698:
726:
347:
197:
116:
27:
710:
35:
371:
3111:
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288:(how defocused the other wavelengths are), and an achromat made with sufficiently low dispersion glass can yield significantly better correction than an achromat made with more conventional glass. Similarly, the benefit of apochromats is not simply that they focus three wavelengths sharply, but that their error on other wavelengths is also quite small.
605:
allow for some useful correction. In an ideal situation, post-processing to remove or correct lateral chromatic aberration would involve scaling the fringed color channels, or subtracting some of a scaled versions of the fringed channels, so that all channels spatially overlap each other correctly in the final image.
690:
On photographs taken using a digital camera, very small highlights may frequently appear to have chromatic aberration where in fact the effect is because the highlight image is too small to stimulate all three color pixels, and so is recorded with an incorrect color. This may not occur with all types
337:
for interchangeable-lens cameras; these include 800mm f/6.3, 500mm f/5.6, and 300mm f/4 models by Nikon (branded as "phase fresnel" or PF), and 800mm f/11, 600mm f/11, and 400mm f/4 models by Canon (branded as "diffractive optics" or DO). They produce sharp images with reduced chromatic aberration at
179:
so that though the different wavelengths focus at different distances, they are still in acceptable focus. Transverse CA does not occur on the optical axis of an optical system (which is typically the center of the image) and increases away from the optical axis. It is not affected by stopping down
608:
As chromatic aberration is complex (due to its relationship to focal length, etc.) some camera manufacturers employ lens-specific chromatic aberration appearance minimization techniques. Almost every major camera manufacturer enables some form of chromatic aberration correction, both in-camera and
604:
In some circumstances, it is possible to correct some of the effects of chromatic aberration in digital post-processing. However, in real-world circumstances, chromatic aberration results in permanent loss of some image detail. Detailed knowledge of the optical system used to produce the image can
595:
to ensure that a correct lens power has been selected. The patient is confronted with red and green images and asked which is sharper. If the prescription is right, then the cornea, lens and prescribed lens will focus the red and green wavelengths just in front, and behind the retina, appearing of
183:
In digital sensors, axial CA results in the red and blue planes being defocused (assuming that the green plane is in focus), which is relatively difficult to remedy in post-processing, while transverse CA results in the red, green, and blue planes being at different magnifications (magnification
746:
Chromatic aberration also affects black-and-white photography. Although there are no colors in the photograph, chromatic aberration will blur the image. It can be reduced by using a narrow-band color filter, or by converting a single color channel to black and white. This will, however, require
317:
An alternative to achromatic doublets is the use of diffractive optical elements. Diffractive optical elements are able to generate arbitrary complex wave fronts from a sample of optical material which is essentially flat. Diffractive optical elements have negative dispersion characteristics,
102:
of a lens depends on the refractive index, this variation in refractive index affects focusing. Since the focal length of the lens varies with the color of the light different colors of light are brought to focus at different distances from the lens or with different levels of magnification.
667:
used to collect more light for each CCD pixel; since these lenses are tuned to correctly focus green light, the incorrect focusing of red and blue results in purple fringing around highlights. This is a uniform problem across the frame, and is more of a problem in CCDs with a very small
587:
and the above condition ensures this will be the focal length of the doublet for light at the blue and red
Fraunhofer F and C lines (486.1 nm and 656.3 nm respectively). The focal length for light at other visible wavelengths will be similar but not exactly equal to this.
626:
The dyes used in the digital camera sensors for capturing color are not very efficient so cross-channel color contamination is unavoidable and causes, for example, the chromatic aberration in the red channel to also be blended into the green channel along with any green chromatic
272:. This reduces the amount of chromatic aberration over a certain range of wavelengths, though it does not produce perfect correction. By combining more than two lenses of different composition, the degree of correction can be further increased, as seen in an
612:
In reality, even theoretically perfect post-processing based chromatic aberration reduction-removal-correction systems do not increase image detail as well as a lens that is optically well-corrected for chromatic aberration would for the following reasons:
697:
731:
This photo taken with the lens aperture wide open resulting in a narrow depth-of-field and strong axial CA. The pendant has purple fringing in the near out-of-focus area and green fringing in the distance. Taken with a
506:
are the Abbe numbers of the materials of the first and second lenses, respectively. Since Abbe numbers are positive, one of the focal lengths must be negative, i.e., a diverging lens, for the condition to be met.
