Camera obscura - Knowledge (XXG)

933:. He also described use of the camera obscura to project hunting scenes, banquets, battles, plays, or anything desired on white sheets. Trees, forests, rivers, mountains "that are really so, or made by Art, of Wood, or some other matter" could be arranged on a plain in the sunshine on the other side of the camera obscura wall. Little children and animals (for instance handmade deer, wild boars, rhinos, elephants, and lions) could perform in this set. "Then, by degrees, they must appear, as coming out of their dens, upon the Plain: The Hunter he must come with his hunting Pole, Nets, Arrows, and other necessaries, that may represent hunting: Let there be Horns, Cornets, Trumpets sounded: those that are in the Chamber shall see Trees, Animals, Hunters Faces, and all the rest so plainly, that they cannot tell whether they be true or delusions: Swords drawn will glister in at the hole, that they will make people almost afraid." Della Porta claimed to have shown such spectacles often to his friends. They admired it very much and could hardly be convinced by Della Porta's explanations that what they had seen was really an optical trick. 942: 1058: 586:)(like a belt being tightened) through a small hole in a window, then the shadow moves in the direction opposite of that of the bird. This is the same principle as the burning-mirror. Such a mirror has a concave surface, and reflects a finger to give an upright image if the object is very near, but if the finger moves farther and farther away it reaches a point where the image disappears and after that the image appears inverted. Thus the point where the image disappears is like the pinhole of the window. So also the oar is fixed at the rowlock somewhere at its middle part, constituting, when it is moved, a sort of 'waist' and the handle of the oar is always in the position inverse to the end (which is in the water)." 728: 794: 1138: 1086: 191:). The analogy appeared early in the 16th century and would in the 17th century find common use to illustrate Western theological ideas about God creating the universe as a machine, with a predetermined purpose (just like humans create machines). This had a huge influence on behavioral science, especially on the study of perception and cognition. In this context, it is noteworthy that the projection of inverted images is actually a physical principle of optics that predates the emergence of life (rather than a biological or technological invention) and is not characteristic of all biological vision. 4645: 1236: 274: 782:

appear, upside down, on the wall facing the hole. You will catch these pictures on a piece of white paper, which placed vertically in the room not far from that opening, and you will see all the above-mentioned objects on this paper in their natural shapes or colors, but they will appear smaller and upside down, on account of crossing of the rays at that aperture. If these pictures originate from a place which is illuminated by the sun, they will appear colored on the paper exactly as they are. The paper should be very thin and must be viewed from the back.

866: 413: 3972: 459: 315: 981:. Kepler discovered the working of the camera obscura by recreating its principle with a book replacing a shining body and sending threads from its edges through a many-cornered aperture in a table onto the floor where the threads recreated the shape of the book. He also realized that images are "painted" inverted and reversed on the retina of the eye and figured that this is somehow corrected by the brain. In 1607, Kepler studied the Sun in his camera obscura and noticed a 517:

opaque body in the dark recess facing that aperture, the (individual) lights of those candles appear individually upon that body or wall according to the number of those candles; and each of those lights (spots of light) appears directly opposite one (particular) candle along a straight line passing through that window. Moreover, if one candle is shielded, only the light opposite that candle is extinguished, but if the shielding object is lifted, the light will return.

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towards the place where it is to be represented; and let the picture be encompassed on every side with a board or cloth that no rays may pass beside it. If the object be a statue or some living creature, then it must be very much enlightened by casting the sun beams on it by refraction, reflexion, or both." For models that can't be inverted, like living animals or candles, he advised: "let two large glasses of convenient spheres be placed at appropriate distances".

200: 344:. These writings explain how the image in a "collecting-point" or "treasure house" is inverted by an intersecting point (pinhole) that collects the (rays of) light. Light coming from the foot of an illuminated person gets partly hidden below (i.e., strikes below the pinhole) and partly forms the top of the image. Rays from the head are partly hidden above (i.e., strike above the pinhole) and partly form the lower part of the image. 502:

When the hole is enlarged, the picture changes, and the change increases with the added width. When the aperture is very wide, the sickle-form image will disappear, and the light will appear round when the hole is round, square if the hole is square, and if the shape of the opening is irregular, the light on the wall will take on this shape, provided that the hole is wide and the plane on which it is thrown is parallel to it.

49: 7340: 5715: 29: 7351: 1466: 1357: 1171:(1613–1646) wrote about the camera obscura with convex lenses. He explained how the camera obscura could be used by painters to achieve perfect perspective in their work. He also complained how charlatans abused the camera obscura to fool witless spectators and make them believe that the projections were magic or occult science. These writings were published in a posthumous version of 471: 1338: 633:(1267) that an image projected through a square aperture was round because light would travel in spherical waves and therefore assumed its natural shape after passing through a hole. He is also credited with a manuscript that advised to study solar eclipses safely by observing the rays passing through some round hole and studying the spot of light they form on a surface. 711:, describing methods to measure the angular diameters of the Sun, the Moon and the bright planets Venus and Jupiter. He determined the eccentricity of the Sun based on his observations of the summer and winter solstices in 1334. Levi also noted how the size of the aperture determined the size of the projected image. He wrote about his findings in Hebrew in his treatise 4492: 400:(circa 300 BC, surviving in later manuscripts from around 1000 AD), Euclid proposed mathematical descriptions of vision with "lines drawn directly from the eye pass through a space of great extent" and "the form of the space included in our vision is a cone, with its apex in the eye and its base at the limits of our vision." Later versions of the text, like 1188:, who expressed how rare and novel it was. The Parisian society were presented with upside-down images of palaces, ballet dancing and battling with swords. Loret felt somewhat frustrated that he did not know the secret that made this spectacle possible. There are several clues that this may have been a camera obscura show, rather than a very early 962: 851:. He suggested to use a convex lens to project the image onto paper and to use this as a drawing aid. Della Porta compared the human eye to the camera obscura: "For the image is let into the eye through the eyeball just as here through the window". The popularity of Della Porta's books helped spread knowledge of the camera obscura. 618: 2605:

Atlantico, Leonardo thought that the lens of the eye reversed the pinhole effect, so that the image did not appear inverted on the retina; though in fact it does. Actually, the analogy of focal-point and pin-point must have been understood by Ibn al-Haitham, who died just about the time when Shen Kua was born.

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described the difference for an installation to project the delightful "various apparitions and disappearances, the motions, changes and actions" by means of a broad convex-glass in a camera obscura setup: "if the picture be transparent, reflect the rays of the sun so as that they may pass through it

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I have at home Drebbel's other instrument, which certainly makes admirable effects in painting from reflection in a dark room; it is not possible for me to reveal the beauty to you in words; all painting is dead by comparison, for here is life itself or something more elevated if one could articulate

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Why is it that an eclipse of the sun, if one looks at it through a sieve or through leaves, such as a plane-tree or other broadleaved tree, or if one joins the fingers of one hand over the fingers of the other, the rays are crescent-shaped where they reach the earth? Is it for the same reason as that

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heard from a traveler about a small camera obscura device he had seen in Spain, which one could carry under one arm and could be hidden under a coat. He then constructed his own sliding box camera obscura, which could focus by sliding a wooden box part fitted inside another wooden box part. He wrote

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In an attempt to explain the phenomenon, the author described how the light formed two cones; one between the Sun and the aperture and one between the aperture and the Earth. However, the roundness of the image was attributed to the idea that parts of the rays of light (assumed to travel in straight

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Rays of light travel in straight lines and change when they are reflected and partly absorbed by an object, retaining information about the color and brightness of the surface of that object. Lighted objects reflect rays of light in all directions. A small enough opening in a barrier admits only the

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Da Vinci was clearly very interested in the camera obscura: over the years he drew approximately 270 diagrams of the camera obscura in his notebooks. He systematically experimented with various shapes and sizes of apertures and with multiple apertures (1, 2, 3, 4, 8, 16, 24, 28 and 32). He compared

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the working of the eye to that of the camera obscura and seemed especially interested in its capability of demonstrating basic principles of optics: the inversion of images through the pinhole or pupil, the non-interference of images and the fact that images are "all in all and all in every part".

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The image of the sun at the time of the eclipse, unless it is total, demonstrates that when its light passes through a narrow, round hole and is cast on a plane opposite to the hole it takes on the form of a moon-sickle. The image of the sun shows this peculiarity only when the hole is very small.

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had shown him, which enabled movement of a lens to project more from a scene through the camera obscura. It consisted of a ball as big as a fist, through which a hole (AB) was made with a lens attached on one side (B). This ball was placed inside two-halves of part of a hollow ball that were then

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can also refer to analogous constructions such as a darkened room, box or tent in which an exterior image is projected inside or onto a translucent screen viewed from outside. Camera obscuras with a lens in the opening have been used since the second half of the 16th century and became popular as

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Evidence that light and color do not mingle in air or (other) transparent bodies is (found in) the fact that, when several candles are at various distinct locations in the same area, and when they all face an aperture that opens into a dark recess, and when there is a white wall or (other white)

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Many philosophers and scientists of the Western world would ponder the contradiction between light travelling in straight lines and the formation of round spots of light behind differently shaped apertures, until it became generally accepted that the circular and crescent-shapes described in the

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If the image is caught on a translucent screen, it can be viewed from the back so that it is no longer reversed (but still upside-down). Using mirrors, it is possible to project a right-side-up image. The projection can also be displayed on a horizontal surface (e.g., a table). The 18th-century

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In 1827, critic Vergnaud complained about the frequent use of camera obscura in producing many of the paintings at that year's Salon exhibition in Paris: "Is the public to blame, the artists, or the jury, when history paintings, already rare, are sacrificed to genre painting, and what genre at

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If the facade of a building, or a place, or a landscape is illuminated by the sun and a small hole is drilled in the wall of a room in a building facing this, which is not directly lighted by the sun, then all objects illuminated by the sun will send their images through this aperture and will

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The genius of Shen Kua's insight into the relation of focal point and pinhole can better be appreciated when we read in Singer that this was first understood in Europe by Leonardo da Vinci (+ 1452 to + 1519), almost five hundred years later. A diagram showing the relation occurs in the Codice

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While the use of the camera obscura has waxed and waned, one can still be built using a few simple items: a box, tracing paper, tape, foil, a box cutter, a pencil, and a blanket to keep out the light. Homemade camera obscura are popular primary- and secondary-school science or art projects.

