
746:
742:
738:
737:
732:
731:
724:
721:
714:
710:
705:
698:
696:
694:
690:
686:
682:
678:
675:
670:
668:
663:
658:
656:
652:
648:
643:
631:
627:
623:
618:
616:
612:
608:
604:
600:
596:
592:
588:
584:
583:Turkification
580:
576:
573:
569:
565:
557:
555:
553:
549:
544:
542:
539:in northwest
538:
534:
530:
526:
522:
517:
511:
506:
498:
496:
493:
488:
484:
479:
474:
470:
466:
462:
458:
454:
450:
446:
442:
438:
434:
430:
426:
422:
417:
415:
411:
407:
403:
399:
395:
391:
388:
384:
376:
368:
362:
327:
316:
312:
308:
304:
301:
292:
286:
282:
278:
274:
271:
262:
259:Muslim leader
257:
254:
250:
246:
245:
240:
236:
235:
231:
227:
224:
220:
216:
212:
208:
204:
200:
196:
192:
188:
184:
181:
178:
174:
171:
168:
164:
160:
156:
152:
148:
143:
139:
136:
133:
129:
126:
123:
119:
114:
110:
106:
94:
90:
85:
81:
77:
71:
67:
62:
55:
50:
43:
36:
33:
29:
22:
7716:Rabia Balkhi
7382:Philosophers
7363:Omar Khayyam
7317:
7213:
7194:
7182:
7170:
7163:
7156:
7149:
7141:
7112:17th century
7081:16th century
7040:15th century
7016:Ibn al-Wardi
6999:14th century
6985:Ibn al-Nafis
6958:13th century
6932:12th century
6902:
6896:11th century
6877:Al-Muqaddasi
6872:Ibn al-Faqih
6820:10th century
6796:Al-Khwarizmi
6724:Institutions
6686:Satter Prize
6642:Fields Medal
6592:Reza Sadeghi
6504:S. L. Hakimi
6462:
6443:Al-Khwarizmi
6385:Omar Khayyam
6363:20th Century
6133:
6126:
6119:
6112:
6105:
6098:
6091:
6084:
6077:
6070:
6061:Mathematical
6016:16th century
5967:Ibn al-Majdi
5960:15th century
5924:14th century
5843:13th century
5797:12th century
5783:Omar Khayyam
5737:
5716:11th century
5612:Aṣ-Ṣaidanānī
5580:10th century
5541:Al-Khwarizmi
5306:Institutions
5157:Eccentricity
5117:Astrophysics
5011:Compass rose
4946:
4939:
4932:
4920:
4913:
4898:
4886:
4879:
4872:
4865:
4858:
4724:Ibn al-Majdi
4699:Abd al‐Wajid
4658:Al-Wabkanawi
4653:Abū al‐ʿUqūl
4542:Jamal ad-Din
4511:Omar Khayyam
4384:
4339:Al-ʻIjliyyah
4314:Aṣ-Ṣaidanānī
4299:Ibn al-A'lam
4218:Al-Khwarizmi
3937:
3933:
3891:
3852:
3848:
3821:
3801:. New York:
3796:
3771:
3751:
3726:
3695:
3673:
3634:
3624:
3604:
3586:
3578:Dowson, John
3545:
3508:
3489:
3471:
3454:
3423:
3399:
3375:
3371:
3346:
3342:
3309:
3303:
3283:
3257:
3220:
3216:
3192:
3180:
3155:
3133:
3121:
3106:
3091:
3042:
3036:
3006:
2985:
2959:
2946:
2931:
2910:
2906:
2889:
2864:
2834:
2805:
2801:
2770:
2761:
2757:
2733:
2707:
2681:
2659:
2633:
2619:. Retrieved
2614:Aramco World
2612:
2597:
2582:
2551:
2537:
2533:
2507:
2477:
2473:
2458:
2434:
2406:
2402:
2369:
2347:. Retrieved
2336:
2324:. Retrieved
2320:the original
2310:
2300:11 September
2298:. Retrieved
2284:
2272:. Retrieved
2264:
2252:
2240:
2228:
2216:
2189:
2177:
2165:
2160:, p. 5.