582:
166:
The two types of chromatic aberration have different characteristics, and may occur together. Axial CA occurs throughout the image and is specified by optical engineers, optometrists, and vision scientists in
200:
Chromatic correction of visible and near infrared wavelengths. Horizontal axis shows degree of aberration, 0 is no aberration. Lenses: 1: simple, 2: achromatic doublet, 3: apochromatic and 4: superachromat.
609:
via their proprietary software. Third-party software tools such as PTLens are also capable of performing complex chromatic aberration appearance minimization with their large database of cameras and lens.
631:
The above are closely related to the specific scene that is captured so no amount of programming and knowledge of the capturing equipment (e.g., camera and lens data) can overcome these limitations.
487:
396:
of the lens materials is used to calculate the correct focal length of the lenses to ensure correction of chromatic aberration. If the focal lengths of the two lenses for light at the yellow
1233:
38:
Photographic example showing a high quality lens (top) compared to a lower quality one exhibiting transverse chromatic aberration (seen as a blur and a rainbow edge in areas of contrast)
709:
1265:
Amako, J; Nagasaka, K; Kazuhiro, N (2002). "Chromatic-distortion compensation in splitting and focusing of femtosecond pulses by use of a pair of diffractive optical elements".
3079:
204:
In the earliest uses of lenses, chromatic aberration was reduced by increasing the focal length of the lens where possible. For example, this could result in extremely long
659:– therefore preserving detail in one or two color channels, while "blowing out" or failing to register, in the other channel or channels. On digital cameras, the particular
3021:
303:. These hybridized glasses have a very low level of optical dispersion; only two compiled lenses made of these substances can yield a high level of correction.
143:). Longitudinal aberration is typical at long focal lengths. Transverse aberration occurs when different wavelengths are focused at different positions in the
848:
623:
Most camera sensors only capture a few and discrete (e.g., RGB) color channels but chromatic aberration is not discrete and occurs across the light spectrum
3069:
3016:
318:
complementary to the positive Abbe numbers of optical glasses and plastics. Specifically, in the visible part of the spectrum diffractives have a negative
2796:
155:
of the lens also varies with wavelength. Transverse aberration is typical at short focal lengths. The ambiguous acronym LCA is sometimes used for either
906:
1666:
596:
equal sharpness. If the lens is too powerful or weak, then one will focus on the retina, and the other will be much more blurred in comparison.
1309:
647:, although not all purple fringing can be attributed to chromatic aberration. Similar colored fringing around highlights may also be caused by
1772:
1524:
1148:
663:
algorithm is likely to affect the apparent degree of this problem. Another cause of this fringing is chromatic aberration in the very small
3074:
520:
3011:
2558:
338:
a lower weight and size than traditional optics of similar specifications and are generally well-regarded by wildlife photographers.
260:, in which materials with differing dispersion are assembled together to form a compound lens. The most common type is an achromatic
2767:
988:
Thibos, L. N.; Bradley, A; Still, D. L.; Zhang, X; Howarth, P. A. (1990). "Theory and measurement of ocular chromatic aberration".
767:, although instead of different colors having different focal points, different electron energies may have different focal points.
364:
Diffractive optical element with complementary dispersion properties to that of glass can be used to correct for color aberration.
2734:
841:
224:
of colors led him to the conclusion that uneven refraction of light caused chromatic aberration (leading him to build the first
3053:
3031:
2520:
2699:
2187:
1974:
1031:
Kruger, P. B.; Mathews, S; Aggarwala, K. R.; Sanchez, N (1993). "Chromatic aberration and ocular focus: Fincham revisited".
2608:
2540:
2293:
1820:
1487:
802:
104:
420:
3041:
3036:
651:. Colored fringing around highlights or dark regions may be due to the receptors for different colors having differing
139:). Axial aberration occurs when different wavelengths of light are focused at different distances from the lens (focus
3147:
3046:
2318:
1825:
834:
115:
2460:
119:
Comparison of an ideal image of a ring (1) and ones with only axial (2) and only transverse (3) chromatic aberration
2772:
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2739:
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2502:
2388:
2338:
2035:
1979:
1835:
1592:
1517:
248:
1436:
Misell, D. L.; Crick, R. A. (1971). "An estimate of the effect of chromatic aberration in electron microscopy".
