583:
engine blocks without the need for heavy cast iron sleeves. A single conductive wire is used as "feedstock" for the system. A supersonic plasma jet melts the wire, atomizes it and propels it onto the substrate. The plasma jet is formed by a transferred arc between a non-consumable cathode and the type of a wire. After atomization, forced air transports the stream of molten droplets onto the bore wall. The particles flatten when they impinge on the surface of the substrate, due to the high kinetic energy. The particles rapidly solidify upon contact. The stacked particles make up a high wear resistant coating. The PTWA thermal spray process utilizes a single wire as the feedstock material. All conductive wires up to and including 0.0625" (1.6mm) can be used as feedstock material, including "cored" wires. PTWA can be used to apply a coating to the wear surface of engine or transmission components to replace a bushing or bearing. For example, using PTWA to coat the bearing surface of a connecting rod offers a number of benefits including reductions in weight, cost, friction potential, and stress in the connecting rod.
295:; they can also change the appearance, electrical or tribological properties of the surface, replace worn material, etc. When sprayed on substrates of various shapes and removed, free-standing parts in the form of plates, tubes, shells, etc. can be produced. It can also be used for powder processing (spheroidization, homogenization, modification of chemistry, etc.). In this case, the substrate for deposition is absent and the particles solidify during flight or in a controlled environment (e.g., water). This technique with variation may also be used to create porous structures, suitable for bone ingrowth, as a coating for medical implants. A polymer dispersion aerosol can be injected into the plasma discharge in order to create a grafting of this polymer on to a substrate surface. This application is mainly used to modify the surface chemistry of polymers.
227:. In the jet, where the temperature is on the order of 10,000 K, the material is melted and propelled towards a substrate. There, the molten droplets flatten, rapidly solidify and form a deposit. Commonly, the deposits remain adherent to the substrate as coatings; free-standing parts can also be produced by removing the substrate. There are a large number of technological parameters that influence the interaction of the particles with the plasma jet and the substrate and therefore the deposit properties. These parameters include feedstock type, plasma gas composition and flow rate, energy input, torch offset distance, substrate cooling, etc.
902:
equipment should be operated automatically in enclosures specially designed to extract fumes, reduce noise levels, and prevent direct viewing of the spraying head. Such techniques will also produce coatings that are more consistent. There are occasions when the type of components being treated, or their low production levels, require manual equipment operation. Under these conditions, a number of hazards peculiar to thermal spraying are experienced in addition to those commonly encountered in production or processing industries.
58:. Coating materials available for thermal spraying include metals, alloys, ceramics, plastics and composites. They are fed in powder or wire form, heated to a molten or semimolten state and accelerated towards substrates in the form of micrometer-size particles. Combustion or electrical arc discharge is usually used as the source of energy for thermal spraying. Resulting coatings are made by the accumulation of numerous sprayed particles. The surface may not heat up significantly, allowing the coating of flammable substances.
239:, formed by flattening of the liquid droplets. As the feedstock powders typically have sizes from micrometers to above 100 micrometers, the lamellae have thickness in the micrometer range and lateral dimension from several to hundreds of micrometers. Between these lamellae, there are small voids, such as pores, cracks and regions of incomplete bonding. As a result of this unique structure, the deposits can have properties significantly different from bulk materials. These are generally mechanical properties, such as lower
28:
817:
191:
supersonic velocity through the barrel. A pulse of nitrogen is used to purge the barrel after each detonation. This process is repeated many times a second. The high kinetic energy of the hot powder particles on impact with the substrate results in a buildup of a very dense and strong coating. The coating adheres through a mechanical bond resulting from the deformation of the base substrate wrapping around the sprayed particles after the high speed impact.
411:
703:
temperature of 3,560° to 3,650 °F and an average particle velocity of 3,300 ft/sec. Since the maximum flame temperature is relatively close to the melting point of most spray materials, HVAF results in a more uniform, ductile coating. This also allows for a typical coating thickness of 0.002-0.050". HVAF coatings also have a mechanical bond strength of greater that 12,000 psi. Common HVAF coating materials include, but are not limited to;
920:
skin and can also cause "flash burn" to the eyes. Spray booths and enclosures should be fitted with ultra-violet absorbent dark glass. Where this is not possible, operators, and others in the vicinity should wear protective goggles containing BS grade 6 green glass. Opaque screens should be placed around spraying areas. The nozzle of an arc pistol should never be viewed directly unless it is certain that no power is available to the equipment.