2153:
2141:. Retrieved
2137:
2127:
2100:
2088:
2076:
2064:
2052:
2040:
2028:
2021:Anawati 2000
2016:
2004:
1992:
1980:
1968:
1956:
1944:
1932:
1920:
1908:
1879:
1867:
1855:
1843:
1831:
1819:
1807:
1795:
1764:
1727:
1693:Hodgson 1974
1688:
1676:
1664:
1652:
1640:
1628:
1616:
1604:
1592:
1533:
1526:Kennedy 1975
1496:
1491:
1470:
1460:
1451:
1447:Soviet Union
1438:
1429:Omar Khayyam
1415:. Named the
1402:
1383:
1376:
1353:
1350:lexicography
1333:
1330:Persian work
1288:
1282:
1270:
1256:قانون مسعودي
1250:
1236:
1226:
1214:
1204:
1188:
1155:
1141:
1137:
1130:
1126:
1121:
1098:
1094:
1084:
1069:
1066:Anthropology
1048:
1028:
1016:
1012:
1004:
984:
979:
967:
953:Afro-Eurasia
944:
942:
910:
887:
877:to medieval
872:
860:
856:
832:
807:, the Sun's
801:Mas'ud Canon
800:
798:
792:
789:
783:
765:
751:rather than
734:
728:
725:
722:
718:
671:
659:
619:
561:
551:
545:
502:
482:
433:chronologist
418:
392:scholar and
382:
325:
324:
307:Omar Khayyam
252:
248:
242:
238:
232:
195:anthropology
166:Denomination
111:(modern-day
82:(modern-day
32:
8033:Indologists
7909:Outer space
7794:Gawhar Shad
7640:Zamakhshari
7620:Shaykh Tusi
7535:Ibn Mubarak
7424:Shahrastani
7026:Ibn Battuta
7006:Al-Dimashqi
6789:9th century
6781:Geographers
6675:Sara Zahedi
6556:Fuzzy logic
6489:Sara Zahedi
6438:Al-Isfizari
6433:Al-Isfahani
6079:De Gradibus
6033:Taqi ad-Din
6023:Al-Birjandi
5997:al-Qalaṣādī
5778:Al-Isfizari
5743:Ibn al-Samh
5672:Al-Isfahani
5652:al-Uqlidisi
5622:al-Khojandi
5587:Abu al-Wafa
5526:al-Dinawari
5484:9th century
5292:Tusi couple
5282:Trepidation
5247:Salah times
5182:Geocentrism
5056:Planisphere
5036:Graph paper
4963:Instruments
4915:Huihui Lifa
4796:Ehmedê Xanî
4755:Al-Birjandi
4734:al-Kubunani
4491:Abu al-Salt
4440:Al-Isfizari
4400:Ibn al-Samh
4279:Abu al-Wafa
4264:al-Khojandi
4168:Al-Farghani
4083:Astronomers
3922:PDF version
3661:"al-Bīrūnī"
3442:"al-Bīrūnī"
3349:: 209–211.
3049:: 343–349.
2484:: 141–154.
2265:In Our Time
2258:"Al-Biruni"
2233:Verdon 2015
2134:"Al-Bīrūnī"
2105:Tapper 1995
2081:Ataman 2005
2069:Ataman 2008
1961:Vibert 1973
1937:Hannam 2009
1884:Vibert 1973
1824:Noonan 2005
1812:Saliba 1982
1800:Saliba 2000
1621:Verdon 2015
1555:Akhtar 2011
1538:Ataman 2008
1457:Doordarshan
1453:Irrfan Khan
1379:British Raj
1103:yoga sutras
1034:, Judaism,
921:mean radius
761:Sunni Islam
757:theologians
745:astrologers
651:Al-Marzuban
609:the son of
527:kingdom of
441:Khwarezmian
396:during the
387:Khwarazmian
209:, history,
113:Afghanistan
99: 1050
7958:973 births
7937:Categories
7671:Asadi Tusi
7565:Marghinani
7530:Ibn Hibban
7450:Abu Hanifa
7328:Ibn Hayyan
7303:Ali Qushji
7298:Alfraganus
7266:Scientists
7257:People of
7206:Influences
7144:(al-Bakrī)
7011:Abu'l-Fida
6965:Ibn Jubayr
6867:Ibn Hawqal
6418:Al-Nayrizi
6243:Influenced
6217:Influences
5987:Ali Qushji
5946:Al-Khalili
5814:Al-Khazini
5809:Al-Kharaqī
5768:al-Zarqālī
5758:al-Jayyānī
5702:al-Majriti
5687:Abu al-Jud
5657:Al-Battani
5632:Al-Saghani
5627:Al-Nayrizi
5566:al-Marwazi
5501:al-Jawharī
5396:Influenced
5365:Influences
5237:Precession
5217:Multiverse
5122:Axial tilt
5102:Almucantar
5086:Triquetrum
5026:Equatorium
4775:Takiyüddin
4648:al-Battiwi
4643:Ibn Shuayb
4638:Al-Khalili
4481:Al-Khazini
4476:Al-Kharaqī
4471:Ibn Tufail
4461:Al-Bitruji
4395:Al-Zarqālī
4359:al-Majriti
4309:Al-Saghani
4304:Al-Nayrizi
4289:al-Battani
4208:Iranshahri
4193:Al-Marwazi
4097:by century
3613:1356523019
3532:1015426101
3403:. Oxford:
2898:1340409059
2561:1039522051
2245:Kraus 1936
2093:Ahmed 1984
2009:Levey 1973
1645:Starr 2023
1597:Ahmed 1984
1511:References
1503:and India.