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proposed a portable camera obscura drawing aid; a lightweight wooden hut with lenses in each of its four walls that would project images of the surroundings on a paper cube in the middle. The construction could be carried on two wooden poles. A very similar setup was illustrated in 1645 in

266:. Distortions in the shapes of animals in many paleolithic cave artworks might be inspired by distortions seen when the surface on which an image was projected was not straight or not in the right angle. It is also suggested that camera obscura projections could have played a role in 128:

The camera obscura was used to study eclipses without the risk of damaging the eyes by looking directly into the Sun. As a drawing aid, it allowed tracing the projected image to produce a highly accurate representation, and was especially appreciated as an easy way to achieve proper

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A camera obscura consists of a box, tent, or room with a small hole in one side or the top. Light from an external scene passes through the hole and strikes a surface inside, where the scene is reproduced, inverted (upside-down) and reversed (left to right), but with color and

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was introduced and partly replaced the camera obscura as a projection device, while the camera obscura mostly remained popular as a drawing aid. The magic lantern can be regarded as a (box-type) camera obscura device that projects images rather than actual scenes. In 1668,

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are commercially available. As the luminosity of the image is very weak in the phenomenon, long exposure times or high sensitivity must be used in digital photography. The resulting image appears hazy and the image is not that sharp, even if the objective is attached to a

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To produce a reasonably clear projected image, the aperture is typically smaller than 1/100th the distance to the screen. As the pinhole is made smaller, the image gets sharper, but dimmer. With too small of a pinhole, sharpness is lost because of

1000:(father and son) studied sunspots with a camera obscura, after realizing looking at the Sun directly with the telescope could damage their eyes. They are thought to have combined the telescope and the camera obscura into camera obscura telescopy. 1228:, were known for their magnificent attention to detail. It has been widely speculated that they made use of the camera obscura, but the extent of their use by artists at this period remains a matter of fierce contention, recently revived by the 3362: 4117:

Art Precedes Science: or Did the Camera Obscura Invent Modern Science? In Instruments in Art and Science: On the Architectonics of Cultural Boundaries in the 17th Century Helmar Schramm, Ludger Schwarte, Jan Lazardzig, Walter de Gruyter,

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suggested placing an eye of a recently dead man (or if a dead man was unavailable, the eye of an ox) into an opening in a darkened room and scraping away the flesh at the back until one could see the inverted image formed on the retina.

771:(1452–1519), familiar with the work of Alhazen in Latin translation and having extensively studied the physics and physiological aspects of optics, wrote the oldest known clear description of the camera obscura, in 1502 (found in the 1053:

and would raise the specters of the devil from hell to show them to the audience inside a dark room. The image of an assistant with a devil's mask was projected through a lens into the dark room, scaring the uneducated spectators.

3598: 1038:. For his helioscope studies, Scheiner built a box around the viewing/projecting end of the telescope, which can be seen as the oldest known version of a box-type camera obscura. Scheiner also made a portable camera obscura. 2677: 3125:: "The Latin translation of Alhazen's work influenced scientists and philosophers such as (Roger) Bacon and da Vinci, and formed the foundation for the work by mathematicians like Kepler, Descartes and Huygens..." 1771: 553:

remained exclusively available in Arabic until the 20th century and no comparable explanation was found in Europe before Kepler addressed it. It were actually al-Kindi's work and especially the widely circulated

2700: 2182: 2579: 2540: 989:, Kepler described how the projected image of the camera obscura can be improved and reverted with a lens. It is believed he later used a telescope with three lenses to revert the image in the camera obscura. 1183:

The use of the camera obscura to project special shows to entertain an audience seems to have remained very rare. A description of what was most likely such a show in 1656 in France, was penned by the poet

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it seems that, like Shen Kua, he had predecessors in its study, since he did not claim it as any new finding of his own. But his treatment of it was competently geometrical and quantitative for the first

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La muze historique, ou Recueil des lettres en vers contenant les nouvelles du temps : écrites à Son Altesse Mademoizelle de Longueville, depuis duchesse de Nemours (1650-1665). Tome 2 / par J. Loret

862:(1513-1570) described using a camera obscura with a biconvex lens as a drawing aid and points out that the picture is more vivid if the lens is covered as much as to leave a circumference in the middle. 3826: 1286:

The scientist Robert Hooke presented a paper in 1694 to the Royal Society, in which he described a portable camera obscura. It was a cone-shaped box which fit onto the head and shoulders of its user.

302:). The location of the bright circle can be measured to tell the time of day and year. In Arab and European cultures its invention was much later attributed to Egyptian astronomer and mathematician 4257: 911:

in Bologna. The gnomon was used to study the movements of the Sun during the year and helped in determining the new Gregorian calendar for which Danti took place in the commission appointed by

700:) how he experimented with a glass sphere filled with water in a camera obscura with a controlled aperture and found that the colors of the rainbow are phenomena of the decomposition of light. 432:) experimented with effects related to the camera obscura. Anthemius had a sophisticated understanding of the involved optics, as demonstrated by a light-ray diagram he constructed in 555 AD. 827:. He suggested to use it to view "what takes place in the street when the sun shines" and advised to use a very white sheet of paper as a projection screen so the colours wouldn't be dull. 4863: 604:

tower beside a seashore, was inverted because it was reflected by the sea: "This is nonsense. It is a normal principle that the image is inverted after passing through the small hole."

2900: 1310:, more easily portable models in boxes became available. These were extensively used by amateur artists while on their travels, but they were also employed by professionals, including 686:

that the eccentricity of the Sun could be determined with the camera obscura from the inverse proportion between the distances and the apparent solar diameters at apogee and perigee.

578:(1031–1095) compared the focal point of a concave burning-mirror and the "collecting" hole of camera obscura phenomena to an oar in a rowlock to explain how the images were inverted: 941: 834:(1494–1575) answered Aristotle's problem how sunlight that shines through rectangular holes can form round spots of light or crescent-shaped spots during an eclipse in his treatise 1407:

started to use the camera obscura as a metaphor of human understanding per se. The modern use of the camera obscura as an epistemic machine had important side effects for science.

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From the beginning of the 18th century, craftsmen and opticians would make camera obscura devices in the shape of books, which were much appreciated by lovers of optical devices.

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published an illustrated article about the construction of a portable camera obscura box with a 45° mirror and an oiled paper screen in the first volume of the proceedings of the

1384:(Ibn al-Haytham) had already observed an optical effect and developed a pioneering theory of the refraction of light, he was less interested in producing images with it (compare 1015:(invented in 1608) to study the recently discovered sunspots. Galilei wrote about Castelli's technique to the German Jesuit priest, physicist, and astronomer Christoph Scheiner. 636:

A picture of a three-tiered camera obscura (see illustration) has been attributed to Bacon, but the source for this attribution is not given. A very similar picture is found in

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rays that travel directly from different points in the scene on the other side, and these rays form an image of that scene where they reach a surface opposite from the opening.

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is thought to have constructed a box-type camera obscura which corrected the inversion of the projected image. In 1622, he sold one to the Dutch poet, composer, and diplomat

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in paintings, maps, theatre setups, and architectural, and, later, photographic images and movies started in the Western Renaissance and the scientific revolution. Although

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A. Mark Smith, ed. & trans., “Alhacen’s Theory of Visual Perception: A Critical Edition, with English Translation and Commentary, of the First Three Books of Alhacen’s

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proposed to use a mirror in a 45-degree angle to project the image upright. This leaves the image reversed, but would become common practice in later camera obscura boxes.

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In his treatise "On the shape of the eclipse" he provided the first experimental and mathematical analysis of the phenomenon. He understood the relationship between the

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By 1620 Kepler used a portable camera obscura tent with a modified telescope to draw landscapes. It could be turned around to capture the surroundings in parts.

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would keep on studying sunspots and constructing new telescopic solar-projection systems. He called these "Heliotropii Telioscopici", later contracted to

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Why is it that when the sun passes through quadri-laterals, as for instance in wickerwork, it does not produce a figure rectangular in shape but circular?

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While the technical principles of the camera obscura have been known since antiquity, the broad use of the technical concept in producing images with a

3684: 2115: 512:(circa 1027), Ibn al-Haytham explained that rays of light travel in straight lines and are distinguished by the body that reflected the rays, writing: 3416: 1085: 2474: 3439: 2362: 1604: 5900: 450:

Yu Chao-Lung supposedly projected images of pagoda models through a small hole onto a screen to study directions and divergence of rays of light.

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An Anthropological Trompe L'Oeil for a Common World: An Essay on the Economy of Knowledge, Alberto Corsin Jimenez, Berghahn Books, 15 June 2013

1157:(1642). When a foot soldier would stand in front of the camera, a twelve-person army of soldiers making the same movements would be projected. 1886: 1137: 1057: 6006: 5753: 4346: 4319: 4227: 3758: 2508: 2148: 1765: 1726: 727: 7303: 2954: 1796:

Optic projection, principles, installation, and use of the magic lantern, projection microscope, reflecting lantern, moving picture machine

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Giambattista della Porta added a "lenticular crystal" or biconvex lens to the camera obscura description in the 1589 second edition of

7589: 7245: 6797: 5608: 596: 348: 689: 490:(known in the West by the Latinised Alhazen) (965–1040) extensively studied the camera obscura phenomenon in the early 11th century. 7006: 4517: 4478: 4409: 4076: 3859: 3678: 3592: 3356: 3346: 3312: 3226: 3119: 3052: 2987: 2848: 2809: 2671: 2468: 2253: 1997: 1958: 1919: 1600: 1422:

has specialized in making pictures of his models and motifs with a camera obscura instead of a modern camera, combining it with the

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There are theories that occurrences of camera obscura effects (through tiny holes in tents or in screens of animal hide) inspired

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into a dark space form an image where they strike a surface, resulting in an inverted (upside down) and reversed (left to right)

1716: 707:(1288–1344) (also known as Gersonides or Leo de Balneolis) made several astronomical observations using a camera obscura with a 7265: 6759: 5093: 4418:

Wade, Nicholas J.; Finger, Stanley (2001), "The eye as an optical instrument: from camera obscura to Helmholtz's perspective",

4373: 2838: 904: 163:, although this more often refers to simple (homemade) lensless cameras where photographic film or photographic paper is used. 20: 3582: 1369: 6938: 6421: 6208: 5669: 5639: 5079: 3911: 2423: 1114:

glued together (CD), in which it could be turned around. This device was attached to a wall of the camera obscura (EF). This

4050: 4001: 2815: 2003: 1925: 4283: 6847: 6779: 6532: 6054: 2661: 2078: 1275:, published in 1685, contains many descriptions, diagrams, illustrations and sketches of both the camera obscura and the 838:(1521–1554). However this wasn't published before 1611, after Johannes Kepler had published similar findings of his own. 747:

be the sheet of paper intercepting the rays of the images of these objects upside down, because the rays being straight,

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The oldest known published drawing of a camera obscura is found in Dutch physician, mathematician and instrument maker

582:"When a bird flies in the air, its shadow moves along the ground in the same direction. But if its image is collected ( 7554: 7374: 7280: 6557: 6059: 4402:

A Critical Edition of Ibn al-Haytham's On the Shape of the Eclipse. The First Experimental Study of the Camera Obscura

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Philosophy of Technology: Practical, Historical and Other Dimensions P.T. Durbin Springer Science & Business Media

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A Critical Edition of Ibn al-Haytham's On the Shape of the Eclipse. The First Experimental Study of the Camera Obscura

961: 404:'s 1573 annotated translation, would add a description of the camera obscura principle to demonstrate Euclid's ideas. 6699: 2923: 2216: 1076:

who used it to paint and recommended it to his artist friends. Huygens wrote to his parents (translated from French):

812:, in which he described and illustrated how he used the camera obscura to study the solar eclipse of 24 January 1544 525:

from about 1200 onward seemed very influential in Europe. Among those Ibn al-Haytham is thought to have inspired are

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it. The figure and the contour and the movements come together naturally therein and in a grandly pleasing fashion.