20:
753:
808:
oxygen, and thus is dirtier than the cold spraying. However, the coating efficiency is higher. On the other hand, lower temperatures of warm spraying reduce melting and chemical reactions of the feed powder, as compared to HVOF. These advantages are especially important for such coating materials as Ti, plastics, and metallic glasses, which rapidly oxidize or deteriorate at high temperatures.
592:
200:
763:(or gas dynamic cold spraying) was introduced to the market in the 1990s. The method was originally developed in the Soviet Union – while experimenting with the erosion of the target substrate, which was exposed to a two-phase high-velocity flow of fine powder in a wind tunnel, scientists observed accidental rapid formation of coatings.
567:
Wire arc spray is a form of thermal spraying where two consumable metal wires are fed independently into the spray gun. These wires are then charged and an arc is generated between them. The heat from this arc melts the incoming wire, which is then entrained in an air jet from the gun. This entrained
1356:
Kodali, Vamsi; Afshari, Aliakbar; Meighan, Terence; McKinney, Walter; Mazumder, Md
Habibul Hasan; Majumder, Nairrita; Cumpston, Jared L.; Leonard, Howard D.; Cumpston, James B.; Friend, Sherri; Leonard, Stephen S.; Erdely, Aaron; Zeidler-Erdely, Patti C.; Hussain, Salik; Lee, Eun Gyung (2022-12-01).
959:
Combustion spraying guns use oxygen and fuel gases. The fuel gases are potentially explosive. In particular, acetylene may only be used under approved conditions. Oxygen, while not explosive, will sustain combustion and many materials will spontaneously ignite if excessive oxygen levels are present.
794:
The deposition efficiency is typically low for alloy powders, and the window of process parameters and suitable powder sizes is narrow. To accelerate powders to higher velocity, finer powders (<20 micrometers) are used. It is possible to accelerate powder particles to much higher velocity using a
190:
The detonation gun consists of a long water-cooled barrel with inlet valves for gases and powder. Oxygen and fuel (acetylene most common) are fed into the barrel along with a charge of powder. A spark is used to ignite the gas mixture, and the resulting detonation heats and accelerates the powder to
928:
The atomization of molten materials produces a large amount of dust and fumes made up of very fine particles (ca. 80–95% of the particles by number <100 nm). Proper extraction facilities are vital not only for personal safety, but to minimize entrapment of re-frozen particles in the sprayed
919:
Combustion spraying equipment produces an intense flame, which may have a peak temperature more than 3,100 °C and is very bright. Electric arc spraying produces ultra-violet light which may damage delicate body tissues. Plasma also generates quite a lot of UV radiation, easily burning exposed
807:
Warm spraying is a novel modification of high velocity oxy-fuel spraying, in which the temperature of combustion gas is lowered by mixing nitrogen with the combustion gas, thus bringing the process closer to the cold spraying. The resulting gas contains much water vapor, unreacted hydrocarbons and
739:
This process usually involves spraying a powdered material onto the component then following with an acetylene torch. The torch melts the coating material and the top layer of the component material; fusing them together. Due to the high heat of spray and fuse, some heat distortion may occur, and
582:
Plasma transferred wire arc (PTWA) is another form of wire arc spray which deposits a coating on the internal surface of a cylinder, or on the external surface of a part of any geometry. It is predominantly known for its use in coating the cylinder bores of an engine, enabling the use of
Aluminum
901:
Thermal spraying need not be a dangerous process if the equipment is treated with care and correct spraying practices are followed. As with any industrial process, there are a number of hazards of which the operator should be aware and against which specific precautions should be taken. Ideally,
702:
in a compressed air stream. Like HVOF, this produces a uniform high velocity jet. HVAF differs by including a heat baffle to further stabilize the thermal spray mechanisms. Material is injected into the air-fuel stream and coating particles are propelled toward the part. HVAF has a maximum flame
735:
Spray and fuse uses high heat to increase the bond between the thermal spray coating and the substrate of the part. Unlike other types of thermal spray, spray and fuse creates a metallurgical bond between the coating and the surface. This means that instead of relying on friction for coating
643:. A powder feed stock is injected into the gas stream, which accelerates the powder up to 800 m/s. The stream of hot gas and powder is directed towards the surface to be coated. The powder partially melts in the stream, and deposits upon the substrate. The resulting coating has low
125:
In classical (developed between 1910 and 1920) but still widely used processes such as flame spraying and wire arc spraying, the particle velocities are generally low (< 150 m/s), and raw materials must be molten to be deposited. Plasma spraying, developed in the 1970s, uses a
799:(helium instead of nitrogen). However, helium is costly and its flow rate, and thus consumption, is higher. To improve acceleration capability, nitrogen gas is heated up to about 900 °C. As a result, deposition efficiency and tensile strength of deposits increase.