1398:Antarctica
1355:Quadrivium
1105:of Indian
985:He used a
897:See also:
889:research.
839:al-Ghazali
753:empiricism
626:Tabaristan
581:until the
552:Alberonius
541:Uzbekistan
469:Ghaznavids
311:Al-Khazini
297:Influenced
285:Al-Battani
219:philosophy
215:psychology
84:Uzbekistan
7943:Al-Biruni
7885:Astronomy
7861:Biography
7625:Taftazani
7610:Sajawandi
7419:Sijistani
7348:Khwarizmi
7216:(Ptolemy)
7214:Geography
7103:Amīn Rāzī
7093:Piri Reis
6903:Al-Biruni
6852:Al-Masudi
6667:EMS Prize
6552:Fuzzy set
6463:Al-Biruni
6403:Al-Mahani
5992:al-Wafa'i
5982:Ulugh Beg
5885:al-Abhari
5870:Ibn Adlan
5860:Ibn Munim
5824:al-Hassar
5763:al-Nasawī
5738:Al-Biruni
5707:al-Jabali
5697:Al-Karaji
5647:Ibn Yunus
5602:Abu Kamil
5597:Al-Qabisi
5592:al-Khazin
5521:Al-Mahani
5272:Supernova
5227:Obliquity
5212:Moonlight
5112:Astrology
4991:Astrolabe
4770:Piri Reis
4760:al-Khafri
4729:al-Wafa'i
4714:Ulugh Beg
4694:Ali Kuşçu
4668:al-Jadiri
4587:al-Abhari
4385:al-Biruni
4319:Ibn Yunus
4294:Al-Qabisi
4269:al-Khazin
4178:Al-Mahani
3877:143086988
3716:755137603
3682:1875-9831
3641:Routledge
3463:1873-9830
3432:278693104
3380:Routledge
3363:0035-872X
3326:0003-5491
3247:119230163
3230:1312.7288
3079:143941055
3063:1545-6994
2881:0078-6527
2822:161208100
2498:143545645
2482:Routledge
2425:153637958
2326:6 January
2209:Nasr 1993
2143:12 August
1973:Huth 2013
1872:Nasr 1993
1757:Khan 1976
1609:Yano 2013
1449:in 1974.
1386:Al-Biruni
1341:al-Tafhim
1261:Ghaznavid
1110:Patanjali
879:mechanics
863:Aristotle
813:astrolabe
699:Astronomy
685:Mu'tazila
660:In 1017,
607:Mansur II
595:Ma'munids
591:Afrighids
568:astronomy
548:latinized
492:al-Ustadh
425:astronomy
383:al-Biruni
211:geography
207:chemistry
203:astronomy
189:Geology,
101:(aged 77)
28:Al-Burini
7696:Ferdowsi
7635:Tirmidhi
7615:Sarakhsi
7595:Qushayri
7570:Maturidi
7515:Ghaznawi
7399:Avicenna
7343:Khojandi
7313:Birjandi
7308:Avicenna
7283:Abu Wafa
7259:Khorasan
7062:Zheng He
6939:al-Zuhri
6913:Al-Bakri
6857:Istakhri
6145:Concepts
5977:al-Kāshī
5951:al-Umawi
5753:Avicenna
5692:Al-Sijzi
5642:Ibn Sahl
5511:Al-Kindi
5346:Maragheh
5297:Universe
5267:Sunlight
5232:Parallax
5222:Muwaqqit
5162:Ecliptic
5095:Concepts
5061:Quadrant
4981:Aperture
4496:Averroes
4466:Avempace
4410:Avicenna
4344:Nastulus
4334:al-Sijzi
4259:Al-Adami
4173:Al-Kindi
4015:Archived
3998:Archived
3981:Archived
3793:(1994).
3672:(eds.).
3596:76070790
3580:(1871).
3499:55570787
3453:(eds.).
