Castra - Knowledge

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it, nor do those that are in it take their places at random; but if it happens that the ground is uneven, it is first levelled: their camp is also four-square by measure, and carpenters are ready, in great numbers, with their tools, to erect their buildings for them." To this end a marching column ported the equipment needed to build and stock the camp in a baggage train of wagons and on the backs of the soldiers. The camp allowed the Romans to keep a rested and supplied army in the field. Neither the Celtic nor Germanic armies had this capability: they found it necessary to disperse after only a few days.

1283: 1170: 2047: 1178: 1343: 1291: 1259: 2276: 1608: 1758: 1944: 60: 1734: 5918: 1323:). Streets and other features were marked with coloured pennants or rods. Richardson writes that from the aspect ratio of the castra one could determine the order of battle, and the size of the legion it housed determined the area of the camp. Steinhoff theorizes that Richardson has identified a commonality and builds on the latter's detailed studies to suggest that North African encampments in the time of 1451: 2449: 1467: 29: 1839: 2596: 500: 2432:). Some of these have survived engraved on stone. Typically they certify that the veteran, his wife (one per veteran) and children or his sweetheart were now Roman citizens, which is a good indication that troops, which were used chiefly on the frontier, were from peoples elsewhere on the frontier who wished to earn Roman citizenship. However, under 2074:. In it were located all the resources of nature and the terrain required by the base: pastures, woodlots, water sources, stone quarries, mines, exercise fields and attached villages. The central castra might also support various fortified adjuncts to the main base, which were not self-sustaining as was the base. In this category were 2024:. A public latrine consisted of a bank of seats situated over a channel of running water. One of the major considerations for selecting the site of a camp was the presence of running water, which the engineers diverted into the sanitary channels. Drinking water came from wells; however, the larger and more permanent bases featured the 1036: 2436:, citizenship was no longer granted to the children of rank-and-file veterans, the privilege becoming restricted only to officers. Veterans often went into business in the communities near a base. They became permanent members of the community and would stay on after the troops were withdrawn, as in the notable case of 1096:, "chief engineers", who requisitioned manual labor from the soldiers at large as required. A unit could throw up a camp under enemy attack in as little as a few hours. Judging from the names, they probably used a repertory of camp plans, selecting the one appropriate to the length of time a legion would spend in it: 1246:. Alan Richardson compares both original authors and concludes that "the Hyginian model greatly reduced the area and perimeter length for any given force." P. Fl. Vegetius Renatus has a small section on entrenched camps as well. The terminology varies, but the basic plan is the same. The hypothesis of an 2477:

and were approximately the equivalent of colonels. The six tribunes were divided into units of two, with each unit being responsible for filling the position of officer of the day for two months. The two men of a unit decided among themselves who would take what day. They could alternate days or each

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The ideal plan was typically modified to suit the terrain and the circumstances. Each camp discovered by archaeology has its own specific layout and architectural features, which makes sense from a military point of view. If, for example, the camp was built on an outcrop, it followed the lines of the

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All the major bases near rivers featured some sort of fortified naval installation, one side of which was formed by the river or lake. The other sides were formed by a polygonal wall and ditch constructed in the usual way, with gates and watchtowers. The main internal features were the boat sheds and

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A covered portico might protect the walkway along the tents. If barracks had been constructed, one company was housed in one barracks building, with the arms at one end and the common area at the other. The company area was used for cooking and recreation such as gaming. The army provisioned the men

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Apart from the training, each soldier had a regular job on the base, of which there was a large variety from the various kinds of clerk to the craftsmen. Soldiers changed jobs frequently. The commander's policy was to have all the soldiers skilled in all the arts and crafts so that they could be as

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If this is the civilian interpretation, the military version must be "military reservation", a piece of land cut off from the common land around it and modified for military use. All castra must be defended by works, often no more than a stockade, for which the soldiers carried stakes, and a ditch.