770:. Upon impact, solid particles with sufficient kinetic energy deform plastically and bond mechanically to the substrate to form a coating. The critical velocity needed to form bonding depends on the material's properties, powder size and temperature.
910:
Metal spraying equipment uses compressed gases which create noise. Sound levels vary with the type of spraying equipment, the material being sprayed, and the operating parameters. Typical sound pressure levels are measured at 1 meter behind the arc.
740:
care must be taken to determine if a component is a good candidate. These high temperatures are akin to those used in welding. This metallurgical bond creates an extremely wear and abrasion resistant coating. Spray and fuse delivers the benefits of
892:
Thermal spraying is a line of sight process and the bond mechanism is primarily mechanical. Thermal spray application is not compatible with the substrate if the area to which it is applied is complex or blocked by other bodies.
45:
Thermal spraying can provide thick coatings (approx. thickness range is 20 microns to several mm, depending on the process and feedstock), over a large area at high deposition rate as compared to other coating processes such as
457:
The process typically operates at 39–120 °C to avoid thermal damage. It can induce non-thermally activated surface reactions, causing surface changes which cannot occur with molecular chemistries at atmospheric pressure.
611:, where they are ignited and combusted continuously. The resultant hot gas at a pressure close to 1 MPa emanates through a converging–diverging nozzle and travels through a straight section. The fuels can be gases (
968:
Electric arc guns operate at low voltages (below 45 V dc), but at relatively high currents. They may be safely hand-held. The power supply units are connected to 440 V AC sources, and must be treated with caution.
790:
powders can be deposited using cold spraying. Soft metals such as Cu and Al are best suited for cold spraying, but coating of other materials (W, Ta, Ti, MCrAlY, WC–Co, etc.) by cold spraying has been reported.
940:
Certain materials e.g. aluminum, zinc and other base metals may react with water to evolve hydrogen. This is potentially explosive and special precautions are necessary in fume extraction equipment.
950:
Fumes of reactive compounds can dissociate and create harmful gasses. Respirators should be worn in these areas and gas meters should be used to monitor the air before respirators are removed.
42:
processes in which melted (or heated) materials are sprayed onto a surface. The "feedstock" (coating precursor) is heated by electrical (plasma or arc) or chemical means (combustion flame).
1069:
Paulussen, S; Rego, R; Goossens, O; Vangeneugden, D; Rose, K (2005). "Plasma polymerization of hybrid organic–inorganic monomers in an atmospheric pressure dielectric barrier discharge".
816:
929:
coatings. The use of respirators fitted with suitable filters is strongly recommended where equipment cannot be isolated. Certain materials offer specific known hazards:
478:
frequencies, typically 1–500 W at 50 V. The treated components are usually electrically isolated. The volatile plasma by-products are evacuated from the chamber by the
1252:
Fiocco, L.; Li, S.; Stevens, M. M.; Bernardo, E.; Jones, J. R. (1 March 2017). "Biocompatibility and bioactivity of porous polymer-derived Ca-Mg silicate ceramics".
126:
high-temperature plasma jet generated by arc discharge with typical temperatures >15,000 K, which makes it possible to spray refractory materials such as oxides,
943:
Fumes of certain materials, notably zinc and copper alloys, have a disagreeable odour and may cause a fever-type reaction in certain individuals (known as
1099:
Leroux, F; Campagne, C; Perwuelz, A; Gengembre, L (2008). "Fluorocarbon nano-coating of polyester fabrics by atmospheric air plasma with aerosol".
275:
This technique is mostly used to produce coatings on structural materials. Such coatings provide protection against high temperatures (for example
736:
adhesion, it melds the surface and coating material into one material. Spray and fuse comes down to the difference between adhesion and cohesion.
568:
molten feedstock is then deposited onto a substrate with the help of compressed air. This process is commonly used for metallic, heavy coatings.