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The Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, from Their Commencement, in 1665, to the Year 1800

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described the camera obscura, which he called "obscurum cubiculum", in the 1558 first edition of his book series

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Prehistory to 500 BC: Possible inspiration for prehistoric art and possible use in religious ceremonies, gnomons

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Western artists and philosophers used the Arab findings in new frameworks of epistemic relevance. For example,

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show, especially in the upside-down image and Loret's surprise that the energetic movements made no sound.

477:. Light enters a dark box through a small hole and creates an inverted image on the wall opposite the hole. 179:(and that of many other animals) works much like a camera obscura, with rays of light entering an opening ( 7355: 7199: 7174: 6983: 6968: 6903: 6883: 6789: 6711: 6542: 6461: 6456: 6431: 6359: 6349: 6299: 6289: 6223: 6186: 6114: 6089: 5659: 5558: 5506: 5500: 5396: 4777: 2894: 2458: 923: 676: 112: 2353: 1596: 7574: 7260: 7055: 6963: 6958: 6943: 6933: 6908: 6893: 6754: 6687: 6657: 6617: 6527: 6517: 6354: 6233: 6196: 6119: 5540: 5514: 5362: 5341: 5183: 4928: 4883: 4809: 4760: 4567: 4471:

Camera Obscura Heidelberg. Black-and-white photography and texts. Historical and contemporary literature

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In his influential and meticulously annotated Latin edition of the works of Ibn al-Haytham and Witelo,

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These descriptions, however, would remain unknown until Venturi deciphered and published them in 1797.

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Contesting Visibility: Photographic Practices on the East African Coast Heike Behrend transcript, 2014

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Wheelock, Arthur K. Jr. (2013). "Constantijn huygens and early attitudes towards the camera obscura".

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Dupre, Sven (2008). "Inside the "Camera Obscura": Kepler's Experiment and Theory of Optical Imagery".

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Other contemporary visual artists who have explicitly used camera obscura in their artworks include

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1650 to 1800: Introduction of the magic lantern, popular portable box-type drawing aid, painting aid

354:(384–322 BC), or possibly a follower of his ideas. Similar to the later 11th-century Arab scientist 314: 7050: 7023: 6993: 6647: 6562: 6466: 6344: 6324: 6314: 6309: 6279: 6171: 6084: 5912: 5907: 5690: 5615: 5354: 5006: 4985: 4604: 4533: 1516: 1505: 1293: 1073: 831: 458: 246:

placed on its glass top. Although the image is viewed from the back, it is reversed by the mirror.

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The image (or the principle of its projection) of lensless camera obscuras is also referred to as "

4223: 1850: 1627: 1450: 1018: 614:(c. 1175 – 9 October 1253) was one of the earliest Europeans who commented on the camera obscura. 7397: 7194: 6857: 6807: 6632: 6487: 6446: 6426: 6364: 6319: 6284: 6259: 5816: 5781: 5695: 5552: 5382: 5178: 5168: 5021: 4893: 4748: 4443: 3927: 3768: 3563: 3555: 2763: 2323: 2315: 1878: 1389: 1377: 1331: 1258: 1031: 1007:

wrote to his mentor, the Italian astronomer, physicist, engineer, philosopher, and mathematician

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One of the earliest known written records of a pinhole image is found in the Chinese text called

278: 4888: 2950: 1454: 396: 199: 7438: 7428: 7164: 7100: 7087: 7018: 6682: 6607: 6597: 6587: 6572: 6436: 6404: 6264: 6099: 5870: 5416: 5404: 5390: 5272: 4947: 4933: 4474: 4457:

Max Planck Institut Fur Wissenschaftgesichte. Max Planck Institute for the History of Science

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Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 1, Physics

3849: 3302: 3042: 2243: 1948: 1819: 1665: 382:

when light shines through a rectangular peep-hole, it appears circular in the form of a cone?

92: 'dark chamber') is the natural phenomenon in which the rays of light passing through a 7219: 7169: 7127: 7112: 7095: 7065: 7060: 6704: 6662: 6612: 6374: 6334: 6274: 6129: 5566: 5262: 5257: 5207: 5153: 5108: 5087: 5073: 5037: 4837: 4617: 4427: 4159: 3801: 3545: 3537: 3243: 3218: 2747: 2299: 2138: 1862: 1639: 1493: 1225: 1102: 1098: 1069: 937:

1600 to 1650: Name coined, camera obscura telescopy, portable drawing aid in tents and boxes

884: 816: 773: 708: 421: 387:

lines) are cut off at the angles in the aperture become so weak that they can't be noticed.

122: 115: 7488: 7224: 7132: 6749: 6497: 6379: 6074: 6021: 6016: 5984: 5969: 5927: 5700: 5428: 5317: 5232: 5212: 5163: 4753: 4659: 4634: 4572: 3953: 2647: 2636: 1434: 1419: 1315: 1115: 1008: 993: 978: 950: 859: 847: 546: 291: 239:

overhead version in tents used mirrors inside a kind of periscope on the top of the tent.

107:

aids for drawing and painting. The technology was developed further into the photographic

5222: 1342: 416:

Anthemius of Tralles's diagram of light-rays reflected with plane mirror through hole (B)

159:

A camera obscura without a lens but with a very small hole is sometimes referred to as a

3711: 3182: 1794: 1569: 679:

is credited with using a camera obscura to project live performances for entertainment.

242:

The box-type camera obscura often has an angled mirror projecting an upright image onto

7483: 7468: 7448: 7001: 6769: 6537: 6218: 6124: 6109: 6104: 5999: 5806: 5796: 5786: 5267: 5242: 5188: 5173: 5129: 5000: 4992: 4873: 4386: 3747: 1690: 1477: 1327: 1150: 1119: 601: 508: 494: 487: 474: 463: 443:(c. 801–873) wrote about pinhole images to prove that light travels in straight lines. 221: 184: 160: 81: 37: 3279: 3031:, ed. Oliver Leaman (London – New York: Thoemmes Continuum, 2006), Vol. I, pp. 131–135 1049:

described how some charlatans cheated people out of their money by claiming they knew

869:

Illustration of "portable" camera obscura (similar to Risner's proposal) in Kircher's

48: 7548: 7533: 7463: 7453: 7154: 7122: 7107: 7072: 6832: 6677: 6642: 6592: 6228: 6201: 6181: 6149: 6094: 5685: 5664: 5601: 5453: 5247: 5158: 4979: 4939: 4923: 4844: 4816: 4684: 4674: 4599: 4587: 4458: 3726: 3567: 2327: 1882: 1521: 1430: 1361: 1276: 1221: 1208: 1196: 1189: 900: 820: 805: 608: 591: 401: 359: 319: 263: 243: 228: 220:. Optimum sharpness is attained with an aperture diameter approximately equal to the 53: 2767: 1564:

passage, a camera obscura is described as a "collecting-point" or "treasure house" (

7493: 7413: 7320: 7214: 7209: 7204: 7159: 7045: 7040: 6694: 6414: 6384: 6166: 6161: 6144: 5989: 5811: 5801: 5791: 5477: 5376: 5227: 5138: 5133: 5031: 4952: 4868: 4787: 4691: 4664: 4629: 4562: 4447: 3805: 2702:

Science and Civilization in China, vol. IV, part 1: Physics and Physical Technology

2581:

Science and Civilization in China, vol. IV, part 1: Physics and Physical Technology

2542:

Science and Civilization in China, vol. IV, part 1: Physics and Physical Technology

2184:

Science and Civilization in China, vol. IV, part 1: Physics and Physical Technology

1511: 1438: 1385: 1307: 1303: 1254: 1240: 1213: 1165: 661: 571: 530: 447: 429: 28: 3905: 3888: 3212: 2432: 899:

Around 1575 Italian Dominican priest, mathematician, astronomer, and cosmographer

4455:

Inside the Camera Obscura: Optics and Art under the Spell of the Projected Image.

4336: 4309: 4042: 3995: 2799: 1987: 1909: 1866: 1643: 1299:(1764) is dedicated to the use of a camera ottica ("optic chamber") in painting. 187:

and passing a dark chamber before forming an inverted image on a smooth surface (

7513: 7508: 7503: 7458: 7423: 7408: 7325: 7189: 7184: 7117: 7030: 6867: 6842: 6672: 6667: 6652: 6507: 6389: 6369: 6238: 6139: 6031: 5994: 5964: 5917: 5885: 5880: 5841: 5762: 5526: 5299: 5237: 5148: 5143: 4743: 4706: 4279: 1446: 1311: 1280: 1268: 1061:

A camera obscura drawing aid tent in an illustration for an 1858 book on physics

626: 534: 328: 260: 217: 1465: 1356: 7528: 7498: 7315: 6837: 6817: 6731: 6721: 6582: 6547: 6522: 6451: 6191: 6176: 6156: 6038: 5974: 5890: 5836: 5347: 5252: 5202: 4782: 4577: 3018:, ed. Josef W. Meri (New York – London: Routledge, 2005), Vol. II, pp. 578–580 1473: 1423: 1404: 1185: 1110: 1050: 1035: 969:(1619) frontispiece with a camera obscura's projected image reverted by a lens 704: 703:

French Jewish philosopher, mathematician, physicist and astronomer/astrologer

111:

in the first half of the 19th century, when camera obscura boxes were used to

4356: 4171: 3654:

Surdin, V., and M. Kartashev. "Light in a dark room." Quantum 9.6 (1999): 40.

3541: 3138:

translated by Edward Epstean Hon. F.R.P.S Copyright Columbia University Press

2311: 1874: 1651: 561:

that were cited by the early scholars who were interested in pinhole images.

7478: 7473: 7443: 7433: 7229: 6802: 6764: 6726: 6622: 6512: 5979: 5942: 5937: 5922: 5875: 5858: 5311: 4898: 4878: 4547: 4396:

Omar, S.B. (1977). "Ibn al-Haitham's Optics", Bibliotheca Islamica, Chicago.