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For soldiers, the main agendum was a vigorous training session lasting about a watch long. Recruits received two, one in the morning and one in the afternoon. Planning and supervision of training were under a general staff officer, who might manage training at several camps. According to Vegetius,

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Activities conducted in a castra can be divided into ordinary and "the duty" or "the watch". Ordinary activity was performed during regular working hours. The duty was associated with operating the installation as a military facility. For example, none of the soldiers was required to man the walls

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Regulations required a major unit in the field to retire to a properly constructed camp every day. "… as soon as they have marched into an enemy's land, they do not begin to fight until they have walled their camp about; nor is the fence they raise rashly made, or uneven; nor do they all abide ill

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Officers were allowed to marry and to reside with their families on base. The army did not extend the same privileges to the men, who were not allowed to marry. However, they often kept common law families off base in communities nearby. The communities might be native, as the tribesmen tended to

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more permanent castra with wooden or stone buildings and walls were introduced as the distant and hard-won boundaries of the expanding empire required permanent garrisons to control local and external threats from warlike tribes. Previously, legions were raised for specific military campaigns and

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In the northern places like Britain, where it got cold in the winter, they would make wood or stone barracks. The Romans would also put a fireplace in the barracks. They had about three bunk beds in it. They had a small room beside it where they put their armour; it was as big as the tents. They

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The ideal enforced a linear plan for a camp or fort: a square for camps to contain one legion or smaller unit, a rectangle for two legions, each legion being placed back-to-back with headquarters next to each other. The religious devotion of the Romans to geometry caused them to build into their

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in Britain gives us a glimpse of some supply transactions. They record, among other things, the purchase of consumables and raw supplies, the storage and repair of clothing and other items, and the sale of items, including foodstuffs, to achieve an income. Vindolanda traded vigorously with the

2352:, from which English "camp" derives. Its surface could be lightly paved. Winter curtailed outdoor training. The general might in that case have sheds constructed, which served as field houses for training. There is archaeological evidence in one case of an indoor equestrian ring. 35: 34: 31: 30: 36: 2954:

Bell (2001) linked in External links, General, favors the view that the Greeks either influenced the Romans directly in the choice of the quadrangular plan or influenced the Etruscans, who influenced the Romans. The Greek theory certainly does not exclude an Indo-European

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Each soldier was taught the use of every weapon and also was taught to ride. Seamanship was taught at naval bases. Soldiers were generalists in the military and construction arts. They practiced archery, spear-throwing and above all swordsmanship against posts

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or "chosen men", of which there were many different kinds. For example, a skilled artisan might be chosen to superintend a workshop. Soldiers were also expected to build the camp upon arrival before engaging in any sort of warfare after a day's march.

1634:. Marching through it and down "headquarters street" a unit ended up in formation in front of the headquarters. The standards of the legion were located on display there, very much like the flag of modern camps. On the other side of the praetorium the 3190:

Verboven, pages 15-17, under External links, Camp life. The author states estimates of coinage passing hands at various locations. A soldier received pay less deductions for expenses. He could borrow from or invest with the first bankers, the

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Below are a number of links to sites reporting or summarizing current research or thinking. Many are reprints of articles made available to the public at no charge. The historical researcher will find their bibliographies of great interest.

2004:, or company commander, had a double-sized tent for his quarters, which served also as official company area. Other than there, the men had to find other places to be. To avoid mutiny, it was important for the officers to keep them busy. 2365: 1684:

In peaceful times the camp set up a marketplace with the natives in the area. They were allowed into the camp as far as the units numbered 5 (half-way to the praetorium). There another street crossed the camp at right angles to the

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the docks. When not in use, the boats were drawn up into the sheds for maintenance and protection. Since the camp was placed to best advantage on a hill or slope near the river, the naval base was usually outside its walls. The

3081:, "tenth part" or "tenfold". As tenfold, it meant "immense." As tenth part, it also meant "across", such as a cross-path or cross-boundary. In surveying it was the first line drawn, after noting the position of the sun at 2121:

The streets, gates and buildings present depended on the requirements and resources of the camp. The gates might vary from two to six and not be centred on the sides. Not all the streets and buildings might be present.