1207:
Moridi, A.; Hassani-Gangaraj, S. M.; Guagliano, M.; Dao, M. (2014). "Cold spray coating: review of material systems and future perspectives".
512:
in the form of vacuum UV photons to penetrate bulk polymers to a depth of about 10 ÎĽm. This can cause chain scissions and cross-linking.
1431:
1340:
426:
layers with high reproducibility and for cleaning and surface engineering of plastics, rubbers and natural fibers as well as for replacing
599:
During the 1980s, a class of thermal spray processes called high velocity oxy-fuel spraying was developed. A mixture of gaseous or liquid
260:
1517:
516:
400:
216:
388:
variations of CAPS: high-pressure plasma spraying (HPPS), low-pressure plasma spraying (LPPS), the extreme case of which is
1512:
399:
Another variation consists of having a liquid feedstock instead of a solid powder for melting, this technique is known as
766:
In cold spraying, particles are accelerated to very high speeds by the carrier gas forced through a converging–diverging
1158:
877:
523:
are used for surface analysis to identify the processes required and to judge their effects. As a simple indication of
520:
70:
947:). This may occur some time after spraying and usually subsides rapidly. If it does not, medical advice must be sought.
1507:
1298:
577:
142:
Spray torch (or spray gun) – the core device performing the melting and acceleration of the particles to be deposited
1502:
978:
248:
509:
55:
51:
870:
548:
848:
435:
430:
for cleaning metal components. This surface engineering can improve properties such as frictional behavior,
280:
276:
256:
220:
27:
535:
is used. The lower the contact angle, the higher the surface energy and more hydrophilic the material is.
381:
controlled atmosphere plasma spraying (CAPS), usually performed in a closed chamber, either filled with
316:
240:
1419:
1108:
844:
326:
252:
1359:"In vivo and in vitro toxicity of a stainless-steel aerosol generated during thermal spray coating"
443:
330:
236:
96:
1394:
1234:
960:
Care must be taken to avoid leakage and to isolate oxygen and fuel gas supplies when not in use.
783:
608:
494:
431:
319:), where the energy is transferred to the plasma jet by a direct current, high-power electric arc
212:
169:
146:
244:
410:
1497:
1473:
1427:
1386:
1378:
1336:
1279:
1051:
858:
559:
can predominate with selection of process parameters and if necessary the use of noble gases.
459:
419:
78:
662:
resistant coatings on materials, such as ceramic and metallic layers. Common powders include
462:
is done in a controlled environment inside a sealed chamber at a medium vacuum, around 13–65
1463:
1370:
1269:
1261:
1224:
1216:
1116:
1078:
1041:
1033:
944:
704:
667:
663:
322:
208:
1452:"Ultrafine Particles Emitted by Flame and Electric Arc Guns for Thermal Spraying of Metals"
555:
whereas only 1 in 10 ionizes. The predominant effect here is the forming of free radicals.
787:
767:
708:
687:
679:
1423:
1183:
1112:
1022:"Warm spraying—a novel coating process based on high-velocity impact of solid particles"
19:
1046:
1037:
1021:
796:
683:
640:
524:
501:
471:
312:
264:
47:
752:
1491:
1398:
934:
760:
648:
532:
463:
365:
hybrid plasma – with combined gas and liquid stabilization, typically argon and water
116:
74:
654:
HVOF coatings may be as thick as 12 mm (1/2"). It is typically used to deposit
639:, etc.). The jet velocity at the exit of the barrel (>1000 m/s) exceeds the
1220:
1082:
552:
224:
1238:
820:
Plasma sprayed ceramic coating applied onto a part of an automotive exhaust system
1450:
Bemer, D.; Regnier, R.; Subra, I.; Sutter, B.; Lecler, M. T.; Morele, Y. (2010).
1413:
1330:
1265:
1120:
632:
479:
451:
447:
81:. Generally, the coating quality increases with increasing particle velocities
66:
1374:
854:
825:
741:
724:
591:
556:
544:
427:
127:
1382:
1358:
1468:
1451:
983:
831:
712:
659:
628:
624:
475:
439:
382:
284:
211:
spraying process, the material to be deposited (feedstock) — typically as a
1477:
1390:
1306:
1283:
1274:
1134:
1055:
362:(through evaporation, dissociation and ionization) or other suitable liquid
199:
1020:
Kuroda, Seiji; Kawakita, Jin; Watanabe, Makoto; Katanoda, Hiroshi (2008).