1488: 1484: 1344:

Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers

1337: 1012: 484: 470: 351: 303: 267: 203:

A camera obscura box with mirror, with an upright projected image at the top

176: 97: 4439: 2759: 649:

Polish friar, theologian, physicist, mathematician and natural philosopher

362:. The formation of pinhole images is touched upon as a subject in the work 4491: 4129:"Camera Obscura and World of Illusions Edinburgh - fun for all the family" 4071:

Hans Belting Das echte Bild. Bildfragen als Glaubensfragen. München 2005,

3947:

http://www.magiclantern.org.uk/new-magic-lantern-journal/pdfs/4008787a.pdf

2927: 2220: 1279:. A hand-held device with a mirror-reflex mechanism was first proposed by 7523: 6822: 6637: 6134: 6064: 5932: 5853: 5848: 5124: 4726: 4624: 4552: 4114: 575: 440: 232: 93: 3559: 2840:

15 Years of Essay-Blogs About Contemporary Art & Digital Photography

2319: 2287: 973:

The earliest use of the term "camera obscura" is found in the 1604 book

6862: 6011: 5957: 5026: 4765: 4679: 4557: 2751: 2640: 2629: 2303: 2288:"The Theory of Pinhole Images from Antiquity to the Thirteenth Century" 2029: 1381: 982: 650: 355: 332:, dated to the 4th century BC, traditionally ascribed to and named for 140:

was first used in 1604, other terms were used to refer to the devices:

4502: 3550: 1573: 1565: 797:

First published picture of camera obscura in Gemma Frisius' 1545 book

682:

French astronomer Guillaume de Saint-Cloud suggested in his 1292 work

358:, Aristotle is also thought to have used camera obscura for observing 7366: 6409: 5826: 5776: 4731: 4379:

Nazeef, Mustapha (1940), "Ibn Al-Haitham As a Naturalist Scientist",

4372:

Lindberg, D.C. (1976), "Theories of Vision from Al Kindi to Kepler",

4041:

Algarotti, Francesco (1764). Presso Marco Coltellini, Livorno (ed.).

3706:

Daxecker, Franz (2006). "Christoph Scheiner und die Camera obscura".

2735: 2503:(6 ed.). Belmont, California: Thomson Brooks/Cole. p. 339. 2055: 1536: 985:, but he thought it was Mercury transiting the Sun. In his 1611 book 657:(circa 1270–1278), which was largely based on Ibn al-Haytham's work. 555: 526: 341: 286: 188: 108: 4128: 3749:

Vermeer's camera : uncovering the truth behind the masterpieces

2663:

Global History of Philosophy: The Period of scholasticism (part one)

1283:

in 1685, a design that would later be used in photographic cameras.

1089:

Illustration of a scioptic ball with a lens from Daniel Schwenter's

621:

Three-tiered camera obscura, 13th century, attributed to Roger Bacon

289:

projecting a pinhole image of the sun were described in the Chinese

4338:

Exploring Ancient Skies: An Encyclopedic Survey of Archaeoastronomy

2425:

Pinhole Photography: From Historic Technique to Digital Application

955:

Ad Vitellionem paralipomena quibus astronomiae pars optica traditur

7077: 6492: 5952: 4716: 4431: 1464: 1355: 1336: 1234: 1136: 1084: 1056: 1017: 960: 940: 864: 792: 726: 616: 469: 457: 411: 313: 272: 198: 180: 57: 47: 27: 4198:"Exuberant and tragic poppies: An interview with Richard Learoyd" 5623:

Viewpoints: Mathematical Perspective and Fractal Geometry in Art

4738: 4721: 1469: 653:

wrote about the camera obscura in his very influential treatise

481: 333: 7370: 5735: 4506: 4311:

Science, optics, and music in medieval and early modern thought

1415:

that!... that of the camera obscura." (translated from French)

5731: 1989:

Vermeer's Camera: Uncovering the Truth Behind the Masterpieces

1757:

Introduction to Light: The Physics of Light, Vision, and Color

2736:"A reconsideration of Roger Bacon's theory of pinhole images" 1153:

wrote about making a camera obscura with twelve holes in his

903:

designed a camera obscura gnomon and a meridian line for the

19:

This article is about an optical device. For other uses, see

3728:

Opticorum Libri Sex philosophis juxta ac mathematicis utiles

1141:

Illustration of a twelve-hole camera obscura from Bettini's

739:

the front of the dark chamber in which is the said hole at

224:

of the wavelength of light and the distance to the screen.

3153:"Pinhole Photography – History, Images, Cameras, Formulas" 1149:

Italian Jesuit philosopher, mathematician, and astronomer

907:, Florence and he later had a massive gnomon built in the 664:(circa 1230 – 1292) wrote about the camera obscura in his 454:

1000 to 1400: Optical and astronomical tool, entertainment

4314:, Continuum International Publishing Group, p. 205, 1908:

Melvin Lawrence DeFleur, and Sandra Ball-Rokeach (1989).

1388:

2005); the society he lived in was even hostile (compare

277:

The gnomon projection of the sun's shape on the floor of

3851:

Theatre and Performance Design: A Reader in Scenographyy

2650:(2001): i–clxxxi, 1–337, 339–819 at 379, paragraph 6.85. 1820:"The Camera Obscura: Its Uses, Action, and Construction" 3745:

Steadman, Philip; Vermeer, Johannes, 1632–1675 (2001).

1045:

Belgian Jesuit mathematician, physicist, and architect

4335:

Kelley, David H.; Milone, E. F.; Aveni, A. F. (2005),

3904:

Loret, Jean (1595?-1665) Auteur du texte (1857–1891).

3893:(in French). Chez la veufue F. Langlois, dit Chartres. 2380:"Kleine Geschichte der Lochkamera oder Camera Obscura" 1947:

Heinrich F. Beyer and Viateheslav P. Shevelko (2016).

1472:

photographed with a pinhole objective attached to the

1239:

Illustration of a portable camera obscura device from

466:'s observations of light's behaviour through a pinhole 235:, giving a usable brightness while maintaining focus. 2406:

Anthemius of Tralles: a study of later Greek Geometry

1508:– the first Scottish Camera Obscura, dating from 1708 723:

1450 to 1600: Depiction, lenses, drawing aid, mirrors

391:"problem" were pinhole image projections of the sun. 3029:

The Biographical Encyclopaedia of Islamic Philosophy

977:

by German mathematician, astronomer, and astrologer

7291: 7238: 7143: 7086: 6992: 6876: 6788: 6740: 6480: 6247: 6047: 5769: 5678: 5632: 5586: 5493: 5446: 5329: 5292: 5285: 5117: 4970: 4916: 4907: 4854: 4796: 4652: 4540: 4250:"Contemporary Photographers and the Camera Obscura" 1318:, whose camera (disguised as a book) is now in the 1273:

Oculus Artificialis Teledioptricus Sive Telescopium

295:writings (1046 BC–256 BC with material added until 5520:The Drawing of Geometric Patterns in Saracenic Art 3746: 2626:Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 1950:Introduction to the Physics of Highly Charged Ions 1851:"On the Physical Origins of Inverted Optic Images" 1628:"On the Physical Origins of Inverted Optic Images" 1204:(volume 1 – book 4 "Magia Optica" pages 199–201). 600:written in about 840 that the inverted image of a 5655:Goudreau Museum of Mathematics in Art and Science 3413:"1655–2005: 350 Years of the Great Meridian Line" 3112:4D Electron Microscopy: Imaging in Space and Time 2620:, the Medieval Latin Version of Ibn Al-Haytham’s 1022:Scheiner's helioscope as illustrated in his book 408:500 to 1000: Earliest experiments, study of light 231:rather than a pinhole because it allows a larger 3214:Renaissance Vision from Spectacles to Telescopes 2924:"The History of the Discovery of Cinematography" 1129:French philosopher, mathematician and scientist 4133:Camera Obscura and World of Illusions Edinburgh 3181:. Sumscorp.com. 2 December 1986. Archived from 3179:"Leonardo and the Camera Obscura / Kim Veltman" 1718:The Photographer's Source: A Complete Catalogue 1399:used the camera obscura as a model of the eye, 1302:By the 18th century, following developments by 1101:, mathematician, inventor, poet, and librarian 1078: 779: 580: 514: 499: 379: 371: 310:500 BC to 500 AD: Earliest written observations 42:A short account of the eye and nature of vision 3110:Zewail, Ahmed H.; Thomas, John Meurig (2010), 3027:Nader El-Bizri, "Al-Farisi, Kamal al-Din," in 3016:Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia 2176: 2174: 2172: 1813: 1811: 1809: 1572:) suggested this was a misprint for "screen" ( 1426:process which creates large grainless prints. 7382: 5747: 5650:European Society for Mathematics and the Arts 4824:Mathematica: A World of Numbers... and Beyond 4518: 3662: 3660: 1011:about projecting images of the Sun through a 629:(c. 1219/20 – c. 1292) falsely stated in his 318:Holes in the leaf canopy project images of a 8: 4804:List of works designed with the golden ratio 3773:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 2219:. paleo-camera. 9 March 2010. Archived from 1483:Camera obscura principle pinhole objectives 7299:Conservation and restoration of photographs 4365:(1993), "Islamic Science and Engineering", 3932:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list ( 2793: 2791: 2789: 2281: 2279: 2277: 1155:Apiaria universae philosophiae mathematicae 1143:Apiaria universae philosophiae mathematicae 878: 7389: 7375: 7367: 7036:Comparison of digital and film photography 5754: 5740: 5732: 5289: 4913: 4525: 4511: 4503: 3777:) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list ( 3584:Theories of Vision from Al-kindi to Kepler 3217:. American Philosophical Society. p. 3146: 3144: 1666:"Vermeer and the Camera Obscura, Part One" 819:described using a glass disc – probably a 590:Shen Kuo also responded to a statement of 7256:Photographs considered the most important 4864:Cathedral of Saint Mary of the Assumption 3549: 3340: 3338: 3336: 3269: 3267: 3206: 3204: 3202: 3200: 3041:Goldstein, Bernard R. (6 December 2012). 2893:Lindberg, David C.; Pecham, John (1972). 2804:. University of Exeter Press. p. 5. 2666:. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. p. 460. 735:be the object illuminated by the sun and 625:English philosopher and Franciscan friar 3523: 3521: 3470:Natural Magick (Book XVII, Chap. V + VI) 2982:. Ashgate Publishing. pp. 275–297. 2979:Studies in Medieval Astronomy and Optics 5410:Vier Bücher von Menschlicher Proportion 3441:Diversarum Speculationum Mathematicarum 2499:; Francis, Gregory E. (2007). "Light". 2409: 2140:Sundials: History, Theory, and Practice 2079:"deadspin-quote-carrot-aligned-w-bgr-2" 1588: 1553: 1364:called "Grand Photographe" produced by 920:Diversarum Speculationum Mathematicarum 823:– in a camera obscura in his 1550 book 692:(1267–1319) described in his 1309 work 3997:Collegium experimentale, sive curiosum 3925: 3848:Collins, Jane; Nisbet, Andrew (2012). 3766: 3620: 3618: 3616: 3467:Giovanni Battista della Porta (1658). 3159:from the original on 17 September 2016 3091:from the original on 24 September 2016 2089:from the original on 18 September 2017 1992:. Oxford University Press. p. 9. 1849:Stoffregen, Thomas A. (October 2013). 1626:Stoffregen, Thomas A. (October 2013). 1263:Collegium Experimentale, sive Curiosum 953:, in his first treatise about optics, 830:Sicilian mathematician and astronomer 428:(most famous as a co-architect of the 4230:from the original on 20 December 2021 4204:from the original on 19 December 2021 4160:"Daguerre, expérimentateur du visuel" 4053:from the original on 10 November 2023 4004:from the original on 10 November 2023 3975:from the original on 10 November 2023 3868:from the original on 10 November 2023 3740: 3738: 3687:from the original on 10 November 2023 3601:from the original on 10 November 2023 3506:from the original on 10 November 2023 3496:Porta, Giovan Battista Della (1589). 3448:from the original on 10 November 2023 3392:from the original on 10 November 2023 3365:from the original on 10 November 2023 3321:from the original on 10 November 2023 3252:from the original on 10 November 2023 3061:from the original on 10 November 2023 2996:from the original on 10 November 2023 2903:from the original on 10 November 2023 2874:from the original on 10 November 2023 2818:from the original on 10 November 2023 2774:from the original on 10 November 2023 2740:Archive for History of Exact Sciences 2734:Lindberg, David C. (1 January 1970). 2680:from the original on 10 November 2023 2477:from the original on 10 November 2023 2292:Archive for History of Exact Sciences 2262:from the original on 10 November 2023 2245:Ghost Images: Cinema of the Afterlife 2157:from the original on 10 November 2023 2118:from the original on 10 November 2023 2006:from the original on 10 November 2023 1967:from the original on 10 November 2023 1928:from the original on 10 November 2023 1830:from the original on 10 November 2023 1774:from the original on 10 November 2023 1735:from the original on 10 November 2023 1607:from the original on 11 November 2021 1568:); the 18th-century scholar Bi Yuan ( 1322:. Such cameras were later adapted by 347:Another early account is provided by 7: 4404:, New York: Springer International, 4260:from the original on 18 January 2022 4139:from the original on 9 December 2021 3636:from the original on 9 December 2021 3085:"The Notebooks of Leonardo da Vinci" 2957:from the original on 29 October 2014 2368:from the original on 5 January 2015. 2334:from the original on 22 October 2023 1597:"Introduction to the Camera Obscura" 1334:for creating the first photographs. 1109:about an instrument that a man from 992:In 1611, Frisian/German astronomers 183:), getting focused through a convex 52:An image of the New Royal Palace at 7251:Museums devoted to one photographer 5595:Journal of Mathematics and the Arts 2528:. New York: Springer International. 2463:. Taylor & Francis. p. 2. 2108:Boulger, Demetrius Charles (1969). 2077:Jennifer Ouellette (29 June 2016). 1914:(5 ed.). Longman. p. 65. 281:during the solstice on 21 June 2012 227:In practice, camera obscuras use a 69: 6798:Timeline of photography technology 5609:Making Mathematics with Needlework 4473:. edition merid, Stuttgart, 2006, 4308:Crombie, Alistair Cameron (1990), 3825:(in German). Endter. p. 255. 2143:. Courier Corporation. p. 6. 810:De Radio Astronomica et Geometrica 799:De Radio Astronomica et Geometrica 597:Miscellaneous Morsels from Youyang 118:materials to the projected image. 60:wall by a hole in the tile roofing 14: 7560:Audiovisual introductions in 1502 5435:I quattro libri dell'architettura 3914:from the original on 20 June 2022 3829:from the original on 1 March 2021 3419:from the original on 28 July 2016 3151:Grepstad, Jon (20 October 2015). 2801:The great art of light and shadow 1889:from the original on 23 June 2022 1601:National Science and Media Museum 1202:Magia universalis naturæ et artis 7349: 7339: 7338: 5714: 5713: 4959:Self-portrait in a Convex Mirror 4643: 4490: 4286:from the original on 4 June 2023 4178:from the original on 22 May 2020 3477:from the original on 16 May 2020 3438:Benedetti, Giambattista (1585). 3087:. FromOldBooks.org. p. 71. 3044:The Astronomy of Levi ben Gerson 2708:. pp. 97–98. Archived from 1754:Waldman, Gary (1 January 2002). 825:De subtilitate, vol. I, Libri IV 675:At the end of the 13th century, 7350: 4374:The University of Chicago Press 4224:"Photography Without Negatives" 4158:Pinson, Stephen (1 July 2003). 3887:Nicéron, Jean François (1652). 3626:"This Month in Physics History" 3587:. University of Chicago Press. 3114:, World Scientific, p. 5, 2460:The camera obscura: a chronicle 2408:pp. 6–8, pp.44–46 as cited in ( 1826:. Vol. 4. pp. 67–71. 1799:. Comstock Publishing Company. 