1319:, a sighting device consisting of a vertical staff with horizontal cross pieces and vertical plumb-lines. Ideally the process started in the centre of the planned camp at the site of the headquarters tent or building ( 2552:. In addition were special guards and details. One post was typically filled by four men, one sentinel and the others at ease until a situation arose or it was their turn to be sentinel. Some of the details were: 1482:

Every camp included "main street", which ran through the camp in a north–south direction and was very wide. The names of streets in many cities formerly occupied by the Romans suggest that the street was called

2408:, had to be qualified physicians. They were allowed medical students, practitioners and whatever orderlies they needed; i.e., the military hospitals were medical schools and places of residency as well. 2030:, a structure running a stream captured from high ground (sometimes miles away) into the camp. The praetorium had its own latrine and probably the quarters of the high-ranking officers. In or near the 1994:. Of the c. 9.2 square metres of bunk space each man received 0.9, or about 0.6 by 1.5 m, which was only practical if they slept with heads to the aisle. The single tent with its men was called 1079:

was designed to house and protect the soldiers, their equipment and supplies when they were not fighting or marching. The most detailed description that survives about Roman military camps is

5312: 2012:) baked in outdoor ovens, but the men were responsible for cooking and serving themselves. They could buy meals or supplementary foods at the canteen. The officers were allowed servants. 2233:, the eight watches into which the 24-hour day was divided so they stood guard for three hours that day. The Romans used signals on brass instruments to mark time. These were mainly the 2799:

Ramsay's classic article, linked under External links, General, below, covers types of camps and camps in general. This Knowledge article is heavily indebted but not exclusively to it.

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of the naval installation relied on the camp for its permanent defense. Naval personnel generally enjoyed better quarters and facilities. Many were civilians working for the military.

528: 6068: 1389:) was erected. The soldiers had to carry these stakes on the march. Over the course of time, the palisade might be replaced by a brick or stone wall, and the ditch served also as a 1421:). The Romans were masters of geometry and showed it in their camps: a modern study shows that the intervallum "was 1/16th of the square root of the area it enclosed in the fort." 32: 3754: 1983:

of facing tents centered in its 9 m strip. Arms could be stacked before the tents and baggage carts kept there as well. Space on the other side of the tent was for passage.

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A 2nd declension neuter noun. According to Lewis & Short, dictionary item linked in External links, General, either the singular or plural form was used – the plural form,

2114:) for the animals. In case of attack, arrows, javelins and sling missiles could be fired down at an enemy tiring himself to come up. For defence, troops could be formed in an 3491:

Books I-III only. The unknown editor altered the translation "to conform to modern usage" and abbreviated the text. Access is by subtitle. Search only within subsection.

1815:, where courts martial and arbitrations were conducted (it had a raised platform), the guardhouse, the quarters of various kinds of staff and the storehouses for grain ( 1827:

were located near the barracks and the meat was stored on the hoof. Analysis of sewage from latrines indicates the legionary diet was mainly grain. Also located in the

2384:, minted their own coins. As does any business, the base quaestorium required careful record keeping, performed mainly by the optiones. A chance cache of tablets from 707:, an estate, or tract of land. This is not any land but is a prepared or cultivated tract, such as a farm enclosed by a fence or a wooden or stone wall of some kind. 2034:, where they could easily be accessed, were the latrines of the soldiers. A public bathhouse for the soldiers, also containing a latrine, was located near or on the 1990:

A tent was 3 by 3.5 metres (0.6 m for the aisle), ten men per tent. Ideally a company took 10 tents, arranged in a line of 10 companies, with the 10th near the

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Spain was especially heavily colonized by veterans, who Romanized the language and the architecture. Refer to Miranda (2002) under External links, Camp life, below.