343:
gas-stabilized plasma (GSP), where the plasma forms from a gas; typically
31:
Particle temperature and velocity for different thermal spraying processes
644:
636:
612:
528:
483:
348:
181:
Control console(s) – either integrated or individual for all of the above
62:
1229:
175:
Robot/Labour – for manipulating the torch or the substrates to be coated
837:
779:
775:
720:
716:
699:
671:
620:
616:
288:
39:
168:
for the generation of the flame or plasma jet, gases for carrying the
675:
604:
423:
389:
352:
165:
154:
235:
The deposits consist of a multitude of pancake-like 'splats' called
1184:"Spray and Fuse Coatings | Fused Coatings | Metallurgically Bonded"
815:
771:
751:
590:
409:
359:
344:
325:
or RF plasma, where the energy is transferred by induction from a
198:
26:
18:
1135:"HVAF Spray | Thermal Spray Coatings | Machine Part Enhancement"
655:
600:
303:
Plasma spraying systems can be categorized by several criteria.
292:
150:
678:
materials (WC–Co, etc.) and other corrosion-resistant alloys (
467:
376:
223:
or wire — is introduced into the plasma jet, emanating from a
161:
515:
Plasmas affect materials at an atomic level. Techniques like
470:
or mixture of gases is energized by an electrical field from
418:
Vacuum plasma spraying (VPS) is a technology for etching and
866:
Temperature/oxidation protection (thermal barrier coatings)
493:
Molecular, atomic, metastable and free radical species for
138:
A typical thermal spray system consists of the following:
89:
Several variations of thermal spraying are distinguished:
16:
Coating process for applying heated materials to a surface
375:
atmospheric plasma spraying (APS), performed in ambient
358:
water-stabilized plasma (WSP), where plasma forms from
674:. The process has been most successful for depositing
551:. In a typical reactive gas, 1 in 100 molecules form
61:
Coating quality is usually assessed by measuring its
23:
Plasma spraying setup – a variant of thermal spraying
489:
In contrast to molecular chemistry, plasmas employ:
482:, and if necessary can be neutralized in an exhaust
1332:Health and safety in welding and allied processes
933:Finely divided metal particles are potentially
107:High velocity oxy-fuel coating spraying (HVOF)
1297:Degitz, Todd; Dobler, Klaus (November 2002).
698:HVAF coating technology is the combustion of
178:Power supply – often standalone for the torch
8:
1418:. World Scientific Pub Co Inc. p. 211.
1467:
1445:
1443:
1335:. Woodhead Publishing. pp. 190–205.
1324:
1322:
1320:
1318:
1316:
1273:
1228:
1045:
937:and harmful when accumulated in the body.
587:High velocity oxygen fuel spraying (HVOF)
1415:Plasma Spraying: Theory and Applications
1094:
1092:
1015:
1013:
1011:
1009:
1007:
1005:
1003:
1001:
999:
329:around the plasma jet, through which an
995:
723:nature hvaf coatings can help resist
7:
1329:Blunt, Jane; Balchin, N. C. (2001).
869:Medical implants coatings (by using
1159:"Thermal Spray for Pump Cavitation"
880:(for any of the above applications)
186:Detonation thermal spraying process
682:, nickel-based alloys, aluminium,
14:
442:, cohesive strength of films, or
744:with the ease of thermal spray.
533:water droplet contact angle test
517:X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy
500:Positive ions and electrons for
392:plasma spraying (VPS, see below)
333:, radio-frequency current passes
267:can be present in the deposits.
1071:Surface and Coatings Technology
401:Solution precursor plasma spray
1456:Annals of Occupational Hygiene
1221:10.1179/1743294414Y.0000000270
1083:10.1016/j.surfcoat.2005.02.134
828:reconditioning or conditioning
1:
878:functionally graded materials
694:High Velocity Air Fuel (HVAF)
110:High velocity air fuel (HVAF)
1266:10.1016/j.actbio.2016.12.043
1121:10.1016/j.apsusc.2007.12.037
1038:10.1088/1468-6996/9/3/033002
539:Changing effects with plasma
521:scanning electron microscopy
1412:Suryanarayanan, R. (1993).