1003:In 1612, Italian mathematician 905:Basilica of Santa Maria Novella 660:English archbishop and scholar 340:philosopher and the founder of 336:(circa 470 BC-circa 391 BC), a 21:Camera obscura (disambiguation) 5670:National Museum of Mathematics 5422:Regole generali d'architettura 4000:(in Latin). pp. 161–163. 3806:10.1080/03087298.1977.10442893 3351:. W. W. Norton & Company. 3047:. Springer. pp. 140–143. 2054:. paleo-camera. Archived from 2028:. paleo-camera. Archived from 1911:Theories of Mass Communication 1: 6848:Painted photography backdrops 6780:Golden triangle (composition) 6055:35 mm equivalent focal length 3822:Deliciae Physico-Mathematicae 3242:Maurolico, Francesco (1611). 3014:Nader El-Bizri, "Optics", in 2951:"A Look into Camera Obscuras" 2248:. McFarland. pp. 15–17. 1118:mechanism was later called a 1107:Deliciae Physico-Mathematicae 1091:Deliciae Physico-Mathematicae 883:(1572), German mathematician 296: 5195:Garden of Cosmic Speculation 3725:d'Aguilon, François (1613). 3384:Kircher, Athanasius (1645). 2864:Kircher, Athanasius (1646). 2587:. p. 99. Archived from 2548:. p. 98. Archived from 2190:. p. 98. Archived from 1867:10.1080/10407413.2013.839896 1644:10.1080/10407413.2013.839896 1030:From 1612 to at least 1630, 856:La Pratica della Perspettiva 631:De Multiplicatione Specerium 424:mathematician and architect 6558:Intentional camera movement 4166:(in French) (13): 110–135. 3753:. Oxford University Press. 3581:Lindberg, David C. (1981). 3386:"Ars Magna Lucis Et Umbrae" 3245:Photismi de lumine et umbra 2524:Raynaud, Dominique (2016). 2382:(in German). Archived from 2286:Lindberg, David C. (1968). 1793:Phelps Gage, Henry (1914). 975:Ad Vitellionem Paralipomena 836:Photismi de lumine et umbra 719:) Book V Chapters 5 and 9. 551:On the shape of the eclipse 7606: 7246:Most expensive photographs 6603:Multi-exposure HDR capture 4712:Islamic geometric patterns 4393:. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd. 4367:Edinburgh University Press 3819:Schwenter, Daniel (1636). 3667:Whitehouse, David (2004). 3530:Early Science and Medicine 3388:(in Latin). p. 806b. 2782:– via Springer Link. 1715:Horenstein, Henry (1989). 1392:) toward personal images. 945:The first use of the term 777:, translated from Latin): 751:on the right hand becomes 698:The Revision of the Optics 521:Latin translations of the 18: 7590:Precursors of photography 7404: 7334: 5709: 5533:A Mathematician's Apology 4641: 3345:Snyder, Laura J. (2015). 2867:Ars Magna Lucis et Umbrae 2798:Mannoni, Laurent (2000). 2457:Hammond, John H. (1981). 1986:Steadman, Philip (2002). 1953:. CRC Press. p. 42. 1824:Amateur work, illustrated 1370:Musée des Arts et Métiers 1292:One chapter in the Conte 894:Ars Magna Lucis Et Umbrae 871:Ars Magna Lucis Et Umbrae 643:Ars Magna Lucis et Umbrae 7180:Digital image processing 5645:The Bridges Organization 4453:Lefèvre, Wolfgang (ed.) 3542:10.1163/157338208X285026 3307:. Springer. p. 74. 3304:Philosophy of Technology 3211:Ilardi, Vincent (2007). 2896:Tractatus de perspectiva 2137:Rohr, René R.J. (2012). 1818:Standage, H. C. (1773). 1721:. Simon & Schuster. 1670:www.essentialvermeer.com 1320:Science Museum in London 1195:German Jesuit scientist 915:and instituted in 1582. 843:Giambattista della Porta 666:Tractatus de Perspectiva 435:In his optical treatise 420:In the 6th century, the 7565:17th-century neologisms 6853:Photography and the law 5507:The Grammar of Ornament 5459:Nature's Harmonic Unity 5369:De prospectiva pingendi 4045:Saggio sopra la pittura 3890:La Perspective curieuse 2660:Plott, John C. (1984). 1760:. Courier Corporation. 1324:Joseph Nicephore Niepce 1246:Collegium Experimentale 1200:about this in his 1657 1173:La Perspective Curieuse 1105:wrote in his 1636 book 922:Venetian mathematician 694:Kitab Tanqih al-Manazir 7200:Gelatin silver process 6224:Science of photography 6209:Photographic processes 6187:Perspective distortion 5660:Institute For Figuring 5572:The 'Life' of a Carpet 5397:A Treatise on Painting 4164:Études photographiques 3994:Sturm, Johann (1676). 3794:History of Photography 3136:History of Photography 2646:19 August 2019 at the 1480: 1403:for eye and mind, and 1373: 1352:Role in the modern age 1348: 1250: 1160:French mathematician, 1146: 1094: 1083: 1062: 1027: 970: 958: 924:Giambattista Benedetti 879: 874: 801: 784: 764: 713:Sefer Milhamot Ha-Shem 690:Kamāl al-Dīn al-Fārisī 677:Arnaldus de Villa Nova 668:(circa 1269–1277) and 622: 609:scholastic philosopher 607:English statesman and 588: 519: 504: 478: 467: 417: 384: 375: 342:Mohist School of Logic 323: 282: 204: 146:cubiculum tenebricosum 86: 61: 45: 6658:Schlieren photography 6197:Photographic printing 6120:Exposure compensation 5541:George David Birkhoff 5515:Ernest Hanbury Hankin 5383:De divina proportione 5363:Piero della Francesca 5342:Leon Battista Alberti 4929:Piero della Francesca 4568:Hyperboloid structure 4376:, Chicago and London. 3965:Robert Hooke (1809). 3301:Durbin, P.T. (2012). 2976:Mancha, J.L. (2006). 2501:Physics: A World View 2497:Kirkpatrick, Larry D. 2422:Renner, Eric (2012). 2242:Ruffles, Tom (2004). 1855:Ecological Psychology 1632:Ecological Psychology 1468: 1418:British photographer 1359: 1340: 1238: 1169:Jean-François Nicéron 1140: 1088: 1060: 1021: 965:Detail of Scheiner's 964: 944: 909:San Petronio Basilica 868: 796: 730: 620: 473: 461: 415: 317: 276: 202: 131:graphical perspective 100:of the view outside. 51: 44:(1755 fourth edition) 31: 6442:Straight photography 6080:Chromatic aberration 5466:Frederik Macody Lund 5337:Filippo Brunelleschi 5218:Hamid Naderi Yeganeh 5080:La condition humaine 4499:at Wikimedia Commons 4400:Raynaud, D. (2016), 4256:. 14 February 2019. 3670:The Sun: A Biography 3473:. pp. 363–365. 3185:on 18 September 2017 2837:Doble, Rick (2012). 2635:21 July 2018 at the 1532:Hockney–Falco thesis 1360:Cameras obscura for 1297:Saggio sopra Pittura 1230:Hockney–Falco thesis 1024:Rosa Ursina sive Sol 892:'s influential book 759:on the left becomes 717:The Wars of the Lord 670:Perspectiva communis 462:A diagram depicting 426:Anthemius of Tralles 167:Physical explanation 32:Illustration of the 7585:Artistic techniques 7309:photographic plates 6994:Digital photography 6172:Hyperfocal distance 6085:Circle of confusion 5691:Mathematical beauty 5616:Rhythm of Structure 5559:Gödel, Escher, Bach 5355:De re aedificatoria 4986:The Ancient of Days 4605:Projective geometry 4534:Mathematics and art 4226:. 3 November 2014. 3952:9 June 2022 at the 3712:2006AcHA...28...37D 3348:Eye of the Beholder 2930:on 31 December 2013 2438:on 12 February 2017 2386:on 11 November 2018 2032:on 12 November 2018 1801:obscurum cubiculum. 1603:. 28 January 2011. 1517:Clifton Observatory 1506:Bonnington Pavilion 1253:German philosopher 1074:Constantijn Huygens 1043:Opticorum Libri Sex 913:Pope Gregorius XIII 832:Francesco Maurolico 684:Almanach Planetarum 7555:Precursors of film 7398:Precursors of film 6813:Autochrome Lumière 6808:Analog photography 6633:Pigeon photography 6422:Social documentary 5901:discontinued films 5696:Patterns in nature 5553:Douglas Hofstadter 5179:Desmond Paul Henry 5169:Bathsheba Grossman 5101:The Swallow's Tail 5022:Giorgio de Chirico 4894:Sydney Opera House 4749:Croatian interlace 4049:. pp. 59–63. 4022:Gernsheim, pp. 5–6 2752:10.1007/BF00327235 2304:10.1007/BF00327249 2223:on 1 November 2018 2111:The Asiatic Review 2058:on 2 December 2017 1481: 1390:Aniconism in Islam 1378:linear perspective 1374: 1349: 1341:Camera obscura in 1332:William Fox Talbot 1259:Collegium Curiosum 1251: 1147: 1095: 1063: 1047:François d'Aguilon 1032:Christoph Scheiner 1028: 1005:Benedetto Castelli 998:Johannes Fabricius 971: 959: 890:Athanasius Kircher 875: 858:Venetian nobleman 802: 765: 638:Athanasius Kircher 623: 612:Robert Grosseteste 574:Chinese scientist 564:In his 1088 book, 479: 468: 418: 324: 283: 279:Florence Cathedral 205: 142:cubiculum obscurum 62: 56:projected onto an 46: 7542: 7541: 7439:Electrotachyscope 7429:Chronophotography 7364: 7363: 7165:Collodion process 7101:Chromogenic print 7088:Color photography 6598:Multiple exposure 6573:Lo-fi photography 6100:Color temperature 5729: 5728: 5582: 5581: 5546:Aesthetic Measure 5417:Sebastiano Serlio 5391:Leonardo da Vinci 5281: 5280: 5273:Margaret Wertheim 4934:Leonardo da Vinci 4495:Media related to 4426:(10): 1157–1177, 4348:978-0-387-95310-6 4321:978-0-907628-79-8 3760:978-0-19-280302-3 3274:Larsen, Kenneth. 3134:Josef Maria Eder 3081:Jean Paul Richter 2699:Needham, Joseph. 2578:Needham, Joseph. 2539:Needham, Joseph. 2510:978-0-495-01088-3 2404:G. Huxley (1959) 2181:Needham, Joseph. 2150:978-0-486-15170-0 1767:978-0-486-42118-6 1728:978-0-671-64591-5 1527:History of cinema 1397:Leonardo da Vinci 1366:Charles Chevalier 1220:The 17th century 1164:, and painter of 1125:In his 1637 book 1041:In his 1613 book 918:In his 1585 book 854:In his 1567 work 841:Italian polymath 815:Italian polymath 769:Leonardo da Vinci 767:Italian polymath 755:on the left, and 567:Dream Pool Essays 539:Leonardo da Vinci 497:and the pinhole. 