617:
Rescaling is only applicable to lateral chromatic aberration but there is also longitudinal chromatic aberration
2945:
2535:
2268:
2060:
217:
329:
Telephoto lenses using diffractive elements to minimize chromatic aberration are commercially available from
2905:
2709:
2613:
2477:
2328:
2165:
2070:
1713:
1602:
817:
352:
Chromatic aberration of a single lens causes different wavelengths of light to have differing focal lengths.
196:
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of digital camera sensor. Again, the de-mosaicing algorithm may affect the apparent degree of the problem.
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2965:
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2729:
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manifests itself as "fringes" of color along boundaries that separate dark and bright parts of the image.
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1999:
1962:
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20:
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Kühn, J; Colomb, T; Montfort, F; Charrière, F; Emery, Y; Cuche, E; Marquet, P; Depeursinge, C (2007).
346:
34:
26:
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1400:
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225:
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98:. The refractive index of most transparent materials decreases with increasing wavelength. Since the
1100:
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273:
1389:"Real-time dual-wavelength digital holographic microscopy with a single hologram acquisition"
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2510:
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2145:
1840:
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1234:"Advantages of diffractive optical elements application in simple optical imaging systems"
716:
640:
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Rescaling individual color channels result in a loss of resolution from the original image
323:
253:
1449:
1404:
1278:
1177:
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925:
180:
since it is caused by the different magnification of the lens with each color of light.
2762:
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1984:
1890:
1875:
1870:
1765:
1577:
1567:
1557:
1133:
752:
592:
261:
252:, where chromatic aberration can be minimized. It can be further minimized by using an
176:
75:
1250:
188:), and can be corrected by radially scaling the planes appropriately so they line up.
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2915:
2883:
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1994:
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2180:
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1932:
1927:
1910:
1755:
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1562:
213:
99:
1238:
Scientific and
Technical Journal of Information Technologies, Mechanics and Optics
1492:
3096:
2955:
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2878:
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2603:
2433:
2428:
2413:
2273:
2155:
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2004:
1905:
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144:
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330:
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2525:
2487:
2383:
1745:
1708:
1703:
1688:
1641:
1629:
1164:
Hosken, R. W. (2007). "Circle of least confusion of a spherical reflector".
1109:
933:
664:
236:
1422:
1294:
1193:
672:
such as those used in compact cameras. Some cameras, such as the
Panasonic
1360:
1117:
1052:
1009:
747:
longer exposure (and change the resulting image). (This is only true with
2583:
2398:
1900:
1830:
1698:
1624:
1619:
1413:
1388:
1286:
1185:
600:
Image processing to reduce the appearance of lateral chromatic aberration
300:
221:
358:
2623:
1777:
1723:
168:
370:
2175:
1597:
1547:
43:
577:{\displaystyle {\frac {1}{f}}={\frac {1}{f_{1}}}+{\frac {1}{f_{2}}}}
1074:
Aggarwala, K. R.; Kruger, E. S.; Mathews, S; Kruger, P. B. (1995).
2838:
2258:
1718:
1219:
907:"Matching color images: The effects of axial chromatic aberration"
677:
673:
334:
292:
195:
114:
95:
79:
33:
25:
306:
The use of achromats was an important step in the development of
719:
can be seen at the edges of the horse's forelock, mane, and ear.
687:, feature a processing step specifically designed to remove it.
684:
681:
1506:
380:, visible wavelengths have approximately the same focal length.
243:, continue to use mirrors, which have no chromatic aberration.
1502:
322:
of −3.5. Diffractive optical elements can be fabricated using
295:
have been developed to reduce chromatic aberration. These are
284:
of correction (2 or 3 wavelengths correctly focused), not the
514:
is given by the standard formula for thin lenses in contact:
392:
For a doublet consisting of two thin lenses in contact, the
1347:
Colligon-Bradley, P (1992). "Red-green duochrome test".
1483:
Methods to correct chromatic aberrations in lens design
755:
film is already sensitive to only a limited spectrum.)
16:
Failure of a lens to focus all colors on the same point
1488:
Explanation of chromatic aberration by Paul van Walree
523:
423:
3062:
3004:
2904:
2847:
2753:
2637:
2549:
2501:
2246:
2013:
1813:
1540:
880:– Stereo visual effects due to chromatic aberration
482:{\displaystyle f_{1}\cdot V_{1}+f_{2}\cdot V_{2}=0}
30:
Focal length of lens varies with the color of light
1232:Zoric N.Dj.; Livshits I.L.; Sokolova E.A. (2015).