795:processing gas having high
578:Plasma transferred wire arc
572:Plasma transferred wire arc
446:, or it can make materials
157:to the torch through tubes.
145:Feeder – for supplying the
1534:
1375:10.1007/s00204-022-03362-7
979:List of coating techniques
863:Repairing damaged surfaces
575:
395:underwater plasma spraying
547:tends to occur more than
510:electromagnetic radiation
69:content, macro and micro-
56:chemical vapor deposition
1026:Sci. Technol. Adv. Mater
871:polymer derived ceramics
531:or wettability, often a
277:thermal barrier coatings
1518:Metallurgical processes
1101:Applied Surface Science
849:electrical conductivity
756:Cold spraying schematic
436:electrical conductivity
281:exhaust heat management
257:electrical conductivity
1363:Archives of Toxicology
1299:"Thermal Spray Basics"
821:
757:
596:
549:chemical dissociations
508:Plasma also generates
415:
414:Vacuum plasma spraying
406:Vacuum plasma spraying
338:Plasma-forming medium:
307:Plasma jet generation:
204:
32:
24:
1469:10.1093/annhyg/meq052
853:Wear control: either
819:
755:
594:
413:
370:Spraying environment:
251:tolerance, and lower
202:
30:
22:
1513:Thin film deposition
857:(wear-resistant) or
845:thermal conductivity
768:de Laval type nozzle
635:, etc.) or liquids (
420:surface modification
261:rapid solidification
1424:1993psta.book.....S
1209:Surface Engineering
1113:2008ApSS..254.3902L
784:composite materials
543:At higher energies
444:dielectric constant
259:. Also, due to the
203:Wire flame spraying
97:Detonation spraying
1508:Chemical processes
1254:Acta Biomaterialia
822:
758:
707:, chrome carbide,
609:combustion chamber
597:
416:
231:Deposit properties
205:
33:
25:
1503:Materials science
1433:978-981-02-1363-3
1369:(12): 3201–3217.
1342:978-1-85573-538-5
1165:. 21 January 2020
859:abradable coating
460:Plasma processing
355:or their mixtures
265:metastable phases
215:, sometimes as a
101:Wire arc spraying
79:surface roughness
1525:
1482:
1481:
1471:
1447:
1438:
1437:
1409:
1403:
1402:
1353:
1347:
1346:
1326:
1311:
1310:
1305:. Archived from
1294:
1288:
1287:
1277:
1249:
1243:
1242:
1232:
1204:
1198:
1197:
1195:
1194:
1180:
1174:
1173:
1171:
1170:
1155:
1149:
1148:
1146:
1145:
1131:
1125:
1124:
1096:
1087:
1086:
1077:(1–4): 672–675.
1066:
1060:
1059:
1049:
1017:
945:metal fume fever
742:hardface welding
705:tungsten carbide
688:medical implants
680:stainless steels
668:chromium carbide
495:chemical effects
323:induction plasma
36:Thermal spraying
1533:
1532:
1528:
1527:
1526:
1524:
1523:
1522:
1488:
1487:
1486:
1485:
1449:
1448:
1441:
1434:
1411:
1410:
1406:
1355:
1354:
1350:
1343:
1328:
1327:
1314:
1303:Welding Journal
1296:
1295:
1291:
1251:
1250:
1246:
1206:
1205:
1201:
1192:
1190:
1182:
1181:
1177:
1168:
1166:
1157:
1156:
1152:
1143:
1141:
1133:
1132:
1128:
1098:
1097:
1090:
1068:
1067:
1063:
1019:
1018:
997:
992:
975:
966:
957:
926:
917:
908:
899:
890:
884:
814:
805:
788:nanocrystalline
750:
733:
709:stainless steel
696:
589:
580:
574:
565:
541:
502:kinetic effects
432:heat resistance
408:
301:
273:
233:
197:
195:Plasma spraying
188:
160:Media supply –
136:
134:System overview
93:Plasma spraying
87:
38:techniques are
17:
12:
11:
5:
1531:
1529:
1521:
1520:
1515:
1510:
1505:
1500:
1490:
1489:
1484:
1483:
1439:
1432:
1404:
1348:
1341:
1312:
1309:on 2004-11-18.
1289:
1244:
1215:(6): 369–395.