349:Greek philosopher 150:conclave obscurum 7597: 7391: 7384: 7377: 7368: 7353: 7352: 7342: 7341: 7220:Print permanence 7170:Cross processing 7128:CMYK color model 7113:Color management 7066:Foveon X3 sensor 7061:Three-CCD camera 6705:Miniature faking 6663:Sabattier effect 6275:Astrophotography 6130:Zebra patterning 5756: 5749: 5742: 5733: 5717: 5716: 5567:Nikos Salingaros 5290: 5258:Hiroshi Sugimoto 5208:Robert Longhurst 5154:Helaman Ferguson 5109:Crockett Johnson 5038:Circle Limit III 5007:Danseuse au café 4914: 4884:Pyramid of Khufu 4647: 4527: 4520: 4513: 4504: 4494: 4463:Burkhard Walther 4450: 4414: 4382: 4359: 4331: 4330: 4328: 4296: 4295: 4293: 4291: 4276: 4270: 4269: 4267: 4265: 4246: 4240: 4239: 4237: 4235: 4220: 4214: 4213: 4211: 4209: 4194: 4188: 4187: 4185: 4183: 4155: 4149: 4148: 4146: 4144: 4125: 4119: 4112: 4106: 4103: 4097: 4094: 4088: 4085: 4079: 4069: 4063: 4062: 4060: 4058: 4038: 4032: 4029: 4023: 4020: 4014: 4013: 4011: 4009: 3991: 3985: 3984: 3982: 3980: 3962: 3956: 3944: 3938: 3937: 3931: 3923: 3921: 3919: 3901: 3895: 3894: 3884: 3878: 3877: 3875: 3873: 3845: 3839: 3838: 3836: 3834: 3816: 3810: 3809: 3789: 3783: 3782: 3772: 3764: 3752: 3742: 3733: 3732: 3722: 3716: 3715: 3703: 3697: 3696: 3694: 3692: 3664: 3655: 3652: 3646: 3645: 3643: 3641: 3622: 3611: 3610: 3608: 3606: 3578: 3572: 3571: 3553: 3525: 3516: 3515: 3513: 3511: 3493: 3487: 3486: 3484: 3482: 3464: 3458: 3457: 3455: 3453: 3435: 3429: 3428: 3426: 3424: 3408: 3402: 3401: 3399: 3397: 3381: 3375: 3374: 3372: 3370: 3342: 3331: 3330: 3328: 3326: 3298: 3292: 3291: 3289: 3287: 3278:. 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Kepler 456: 422:Byzantine-Greek 410: 312: 299: 292:Zhoubi Suanjing 257: 252: 197: 169: 116:light-sensitive 78:camera obscuras 36:principle from 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 7603: 7601: 7593: 7592: 7587: 7582: 7577: 7572: 7567: 7562: 7557: 7547: 7546: 7540: 7539: 7537: 7536: 7531: 7526: 7521: 7516: 7511: 7506: 7501: 7496: 7491: 7486: 7484:Phantasmagoria 7481: 7476: 7471: 7469:Megalethoscope 7466: 7461: 7456: 7451: 7449:Kaiserpanorama 7446: 7441: 7436: 7431: 7426: 7421: 7419:Camera obscura 7416: 7411: 7405: 7402: 7401: 7396: 7394: 7393: 7386: 7379: 7371: 7362: 7361: 7359: 7358: 7347: 7335: 7332: 7331: 7329: 7328: 7323: 7318: 7313: 7312: 7311: 7306: 7295: 7293: 7289: 7288: 7286: 7285: 7284: 7283: 7278: 7273: 7268: 7258: 7253: 7248: 7242: 7240: 7236: 7235: 7233: 7232: 7227: 7222: 7217: 7212: 7207: 7202: 7197: 7192: 7187: 7182: 7177: 7172: 7167: 7162: 7157: 7151: 7149: 7141: 7140: 7138: 7137: 7136: 7135: 7130: 7125: 7120: 7110: 7105: 7104: 7103: 7092: 7090: 7084: 7083: 7081: 7080: 7075: 7070: 7069: 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6392: 6387: 6382: 6377: 6372: 6367: 6362: 6357: 6352: 6347: 6342: 6337: 6332: 6327: 6322: 6317: 6312: 6307: 6302: 6297: 6292: 6287: 6282: 6277: 6272: 6267: 6262: 6257: 6251: 6249: 6245: 6244: 6242: 6241: 6236: 6231: 6226: 6221: 6219:Red-eye effect 6216: 6211: 6206: 6205: 6204: 6194: 6189: 6184: 6179: 6174: 6169: 6164: 6159: 6154: 6153: 6152: 6147: 6137: 6132: 6127: 6125:Exposure value 6122: 6117: 6112: 6110:Depth of focus 6107: 6105:Depth of field 6102: 6097: 6092: 6087: 6082: 6077: 6072: 6067: 6062: 6057: 6051: 6049: 6045: 6044: 6042: 6041: 6036: 6035: 6034: 6024: 6019: 6014: 6009: 6004: 6003: 6002: 5997: 5992: 5987: 5982: 5977: 5972: 5962: 5961: 5960: 5955: 5950: 5945: 5940: 5935: 5930: 5925: 5920: 5910: 5905: 5904: 5903: 5898: 5893: 5888: 5883: 5878: 5868: 5863: 5862: 5861: 5856: 5846: 5845: 5844: 5839: 5834: 5829: 5824: 5819: 5814: 5809: 5804: 5799: 5794: 5789: 5784: 5773: 5771: 5767: 5766: 5761: 5759: 5758: 5751: 5744: 5736: 5727: 5726: 5724: 5723: 5710: 5707: 5706: 5704: 5703: 5698: 5693: 5688: 5682: 5680: 5676: 5675: 5673: 5672: 5667: 5662: 5657: 5652: 5647: 5642: 5636: 5634: 5630: 5629: 5627: 5626: 5619: 5612: 5605: 5598: 5590: 5588: 5584: 5583: 5580: 5579: 5577: 5576: 5575: 5574: 5564: 5563: 5562: 5550: 5549: 5548: 5538: 5537: 5536: 5524: 5523: 5522: 5512: 5511: 5510: 5497: 5495: 5491: 5490: 5488: 5487: 5486: 5485: 5483:The Greek Vase 5475: 5474: 5473: 5463: 5462: 5461: 5450: 5448: 5444: 5443: 5441: 5440: 5439: 5438: 5426: 5425: 5424: 5414: 5413: 5412: 5405:Albrecht Dürer 5402: 5401: 5400: 5388: 5387: 5386: 5374: 5373: 5372: 5360: 5359: 5358: 5351: 5339: 5333: 5331: 5327: 5326: 5324: 5323: 5322: 5321: 5309: 5308: 5307: 5296: 5294: 5287: 5283: 5282: 5279: 5278: 5276: 5275: 5270: 5268:Roman Verostko 5265: 5260: 5255: 5250: 5245: 5243:Alba Rojo Cama 5240: 5235: 5230: 5225: 5220: 5215: 5210: 5205: 5200: 5199: 5198: 5189:Charles Jencks 5186: 5181: 5176: 5174:George W. Hart 5171: 5166: 5161: 5156: 5151: 5146: 5141: 5136: 5127: 5121: 5119: 5115: 5114: 5112: 5111: 5106: 5105: 5104: 5097: 5085: 5084: 5083: 5071: 5070: 5069: 5062: 5055: 5048: 5041: 5029: 5024: 5019: 5018: 5017: 5010: 5001:Jean Metzinger 4998: 4997: 4996: 4989: 4976: 4974: 4968: 4967: 4965: 4964: 4963: 4962: 4950: 4948:Albrecht Dürer 4945: 4944: 4943: 4931: 4926: 4920: 4918: 4911: 4905: 4904: 4902: 4901: 4896: 4891: 4886: 4881: 4876: 4871: 4866: 4860: 4858: 4852: 4851: 4849: 4848: 4841: 4834: 4827: 4820: 4813: 4806: 4800: 4798: 4794: 4793: 4791: 4790: 4785: 4780: 4775: 4774: 4773: 4763: 4758: 4757: 4756: 4751: 4746: 4736: 4735: 4734: 4729: 4724: 4719: 4709: 4704: 4699: 4694: 4689: 4688: 4687: 4682: 4677: 4667: 4665:Anamorphic art 4662: 4656: 4654: 4650: 4649: 4642: 4640: 4638: 4637: 4632: 4627: 4622: 4621: 4620: 4615: 4607: 4602: 4597: 4596: 4595: 4593:Camera obscura 4590: 4580: 4575: 4570: 4565: 4560: 4555: 4550: 4544: 4542: 4538: 4537: 4532: 4530: 4529: 4522: 4515: 4507: 4501: 4500: 4497:Camera obscura 4486: 4485:External links 4483: 4482: 4481: 4460: 4451: 4415: 4410: 4397: 4394: 4384: 4377: 4370: 4360: 4347: 4341:, Birkhäuser, 4332: 4320: 4303: 4300: 4298: 4297: 4280:"Pinhole Lens" 4271: 4241: 4215: 4189: 4150: 4120: 4107: 4098: 4089: 4080: 4064: 4033: 4024: 4015: 3986: 3971:. R. Baldwin. 3957: 3939: 3896: 3879: 3860: 3840: 3811: 3784: 3759: 3734: 3717: 3698: 3679: 3656: 3647: 3612: 3593: 3573: 3536:(3): 219–244. 3517: 3488: 3459: 3430: 3403: 3376: 3357: 3332: 3313: 3293: 3282:on 7 July 2016 3263: 3234: 3227: 3196: 3170: 3140: 3127: 3120: 3102: 3083:, ed. (1880). 3072: 3053: 3033: 3020: 3007: 2988: 2968: 2949:Smith, Roger. 2941: 2914: 2885: 2856: 2849: 2829: 2810: 2785: 2746:(3): 214–223. 2726: 2715:on 3 July 2017 2691: 2672: 2652: 2609: 2594:on 3 July 2017 2570: 2555:on 3 July 2017 2531: 2516: 2509: 2488: 2469: 2449: 2414: 2397: 2371: 2345: 2298:(2): 154–176. 2273: 2254: 2234: 2208: 2197:on 3 July 2017 2168: 2149: 2129: 2100: 2069: 2043: 2017: 1998: 1978: 1959: 1939: 1920: 1900: 1861:(4): 369–382. 1841: 1805: 1785: 1766: 1746: 1727: 1707: 1682: 1657: 1638:(4): 369–382. 1618: 1587: 1585: 1582: 1579: 1578: 1552: 1551: 1549: 1546: 1545: 1544: 1542:Pepper's ghost 1539: 1534: 1529: 1524: 1519: 1514: 1509: 1501: 1498: 1478:digital camera 1462: 1459: 1401:René Descartes 1353: 1350: 1347:. 18th century 1328:Louis Daguerre 1180: 1177: 1166:anamorphic art 1131:René Descartes 1120:scioptric ball 967:Oculus hoc est 938: 935: 731:Da Vinci: Let 724: 721: 602:Chinese pagoda 543:René Descartes 523:Book of Optics 509:Book of Optics 488:Ibn al-Haytham 475:Pinhole camera 464:Ibn al-Haytham 455: 452: 409: 406: 360:solar eclipses 322:on the ground. 311: 308: 264:cave paintings 256: 253: 251: 248: 222:geometric mean 196: 193: 168: 165: 161:pinhole camera 154:locus obscurus 138:camera obscura 104:Camera obscura 88:camera obscūra 66:camera obscura 38:James Ayscough 34:camera obscura 16:Optical device 15: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7602: 7591: 7588: 7586: 7583: 7581: 7578: 7576: 7573: 7571: 7568: 7566: 7563: 7561: 7558: 7556: 7553: 7552: 7550: 7535: 7534:Zoopraxiscope 7532: 7530: 7527: 7525: 7522: 7520: 7517: 7515: 7512: 7510: 7507: 7505: 7502: 7500: 7497: 7495: 7492: 7490: 7487: 7485: 7482: 7480: 7477: 7475: 7472: 7470: 7467: 7465: 7464:Magic lantern 7462: 7460: 7457: 7455: 7454:Kinematoscope 7452: 7450: 7447: 7445: 7442: 7440: 7437: 7435: 7432: 7430: 7427: 7425: 7422: 7420: 7417: 7415: 7412: 7410: 7407: 7406: 7403: 7399: 7392: 7387: 7385: 7380: 7378: 7373: 7372: 7369: 7357: 7348: 7346: 7337: 7336: 7333: 7327: 7324: 7322: 7319: 7317: 7314: 7310: 7307: 7305: 7302: 7301: 7300: 7297: 7296: 7294: 7290: 7282: 7279: 7277: 7274: 7272: 7269: 7267: 7264: 7263: 7262: 7261:Photographers 7259: 7257: 7254: 7252: 7249: 7247: 7244: 7243: 7241: 7237: 7231: 7228: 7226: 7223: 7221: 7218: 7216: 7213: 7211: 7208: 7206: 7203: 7201: 7198: 7196: 7193: 7191: 7188: 7186: 7183: 7181: 7178: 7176: 7173: 7171: 7168: 7166: 7163: 7161: 7158: 7156: 7155:Bleach bypass 7153: 7152: 7150: 7148: 7142: 7134: 7131: 7129: 7126: 7124: 7123:primary color 7121: 7119: 7116: 7115: 7114: 7111: 7109: 7108:Reversal film 7106: 7102: 7099: 7098: 7097: 7094: 7093: 7091: 7089: 7085: 7079: 7076: 7074: 7073:Image sharing 7071: 7067: 7064: 7062: 7059: 7057: 7054: 7052: 7049: 7048: 7047: 7044: 7042: 7039: 7037: 7034: 7032: 7029: 7025: 7022: 7020: 7017: 7013: 7010: 7009: 7008: 7005: 7004: 7003: 7000: 6999: 6997: 6995: 6991: 6985: 6982: 6980: 6977: 6975: 6974:United States 6972: 6970: 6967: 6965: 6962: 6960: 6957: 6955: 6952: 6950: 6947: 6945: 6942: 6940: 6937: 6935: 6932: 6930: 6927: 6925: 6922: 6920: 6917: 6915: 6912: 6910: 6907: 6905: 6902: 6900: 6897: 6895: 6892: 