1132:
576:
481:
1493:PanoTools Wiki article about chromatic aberration
414:, then best correction occurs for the condition:
388:Mathematics of chromatic aberration minimization
1349:Journal of Ophthalmic Nursing & Technology
1518:
1076:"Spectral bandwidth and ocular accommodation"
842:
123:There are two types of chromatic aberration:
8:
3070:Conservation and restoration of photographs
1080:Journal of the Optical Society of America A
914:Journal of the Optical Society of America A
736:camera and an AF-S Nikkor 50mm f/1.8G lens.
703:Color shifting through corner of eyeglasses
280:. "Achromat" and "apochromat" refer to the
2797:Comparison of digital and film photography
1525:
1511:
1503:
849:
835:
774:
3022:Photographs considered the most important
1412:
1249:
1099:
962:"Secondary spectrum and spherochromatism"
566:
557:
546:
537:
524:
522:
467:
454:
441:
428:
422:
905:Marimont, D. H.; Wandell, B. A. (1994).
510:The overall focal length of the doublet
897:
777:
693:
1377:. 4. ed. Reading, Mass. Addison-Wesley
1139:. Cambridge University Press. p.
591:Chromatic aberration is used during a
1438:Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics
90:of the lens elements varies with the
7:
983:
981:
235:Modern telescopes, as well as other
3017:Museums devoted to one photographer
1310:"Nikon 500mm f/5.6E PF Lens Review"
1135:Isaac Newton: Adventurer in Thought
299:, most notably, glasses containing
82:to the same point. It is caused by
2559:Timeline of photography technology
1335:"9.3. DESIGNING DOUBLET ACHROMAT."
763:Chromatic aberration also affects
14:
1251:10.17586/2226-1494-2015-15-1-6-13
3120:
3110:
3109:
724:
708:
696:
369:
357:
345:
246:There exists a point called the
3121:
1209:. hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu
1:
2609:Painted photography backdrops
2541:Golden triangle (composition)
1821:35 mm equivalent focal length
1222:– The Physics Hypertextbook.
1045:10.1016/0042-6989(93)90046-Y
1002:10.1016/0042-6989(90)90126-6
751:black-and-white film, since
184:changing along radii, as in
2319:Intentional camera movement
742:Black-and-white photography
400:D-line (589.2 nm) are
3169:
3012:Most expensive photographs
2364:Multi-exposure HDR capture
1458:10.1088/0022-3727/4/11/308
18:
3105:
249:circle of least confusion
2946:Digital image processing
1131:Hall, A. Rupert (1996).
264:, with elements made of
19:Not to be confused with
3054:Photography periodicals
2614:Photography and the law
1110:10.1364/JOSAA.12.000450
934:10.1364/JOSAA.11.003113
818:Petzval field curvature
171:. It can be reduced by
2966:Gelatin silver process
1990:Science of photography
1975:Photographic processes
1953:Perspective distortion
1373:Hecht, Eugene (2002).
1207:"Chromatic Aberration"
643:" is commonly used in
578:
483:
208:such as the very long
201:
163:chromatic aberration.
120:
39:
31:
2419:Schlieren photography
1963:Photographic printing
1886:Exposure compensation
579:
484:
212:of the 17th century.
199:
118:
37:
29:
21:Chromosome aberration
2208:Straight photography
1846:Chromatic aberration
1414:10.1364/OE.15.007231
1337:telescope-optics.net
1287:10.1364/OL.27.000969
1186:10.1364/AO.46.003107
966:telescope-optics.net
863:Achromatic telescope
823:Chromatic aberration
798:Spherical aberration
521:
421:
297:low dispersion glass
241:catadioptric systems
226:reflecting telescope
220:being composed of a
186:geometric distortion
70:, is a failure of a
56:chromatic distortion
48:chromatic aberration
3080:photographic plates
2755:Digital photography
1938:Hyperfocal distance
1851:Circle of confusion
1450:1971JPhD....4.1668M
1405:2007OExpr..15.7231K
1279:2002OptL...27..969A
1178:2007ApOpt..46.3107H
1092:1995JOSAA..12..450A
926:1994JOSAA..11.3113M
765:electron microscopy
759:Electron microscopy
308:optical microscopes
230:Newtonian telescope
3148:Geometrical optics
2574:Autochrome Lumière
2569:Analog photography
2394:Pigeon photography
2188:Social documentary
1667:discontinued films
1498:Use in video games
779:Optical aberration
593:duochrome eye test
574:
479:
378:achromatic doublet
216:'s theories about
202:
175:, which increases
121:
40:
32:
3135:
3134:
2926:Collodion process
2862:Chromogenic print
2849:Color photography
2359:Multiple exposure
2334:Lo-fi photography
1866:Color temperature
1444:(11): 1668–1674.