1199:
1175:
1150:
1126:
1088:
1061:
994:
993:
991:
988:
987:
986:
981:
974:
971:
965:
962:
956:
953:
952:
951:
948:
941:
938:
925:
924:Dust and fumes
922:
916:
913:
907:
904:
898:
895:
889:
886:
882:
881:
876:Production of
874:
867:
864:
861:
851:
841:
835:
829:
813:
810:
804:
801:
797:speed of sound
749:
746:
732:
731:Spray and Fuse
729:
695:
692:
684:hydroxyapatite
670:, MCrAlY, and
641:speed of sound
607:is fed into a
595:HVOF schematic
588:
585:
576:Main article:
573:
570:
564:
563:Wire arc spray
561:
540:
537:
525:surface energy
506:
505:
498:
407:
404:
397:
396:
393:
386:
379:
367:
366:
363:
356:
335:
334:
320:
313:direct current
300:
297:
272:
269:
232:
229:
196:
193:
187:
184:
183:
182:
179:
176:
173:
158:
143:
135:
132:
123:
122:
121:Spray and Fuse
119:
114:
111:
108:
105:
104:Flame spraying
102:
99:
94:
86:
83:
48:electroplating
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1530:
1519:
1516:
1514:
1511:
1509:
1506:
1504:
1501:
1499:
1496:
1495:
1493:
1479:
1475:
1470:
1465:
1462:(6): 607–14.
1461:
1457:
1453:
1446:
1444:
1440:
1435:
1429:
1425:
1421:
1417:
1416:
1408:
1405:
1400:
1396:
1392:
1388:
1384:
1380:
1376:
1372:
1368:
1364:
1360:
1352:
1349:
1344:
1338:
1334:
1333:
1325:
1323:
1321:
1319:
1317:
1313:
1308:
1304:
1300:
1293:
1290:
1285:
1281:
1276:
1275:10044/1/43928
1271:
1267:
1263:
1259:
1255:
1248:
1245:
1240:
1236:
1231:
1226:
1222:
1218:
1214:
1210:
1203:
1200:
1189:
1185:
1179:
1176:
1164:
1160:
1154:
1151:
1140:
1136:
1130:
1127:
1122:
1118:
1114:
1110:
1106:
1102:
1095:
1093:
1089:
1084:
1080:
1076:
1072:
1065:
1062:
1057:
1053:
1048:
1043:
1039:
1035:
1032:(3): 033002.
1031:
1027:
1023:
1016:
1014:
1012:
1010:
1008:
1006:
1004:
1002:
1000:
996:
989:
985:
982:
980:
977:
976:
972:
970:
964:Shock hazards
963:
961:
954:
949:
946:
942:
939:
936:
932:
931:
930:
923:
921:
914:
912:
905:
903:
896:
894:
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885:
879:
875:
872:
868:
865:
862:
860:
856:
852:
850:
846:
842:
839:
836:
833:
830:
827:
824:
823:
818:
811:
809:
803:Warm spraying
802:
800:
798:
792:
789:
785:
781:
777:
773:
769:
764:
762:
761:Cold spraying
754:
748:Cold spraying
747:
745:
743:
737:
730:
728:
726:
722:
719:. Due to its
718:
714:
710:
706:
701:
693:
691:
689:
685:
681:
677:
673:
669:
665:
661:
657:
652:
650:
649:bond strength
646:
642:
638:
634:
630:
626:
622:
618:
614:
610:
606:
602:
593:
586:
584:
579:
571:
569:
562:
560:
558:
557:Ionic effects
554:
553:free radicals
550:
546:
538:
536:
534:
530:
526:
522:
518:
513:
511:
503:
499:
496:
492:
491:
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477:
473:
469:
465:
461:
455:
453:
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441:
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429:
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421:
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405:
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402:
394:
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387:
384:
380:
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371:
364:
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357:
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350:
346:
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341:
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332:
328:
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321:
318:
314:
311:
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309:
308:
304:
298:
296:
294:
290:
286:
282:
278:
270:
268:
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258:
254:
250:
246:
242:
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230:
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226:
222:
218:
214:
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201:
194:
192:
185:
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174:
171:
167:
163:
159:
156:
152:
148:
144:
141:
140:
139:
133:
131:
129:
120:
118:
117:Cold spraying
115:
113:Warm spraying
112:
109:
106:
103:
100:
98:
95:
92:
91:
90:
84:
82:
80:
76:
75:bond strength
72:
68:
64:
59:
57:
53:
49:
43:
41:
37:
29:
21:
1459:
1455:
1414:
1407:
1366:
1362:
1351:
1331:
1307:the original
1302:
1292:
1257:
1253:
1247:
1230:11311/968457
1212:
1208:
1202:
1191:. Retrieved
1188:HTS Coatings
1187:
1178:
1167:. Retrieved
1163:HTS Coatings
1162:
1153:
1142:. Retrieved
1139:HTS Coatings
1138:
1129:
1107:(13): 3902.