2919:10386051
2571:volume 2
2567:volume 1
2376:: 9–10.
1501:Pakistan
1421:Avicenna
1283:Pharmacy
1166:in both
1075:Indology
1056:Jabriyah
1040:Buddhism
1036:Hinduism
995:hardness
851:Ibn Sina
693:Avicenna
689:al-Jahiz
681:Maturidi
667:quadrant
655:Khwarezm
647:Bavandid
624:amir of
615:Avicenna
587:Khwarezm
529:Khwarazm
525:Afrighid
449:Sanskrit
437:linguist
410:Indology
394:polymath
385:, was a
303:Al-Sijzi
277:Al-Sijzi
223:theology
121:Religion
80:Khwarezm
64:Personal
8078:Asharis
7921:Science
7847:Portals
7769:Gardizi
7706:Kashifi
7580:Muqatil
7560:Lamishi
7555:Kashifi
7545:Juwayni
7510:Ghazali
7495:Bukhari
7490:Bazdawi
7485:Bayhaqi
7480:Baghavi
7389:Algazel
7338:Khazini
7072:Fei Xin
7067:Ma Huan
6923:Domiyat
6806:Ya'qubi
6447:Al-jabr
6361:Before
6269:Related
6198:Madrasa
6166:Centers
5972:al-Rūmī
5875:al-Urdi
5773:ibn Hud
5728:Alhazen
5682:al-Qūhī
5202:Inertia
5192:Gravity
5127:Azimuth
5076:Sundial
5066:Sextant
5016:Dioptra
5006:Compass
4971:Alidade
4582:al-Urdi
4405:Alhazen
4329:Ma Yize
4274:al-Qūhī
4249:al-Sufi
3372:al-Hind
3351:Bibcode
3334:3318074
2621:6 March
2549:(ed.).
2390:3033407
2361:Sources
2274:5 March
1497:al-Hind
1346:Persian
1263:sultan
1231:Persian
1168:Persian
957:Eurasia
943:In his
913:Nandana
869:Physics
835:Ash'ari
805:Ptolemy
770:in the
677:Ash'ari
622:Ziyarid
603:Samanid
599:Bukhara
572:Iranian
505:Persian
445:Persian
421:physics
406:geodesy
390:Iranian
367:Persian
191:physics
7731:Sanā'ī
7721:Rudaki
7686:Daqiqi
7681:Behzad
7661:Anvari
7605:Sabuni
7590:Nasa'i
7585:Muslim
7550:Kasani
7500:Dabusi
7475:Ansari
7404:Farabi
7353:Nasawi
7318:Biruni
7031:Lin Nu
6696:(2013)
6677:(2016)
6658:(2018)
6652:(2014)
6472:Modern
5177:Galaxy
5172:Equant
5107:Apogee
5051:Octant
4828:Topics
3912:
3875:
3869:226430
3867:
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2349:4 July
2345:. IMDb
1362:Legacy
1336:Arabic
1229:); in
1210:Indica
1158:Arabic
1051:Hindus
972:, the
925:cubits
809:apogee
649:ruler
611:Nuh II
605:ruler
465:Ghazni
461:Syriac
459:, and
457:Hebrew
435:, and
427:, and
375:Arabic
244:Indica
180:Ashari
159:Ghazni
141:Region
105:Ghazni
7897:Stars
7394:Amiri
7373:Sijzi
7178:Rihla
7133:Works
6063:works
5242:Qibla
5031:Globe
4838:Works
3873:S2CID
3865:JSTOR
3664:. In
3330:JSTOR
3243:S2CID
3225:arXiv
3075:S2CID
3067:JSTOR
2818:S2CID
2494:S2CID
2480:(2).
2421:S2CID
2386:JSTOR
1483:Notes
1477:TRT 1
1152:Works
1097:, or
1044:Islam
843:Sunni
674:Sunni
630:Qabus
579:Islam
516:bīrūn
510:bērūn
507:word
487:Hindu
453:Greek
176:Creed
170:Sunni
125:Islam
7873:Iran
7784:Aufi
7726:Rumi
7701:Jami
7600:Razi
4784:17th
4748:16th
4687:15th
4626:14th
4525:13th
4454:12th
4373:11th
4242:10th
4006:the
3989:the
3972:the
3910:ISBN
3849:Isis
3834:ISBN
3807:ISBN
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3756:ISBN
3737:ISBN
3712:OCLC
3702:ISBN
3678:ISSN
3645:ISBN
3609:OCLC
3592:OCLC
3560:ISBN
3528:OCLC
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2302:2016
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