1150:978-0-521-56669-8
885:Theory of Colours
859:
858:
676:series and newer
572:
552:
532:
274:apochromatic lens
210:aerial telescopes
3160:
3124:
3123:
3113:
3112:
2986:Print permanence
2931:Cross processing
2889:CMYK color model
2874:Color management
2827:Foveon X3 sensor
2822:Three-CCD camera
2466:Miniature faking
2424:Sabattier effect
2041:Astrophotography
1896:Zebra patterning
1527:
1520:
1513:
1504:
1470:
1469:
1433:
1427:
1426:
1416:
1384:
1378:
1371:
1365:
1364:
1344:
1338:
1333:Sacek, Vladmir.
1331:
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1320:
1305:
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1298:
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1204:
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1161:
1155:
1154:
1138:
1128:
1122:
1121:
1103:
1071:
1065:
1064:
1039:(10): 1397–411.
1028:
1022:
1021:
985:
976:
975:
973:
972:
958:
952:
951:
949:
948:
942:
936:. Archived from
911:
902:
878:Chromostereopsis
851:
844:
837:
775:
728:
712:
700:
583:
581:
580:
575:
573:
571:
570:
558:
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488:
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472:
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459:
458:
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433:
432:
373:
361:
349:
88:refractive index
60:color aberration
3168:
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3162:
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3159:
3158:
3157:
3138:
3137:
3136:
3131:
3101:
3058:
3000:
2991:Push processing
2907:
2900:
2894:RGB color model
2843:
2749:
2633:
2545:
2511:Diagonal method
2497:
2242:
2146:Photojournalism
2009:
1841:Black-and-white
1809:
1788:Slide projector
1783:Movie projector
1662:available films
1536:
1531:
1479:
1474:
1473:
1435:
1434:
1430:
1399:(12): 7231–42.
1386:
1385:
1381:
1372:
1368:
1346:
1345:
1341:
1332:
1328:
1318:
1316:
1307:
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1226:
1217:
1213:
1205:
1201:
1172:(16): 3107–17.
1163:
1162:
1158:
1151:
1130:
1129:
1125:
1101:10.1.1.134.6573
1073:
1072:
1068:
1033:Vision Research
1030:
1029:
1025:
990:Vision Research
987:
986:
979:
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946:
944:
940:
909:
904:
903:
899:
894:
855:
773:
761:
744:
737:
729:
720:
717:purple fringing
713:
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641:purple fringing
637:
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562:
542:
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463:
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437:
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374:
366:
365:
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350:
324:diamond turning
254:achromatic lens
194:
113:
68:purple fringing
54:), also called
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3166:
3164:
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3139:
3133:
3132:
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3066:
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2763:Digital camera
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2589:Camera obscura
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2531:Rule of thirds
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2023:
2017:
2015:
2011:
2010:
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1992:
1987:
1985:Red-eye effect
1982:
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1891:Exposure value
1888:
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1876:Depth of focus
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1871:Depth of field
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1477:External links
1475:
1472:
1471:
1428:
1393:Optics Express
1379:
1366:
1339:
1326:
1300:
1273:(11): 969–71.
1267:Optics Letters
1257:
1224:
1218:Elert, Glenn.