1104:
1100:
1074:
1070:
1064:
1029:
1025:
967:
958:
927:
918:
909:
900:
891:
883:
812:Applications
806:
793:
765:
759:
738:
734:
697:
653:
598:
581:
566:
542:
527:, and hence
514:
507:
488:
456:
417:
398:
385:or evacuated
369:
368:
337:
336:
306:
305:
302:
274:
271:Applications
234:
225:plasma torch
206:
189:
137:
124:
88:
60:
44:
35:
34:
888:Limitations
633:natural gas
480:vacuum pump
452:hydrophobic
448:hydrophilic
331:alternating
1492:Categories
1193:2020-07-28
1169:2020-06-04
1144:2020-06-04
990:References
935:pyrophoric
855:hardfacing
840:protection
834:protection
826:Crankshaft
725:cavitation
545:ionization
434:, surface
422:to create
299:Variations
221:suspension
128:molybdenum
85:Variations
1399:251671596
1383:1432-0738
1260:: 56–67.
984:Thin film
843:Altering
832:Corrosion
713:hastelloy
690:, etc.).
660:corrosion
647:and high
629:acetylene
625:propylene
476:microwave
440:lubricity
383:inert gas
317:DC plasma
285:corrosion
247:, higher
1498:Coatings
1478:20685717
1391:35984461
1284:28017870
1056:27877996
973:See also
915:UV light
780:ceramics
776:polymers
727:damage.
645:porosity
637:kerosene
613:hydrogen
529:adhesion
484:scrubber
349:hydrogen
241:strength
237:lamellae
71:hardness
63:porosity
52:physical
1420:Bibcode
1109:Bibcode
1047:5099653
838:Fouling
721:ductile
717:inconel
700:propane
672:alumina
621:propane
617:methane
289:erosion
253:thermal
245:modulus
166:liquids
130:, etc.
40:coating
1476:
1430:
1397:
1389:
1381:
1339:
1282:
1239:987439
1237:
1054:
1044:
897:Safety
772:Metals
715:, and
676:cermet
605:oxygen
466:. The
424:porous
390:vacuum
353:helium
249:strain
217:liquid
213:powder
209:plasma
172:, etc.
170:powder
155:liquid
147:powder
1395:S2CID
1235:S2CID
906:Noise
666:-Co,
360:water
345:argon
162:gases
67:oxide
1474:PMID
1428:ISBN
1387:PMID
1379:ISSN
1337:ISBN
1280:PMID
1052:PMID
955:Heat
786:and
686:for
658:and
656:wear
603:and
601:fuel
519:and
428:CFCs
327:coil
293:wear
279:for
255:and
243:and
151:wire
77:and
54:and
1464:doi
1371:doi
1270:hdl
1262:doi
1225:hdl
1217:doi
1117:doi
1105:254
1079:doi
1075:200
1042:PMC
1034:doi
847:or
474:to
468:gas
450:or
377:air
283:),
207:In
164:or
153:or
1494::
1472:.
1460:54
1458:.
1454:.
1442:^
1426:.
1393:.
1385:.
1377:.
1367:96
1365:.
1361:.
1315:^
1301:.
1278:.
1268:.
1258:50
1256:.
1233:.
1223:.
1213:30
1211:.
1186:.
1161:.
1137:.
1115:.
1103:.
1091:^
1073:.
1050:.
1040:.
1028:.
1024:.
998:^
782:,
778:,
774:,
711:,
664:WC
651:.
631:,
627:,
623:,
619:,
615:,
486:.
472:DC
464:Pa
454:.
438:,
351:,
347:,
291:,
287:,
263:,
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1480:.
1466::
1436:.
1422::
1401:.
1373::
1345:.
1286:.
1272::
1264::
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1227::
1219::
1196:.
1172:.
1147:.
1123:.
1119::
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1081::
1058:.
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504:.
497:.
315:(
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