6890: 6887: 6885: 6882: 6881: 6879: 6875: 6869: 6866: 6864: 6861: 6859: 6856: 6854: 6851: 6849: 6846: 6844: 6841: 6839: 6836: 6834: 6833:Daguerreotype 6831: 6829: 6826: 6824: 6821: 6819: 6816: 6814: 6811: 6809: 6806: 6804: 6801: 6799: 6796: 6795: 6793: 6791: 6787: 6781: 6778: 6776: 6773: 6771: 6768: 6766: 6763: 6761: 6758: 6756: 6753: 6751: 6748: 6747: 6745: 6743: 6739: 6733: 6730: 6728: 6725: 6723: 6720: 6718: 6715: 6713: 6710: 6706: 6703: 6702: 6701: 6698: 6696: 6693: 6689: 6686: 6685: 6684: 6681: 6679: 6678:Stopping down 6676: 6674: 6671: 6669: 6666: 6664: 6661: 6659: 6656: 6654: 6651: 6649: 6646: 6644: 6643:Rephotography 6641: 6639: 6636: 6634: 6631: 6629: 6626: 6624: 6621: 6619: 6616: 6614: 6611: 6609: 6606: 6604: 6601: 6599: 6596: 6594: 6591: 6589: 6586: 6584: 6581: 6579: 6578:Long-exposure 6576: 6574: 6571: 6569: 6566: 6564: 6561: 6559: 6556: 6554: 6551: 6549: 6546: 6544: 6541: 6539: 6536: 6534: 6531: 6529: 6526: 6524: 6521: 6519: 6516: 6514: 6511: 6509: 6506: 6504: 6501: 6499: 6496: 6494: 6491: 6489: 6486: 6485: 6483: 6479: 6473: 6470: 6468: 6465: 6463: 6460: 6458: 6455: 6453: 6450: 6448: 6445: 6443: 6440: 6438: 6435: 6433: 6430: 6428: 6425: 6423: 6420: 6416: 6413: 6412: 6411: 6408: 6406: 6403: 6401: 6398: 6396: 6393: 6391: 6388: 6386: 6383: 6381: 6378: 6376: 6373: 6371: 6368: 6366: 6363: 6361: 6358: 6356: 6353: 6351: 6348: 6346: 6343: 6341: 6338: 6336: 6333: 6331: 6328: 6326: 6323: 6321: 6318: 6316: 6313: 6311: 6308: 6306: 6303: 6301: 6298: 6296: 6293: 6291: 6288: 6286: 6283: 6281: 6278: 6276: 6273: 6271: 6270:Architectural 6268: 6266: 6263: 6261: 6258: 6256: 6253: 6252: 6250: 6246: 6240: 6237: 6235: 6232: 6230: 6229:Shutter speed 6227: 6225: 6222: 6220: 6217: 6215: 6212: 6210: 6207: 6203: 6200: 6199: 6198: 6195: 6193: 6190: 6188: 6185: 6183: 6182:Metering mode 6180: 6178: 6175: 6173: 6170: 6168: 6165: 6163: 6160: 6158: 6155: 6151: 6148: 6146: 6143: 6142: 6141: 6138: 6136: 6133: 6131: 6128: 6126: 6123: 6121: 6118: 6116: 6113: 6111: 6108: 6106: 6103: 6101: 6098: 6096: 6095:Color balance 6093: 6091: 6088: 6086: 6083: 6081: 6078: 6076: 6073: 6071: 6068: 6066: 6063: 6061: 6060:Angle of view 6058: 6056: 6053: 6052: 6050: 6046: 6040: 6037: 6033: 6030: 6029: 6028: 6025: 6023: 6020: 6018: 6015: 6013: 6010: 6008: 6007:Manufacturers 6005: 6001: 5998: 5996: 5993: 5991: 5988: 5986: 5983: 5981: 5978: 5976: 5973: 5971: 5968: 5967: 5966: 5963: 5959: 5956: 5954: 5951: 5949: 5946: 5944: 5941: 5939: 5936: 5934: 5931: 5929: 5926: 5924: 5921: 5919: 5916: 5915: 5914: 5911: 5909: 5906: 5902: 5899: 5897: 5894: 5892: 5889: 5887: 5884: 5882: 5879: 5877: 5874: 5873: 5872: 5869: 5867: 5864: 5860: 5857: 5855: 5852: 5851: 5850: 5847: 5843: 5840: 5838: 5835: 5833: 5830: 5828: 5825: 5823: 5820: 5818: 5815: 5813: 5810: 5808: 5805: 5803: 5800: 5798: 5795: 5793: 5790: 5788: 5785: 5783: 5780: 5779: 5778: 5775: 5774: 5772: 5768: 5764: 5757: 5752: 5750: 5745: 5743: 5738: 5737: 5734: 5722: 5721: 5712: 5711: 5708: 5702: 5699: 5697: 5694: 5692: 5689: 5687: 5686:Droste effect 5684: 5683: 5681: 5677: 5671: 5668: 5666: 5665:Mathemalchemy 5663: 5661: 5658: 5656: 5653: 5651: 5648: 5646: 5643: 5641: 5638: 5637: 5635: 5633:Organizations 5631: 5625: 5624: 5620: 5618: 5617: 5613: 5611: 5610: 5606: 5604: 5603: 5602:Lumen Naturae 5599: 5597: 5596: 5592: 5591: 5589: 5585: 5573: 5570: 5569: 5568: 5565: 5561: 5560: 5556: 5555: 5554: 5551: 5547: 5544: 5543: 5542: 5539: 5535: 5534: 5530: 5529: 5528: 5525: 5521: 5518: 5517: 5516: 5513: 5509: 5508: 5504: 5503: 5502: 5499: 5498: 5496: 5492: 5484: 5481: 5480: 5479: 5476: 5472: 5469: 5468: 5467: 5464: 5460: 5457: 5456: 5455: 5454:Samuel Colman 5452: 5451: 5449: 5445: 5437: 5436: 5432: 5431: 5430: 5427: 5423: 5420: 5419: 5418: 5415: 5411: 5408: 5407: 5406: 5403: 5399: 5398: 5394: 5393: 5392: 5389: 5385: 5384: 5380: 5379: 5378: 5375: 5371: 5370: 5366: 5365: 5364: 5361: 5357: 5356: 5352: 5350: 5349: 5345: 5344: 5343: 5340: 5338: 5335: 5334: 5332: 5328: 5320: 5319: 5315: 5314: 5313: 5310: 5306: 5303: 5302: 5301: 5298: 5297: 5295: 5291: 5288: 5284: 5274: 5271: 5269: 5266: 5264: 5263:Daina Taimiņa 5261: 5259: 5256: 5254: 5251: 5249: 5248:Reza Sarhangi 5246: 5244: 5241: 5239: 5236: 5234: 5231: 5229: 5226: 5224: 5221: 5219: 5216: 5214: 5211: 5209: 5206: 5204: 5201: 5197: 5196: 5192: 5191: 5190: 5187: 5185: 5182: 5180: 5177: 5175: 5172: 5170: 5167: 5165: 5162: 5160: 5159:Peter Forakis 5157: 5155: 5152: 5150: 5147: 5145: 5142: 5140: 5137: 5135: 5131: 5128: 5126: 5123: 5122: 5120: 5116: 5110: 5107: 5103: 5102: 5098: 5096: 5095: 5091: 5090: 5089: 5088:Salvador Dalí 5086: 5082: 5081: 5077: 5076: 5075: 5074:René Magritte 5072: 5068: 5067: 5063: 5061: 5060: 5056: 5054: 5053: 5049: 5047: 5046: 5045:Print Gallery 5042: 5040: 5039: 5035: 5034: 5033: 5030: 5028: 5025: 5023: 5020: 5016: 5015: 5014:L'Oiseau bleu 5011: 5009: 5008: 5004: 5003: 5002: 4999: 4995: 4994: 4990: 4988: 4987: 4983: 4982: 4981: 4980:William Blake 4978: 4977: 4975: 4969: 4961: 4960: 4956: 4955: 4954: 4951: 4949: 4946: 4942: 4941: 4940:Vitruvian Man 4937: 4936: 4935: 4932: 4930: 4927: 4925: 4924:Paolo Uccello 4922: 4921: 4919: 4915: 4912: 4910: 4906: 4900: 4897: 4895: 4892: 4890: 4887: 4885: 4882: 4880: 4877: 4875: 4872: 4870: 4867: 4865: 4862: 4861: 4859: 4857: 4853: 4847: 4846: 4845:Pi in the Sky 4842: 4840: 4839: 4835: 4833: 4832: 4828: 4826: 4825: 4821: 4819: 4818: 4817:Mathemalchemy 4814: 4812: 4811: 4807: 4805: 4802: 4801: 4799: 4795: 4789: 4786: 4784: 4781: 4779: 4776: 4772: 4769: 4768: 4767: 4764: 4762: 4759: 4755: 4752: 4750: 4747: 4745: 4742: 4741: 4740: 4737: 4733: 4730: 4728: 4725: 4723: 4720: 4718: 4715: 4714: 4713: 4710: 4708: 4705: 4703: 4700: 4698: 4695: 4693: 4690: 4686: 4685:Vastu shastra 4683: 4681: 4678: 4676: 4675:Geodesic dome 4673: 4672: 4671: 4668: 4666: 4663: 4661: 4658: 4657: 4655: 4651: 4646: 4636: 4633: 4631: 4628: 4626: 4623: 4619: 4616: 4614: 4611: 4610: 4608: 4606: 4603: 4601: 4600:Plastic ratio 4598: 4594: 4591: 4589: 4588:Camera lucida 4586: 4585: 4584: 4581: 4579: 4576: 4574: 4571: 4569: 4566: 4564: 4561: 4559: 4556: 4554: 4551: 4549: 4546: 4545: 4543: 4539: 4535: 4528: 4523: 4521: 4516: 4514: 4509: 4508: 4505: 4498: 4493: 4489: 4488: 4484: 4480: 4479:3-9810820-0-1 4476: 4472: 4468: 4464: 4461: 4459: 4456: 4452: 4449: 4445: 4441: 4437: 4433: 4432:10.1068/p3210 4429: 4425: 4421: 4416: 4413: 4411:9783319479910 4407: 4403: 4398: 4395: 4392: 4388: 4385: 4378: 4375: 4371: 4368: 4364: 4361: 4358: 4354: 4350: 4344: 4340: 4339: 4333: 4323: 4317: 4313: 4312: 4306: 4305: 4301: 4285: 4281: 4275: 4272: 4259: 4255: 4254:I Require Art 4251: 4245: 4242: 4229: 4225: 4219: 4216: 4203: 4199: 4193: 4190: 4177: 4173: 4169: 4165: 4161: 4154: 4151: 4138: 4134: 4130: 4124: 4121: 4116: 4111: 4108: 4102: 4099: 4093: 4090: 4084: 4081: 4078: 4077:3-406-53460-0 4074: 4068: 4065: 4052: 4048: 4047: 4044: 4037: 4034: 4028: 4025: 4019: 4016: 4003: 3999: 3998: 3990: 3987: 3974: 3970: 3969: 3961: 3958: 3955: 3951: 3948: 3943: 3940: 3935: 3929: 3913: 3909: 3908: 3900: 3897: 3892: 3891: 3883: 3880: 3867: 3863: 3861:9781136344527 3857: 3854:. Routledge. 3853: 3852: 3844: 3841: 3828: 3824: 3823: 3815: 3812: 3807: 3803: 3800:(2): 93–103. 3799: 3795: 3788: 3785: 3780: 3776: 3770: 3762: 3756: 3751: 3750: 3741: 3739: 3735: 3730: 3729: 3721: 3718: 3713: 3709: 3702: 3699: 3686: 3682: 3680:9781474601092 3676: 3672: 3671: 3663: 3661: 3657: 3651: 3648: 3635: 3631: 3627: 3621: 3619: 3617: 3613: 3600: 3596: 3594:9780226482354 3590: 3586: 3585: 3577: 3574: 3569: 3565: 3561: 3557: 3552: 3547: 3543: 3539: 3535: 3531: 3524: 3522: 3518: 3505: 3501: 3500: 3492: 3489: 3476: 3472: 3471: 3463: 3460: 3447: 3443: 3442: 3434: 3431: 3418: 3414: 3407: 3404: 3391: 3387: 3380: 3377: 3364: 3360: 3358:9780393246520 3354: 3350: 3349: 3341: 3339: 3337: 3333: 3320: 3316: 3314:9789400923034 3310: 3306: 3305: 3297: 3294: 3281: 3277: 3270: 3268: 3264: 3251: 3247: 3246: 3238: 3235: 3230: 3228:9780871692597 3224: 3220: 3216: 3215: 3207: 3205: 3203: 3201: 3197: 3184: 3180: 3174: 3171: 3158: 3154: 3147: 3145: 3141: 3137: 3131: 3128: 3123: 3121:9781848163904 3117: 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2325: 2321: 2317: 2313: 2309: 2305: 2301: 2297: 2293: 2289: 2282: 2280: 2278: 2274: 2261: 2257: 2255:9780786420056 2251: 2247: 2246: 2238: 2235: 2222: 2218: 2212: 2209: 2193: 2186: 2185: 2177: 2175: 2173: 2169: 2156: 2152: 2146: 2142: 2141: 2133: 2130: 2117: 2113: 2112: 2104: 2101: 2088: 2084: 2080: 2073: 2070: 2057: 2053: 2047: 2044: 2031: 2027: 2026:"Paleolithic" 2021: 2018: 2005: 2001: 1999:9780192803023 1995: 1991: 1990: 1982: 1979: 1966: 1962: 1960:9781420034097 1956: 1952: 1951: 1943: 1940: 1927: 1923: 1921:9780801300073 1917: 1913: 1912: 1904: 1901: 1888: 1884: 1880: 1876: 1872: 1868: 1864: 1860: 1856: 1852: 1845: 1842: 1829: 1825: 1821: 1814: 1812: 1810: 1806: 1802: 1798: 1797: 1789: 1786: 1773: 1769: 1763: 1759: 1758: 1750: 1747: 1734: 1730: 1724: 1720: 1719: 1711: 1708: 1696: 1695:Science World 1692: 1686: 1683: 1671: 1667: 1661: 1658: 1653: 1649: 1645: 1641: 1637: 1633: 1629: 1622: 1619: 1606: 1602: 1598: 1592: 1589: 1583: 1575: 1571: 1567: 1563: 1557: 1554: 1547: 1543: 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