1211:
1199:
1166:Applied Optics
1156:
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753:orthochromatic
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291:Many types of
193:
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177:depth of field
147:, because the
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64:color fringing
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10:
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6:
4:
3:
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3165:
3154:
3153:Image defects
3151:
3149:
3146:
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3143:
3128:
3119:
3117:
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3027:Photographers
3025:
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2922:
2919:
2917:
2916:Bleach bypass
2914:
2913:
2911:
2909:
2903:
2895:
2892:
2890:
2887:
2885:
2884:primary color
2882:
2880:
2877:
2876:
2875:
2872:
2870:
2869:Reversal film
2867:
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2834:Image sharing
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2735:United States
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2594:Daguerreotype
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2439:Stopping down
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2404:Rephotography
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2339:Long-exposure
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2036:Architectural
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2032:
2029:
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2024:
2022:
2019:
2018:
2016:
2012:
2006:
2003:
2001:
1998:
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1995:Shutter speed
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1948:Metering mode
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1861:Color balance
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1826:Angle of view
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1773:Manufacturers
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1308:Hogan, Thom.
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1228:
1225:
1221:
1220:"Aberration."
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943:on 2016-03-05
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873:Superachromat
871:
869:
868:Cooke triplet
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653:dynamic range
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211:
207:
198:
191:
189:
187:
181:
178:
174:
173:stopping down
170:
164:
162:
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150:
149:magnification
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81:
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69:
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61:
57:
53:
49:
45:
36:
28:
22:
3092:Polaroid art
2981:K-14 process
2976:Instant film
2971:Gum printing
2921:C-41 process
2906:Photographic
2807:Image sensor
2802:Film scanner
2456:Sun printing
2389:Print toning
2181:space selfie
2151:Pictorialism
2081:Ethnographic
2061:Conservation
1933:Guide number
1928:Focal length
1845:
1441:
1437:
1431:
1396:
1392:
1382:
1374:
1369:
1355:(5): 220–2.
1352:
1348:
1342:
1329:
1317:. Retrieved
1313:
1303:
1270:
1266:
1260:
1241:
1237:
1227:
1214:
1202:
1169:
1165:
1159:
1134:
1126:
1086:(3): 450–5.
1083:
1079:
1069:
1036:
1032:
1026:
996:(1): 33–49.
993:
989:
969:. Retrieved
965:
956:
945:. Retrieved
938:the original
920:(12): 3113.
917:
913:
900:
883:
822:
762:
749:panchromatic
745:
689:
638:
630:
611:
607:
603:
590:
586:
511:
509:
500:
493:
491:
408:
401:
391:
328:
326:techniques.
316:
305:
290:
285:
281:
277:
257:
247:
245:
234:
232:, in 1668.)
214:Isaac Newton
203:
192:Minimization
182:
165:
160:
157:longitudinal
156:
140:
136:
132:
129:longitudinal
128:
124:
122:
100:focal length
67:
63:
59:
55:
51:
47:
41:
3097:Stereoscopy
2956:E-6 process
2951:Dye coupler
2879:color space
2792:Digiscoping
2785:camera back
2700:Philippines
2629:Visual arts
2619:Glass plate
2604:Heliography
2503:Composition
2478:Ultraviolet
2434:Stereoscopy
2429:Slow motion
2414:Scanography
2329:Kite aerial
2274:Contre-jour
2166:Post-mortem
2156:Pornography
2136:Neues Sehen
2071:Documentary
2005:Zone System
1980:Reciprocity
1906:Film format
1836:Backscatter
1814:Terminology
1684:beauty dish
1588:rangefinder
1553:light-field
1534:Photography
1244:(1): 6–13.
803:Astigmatism
734:Nikon D7000
670:pixel pitch
665:microlenses
661:demosaicing
657:sensitivity
645:photography
635:Photography
627:aberration.
394:Abbe number
320:Abbe number
270:flint glass
218:white light
145:focal plane
3142:Categories
3087:Lomography
2908:processing
2857:Print film
2773:comparison
2740:Uzbekistan
2690:Luxembourg
2650:Bangladesh
2599:Dufaycolor
2579:Box camera
2536:Simplicity
2493:Zoom burst
2488:Xerography
2483:Vignetting
2473:Time-lapse
2461:Tilt–shift
2354:Mordançage
2344:Luminogram
2309:Holography
2304:High-speed
2284:Fill flash
2269:Burst mode
2247:Techniques
2228:Vernacular
2223:Underwater
2218:Toy camera
2198:Still life
2126:Monochrome
2116:High-speed
2066:Cloudscape
2056:Conceptual
1958:Photograph
1943:Lens flare
1923:Film speed
1805:Zone plate
1751:wide-angle
1736:long-focus
1319:10 October
971:2024-06-06
947:2015-08-28
892:References
813:Distortion
649:lens flare
639:The term "
398:Fraunhofer
312:telescopes
278:apochromat
206:telescopes
153:distortion
133:transverse
105:aberration
103:Chromatic
92:wavelength
84:dispersion
3032:Norwegian
2996:Stop bath
2941:Developer
2936:Cyanotype
2564:Ambrotype
2526:Lead room
2449:Slit-scan
2384:Photogram
2379:Panoramic
2289:Fireworks
2121:Landscape
1766:telephoto
1714:reflector
1709:monolight
1704:lens hood
1689:cucoloris
1630:safelight
1541:Equipment
1466:250810329
1096:CiteSeerX
461:⋅
435:⋅
237:catoptric
3116:Category
2812:CMOS APS
2710:Slovenia
2638:Regional
2584:Calotype
2521:Headroom
2399:Redscale
2314:Infrared
2264:Brenizer
2238:Wildlife
2161:Portrait
2106:Forensic
2096:Fine-art
2031:Aircraft
2021:Abstract
1901:F-number
1881:Exposure
1856:Clipping
1831:Aperture
1699:hot shoe
1625:enlarger
1620:Darkroom
1423:19547044
1295:18026340
1194:17514263
1061:32381745
1018:11345463
771:See also
301:fluorite
258:achromat
222:spectrum
169:diopters
3127:Outline
3063:Related
2745:Vietnam
2730:Ukraine
2665:Denmark
2645:Albania
2624:Tintype
2551:History
2516:Framing
2409:Rollout
2374:Panning
2324:Kirlian
2233:Wedding
2111:Glamour
2091:Fashion
2076:Eclipse
2046:Banquet
1968:Albumen
1778:Monopod
1756:fisheye
1724:softbox
1578:pinhole
1568:instant
1558:digital
1446:Bibcode
1401:Bibcode
1361:1469739
1275:Bibcode
1174:Bibcode
1118:7891213
1088:Bibcode
1053:8333161
1010:2321365
922:Bibcode
788:Defocus
715:Severe
376:For an
262:doublet
161:lateral
151:and/or
137:lateral
131:), and
3125:
3114:
3042:street
3037:Polish
2725:Turkey
2720:Taiwan
2705:Serbia
2695:Norway
2670:Greece
2655:Canada
2254:Afocal
2213:Street
2193:Sports
2176:Selfie
2131:Nature
2086:Erotic
2051:Candid
2026:Aerial
2014:Genres
1916:medium
1793:Tripod
1761:swivel
1674:Filter
1652:holder
1647:format
1548:Camera
1464:
1421:
1375:Optics
1359:
1314:byThom
1293:
1192:
1147:
1116:
1098:
1059:
1051:
1016:
1008:
492:where
286:degree
228:, his
86:: the
80:colors
44:optics
3047:women
3005:Lists
2961:Fixer
2839:Pixel
2768:D-SLR
2715:Sudan
2685:Korea
2680:Japan
2675:India
2660:China
2444:Strip
2369:Night
2349:Macro
2259:Bokeh
2203:Stock
2171:Ruins
1911:large
1741:prime
1719:snoot
1679:Flash
1657:stock
1598:still
1583:press
1573:phone
1563:field
1462:S2CID
1057:S2CID
1014:S2CID
941:(PDF)
910:(PDF)
685:DSLRs
678:Nikon
674:Lumix
335:Nikon
331:Canon
293:glass
266:crown
141:shift
125:axial
111:Types
96:light
76:focus
66:, or
3075:film
2780:MILC
2279:ETTR
2141:Nude
2101:Fire
2000:Sync
1798:head
1746:zoom
1731:Lens
1694:gobo
1642:base
1637:Film
1613:view
1419:PMID
1357:PMID
1321:2022
1291:PMID
1190:PMID
1145:ISBN
1114:PMID
1049:PMID
1006:PMID
808:Coma
793:Tilt
682:Sony
680:and
499:and
407:and
333:and
310:and
282:type
268:and
239:and
78:all
72:lens
2817:CCD
1608:toy
1603:TLR
1593:SLR
1454:doi
1409:doi
1283:doi
1246:doi
1182:doi
1106:doi
1041:doi
998:doi
930:doi
655:or
276:or
256:or
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94:of
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