3667:"Castra et urbs romana: An Examination of the Common Features of Roman Settlements in Italy and the Empire and a System to aid in the Discovery of their Origins" 1161:

subsequently disbanded, requiring only temporary castra. From then on many castra of various sizes were established, many of which became permanent settlements.

5955: 3962:"Good for Business. The Roman Army and the Emergence of a 'Business Class' in the Northwestern Provinces of the Roman Empire (1st century BCE - 3rd century CE)" 2329:

the men might take a 32 kilometres (20 mi) hike or a 68 kilometres (42 mi) jog under full pack, or swim a river. Marching drill was always in order.

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in tax revenues. This is a change of meaning from the reflexes in other languages, which still mean some sort of knife, axe, or spear. Pokorny explains it as

6497: 2489:) of the many kinds of detail were distributed to the men by all the methods considered fair and democratic: lot, rotation and negotiation. Certain kinds of 2299:

call at daybreak, the first watch of the day. The soldiers arose at this time and shortly after gathered in the company area for breakfast and assembly. The

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take a month. One filled in for the other in case of illness. On his day, the tribune effectively commanded the camp and was even respected as such by the

2337:) fixed in the ground. Training was taken very seriously and was democratic. Ordinary soldiers would see all the officers training with them including the 1153:

held eight soldiers to a room, who slept on bunkbeds. The soldiers in each room were also required to cook their own meals and eat with their "roommates".

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A. RICHARDSON: The Orientation of Roman Camps and Forts. October 2005 Oxford Journal of Archaeology 24(4):415 - 426 DOI:10.1111/j.1468-0092.2005.00244.x

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Duncan B. Campbell, "Women in Roman forts: Residents, visitors or barred from entry?", Ancient Warfare, vol. IV (2010), issue 6, pp. 48-53, cf. p. 50

2118:, or "battle-line", outside the gates where they could be easily resupplied and replenished as well as being supported by archery from the palisade. 6502: 4025: 3879: 2848:

The army and frontiers of Rome. Papers offered to David Breeze on the occasion of his sixty-fifth birthday and his retirement from Historic Scotland

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Conducted in parallel with the ordinary activities was "the duty", the official chores required by the camp under strict military discipline. The

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was ultimately responsible for them as he was for the entire camp, but he delegated the duty to a tribune chosen as officer of the day. The line

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made of hide or cloth, and all but the most permanent bases housed the men in tents placed in quadrangles and separated by numbered streets, one

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outcrop. The terrain for which it was best suited and for which it was probably designed in distant prehistoric times was the rolling plain.

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Richardson, A. (2001). The order of battle in the Roman army: EVIDENCE FROM MARCHING CAMPS. Oxford J Archaeol 20 (2). Vol 20(2), pp. 171-185.

2255:. As they did not possess valves for regulating the pitch, the range of these instruments was somewhat limited. Nevertheless, the musicians ( 7900: 7879: 7754: 6907: 2147: 1917:. By the late empire it had developed also into a safekeep for plunder and a prison for hostages and high-ranking enemy captives. Near the 1236:

From the most ancient times Roman camps were constructed according to a certain ideal pattern, formally described in two main sources, the

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The influence of a base extended far beyond its walls. The total land required for the maintenance of a permanent base was called its

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could be prepared under attack within a hollow square or behind a battle line. Considering that the earliest military shelters were

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A link to the Vindolanda tablets database with introductions, descriptions and bibliography is given under Primary sources below.

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The camp was best placed on the summit and along the side of a low hill, with spring water running in rivulets through the camp (

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site, linked under External links, General, below, matches military terms of all periods of ancient Rome to English equivalents.

2259:, "brassmen") managed to define enough signals for issuing commands. The instrument used to mark the passage of a watch was the 6080: 6013: 5747: 3016:

THEORETICAL APPROACHES TO ROMAN CAMP AND FORT DESIGN: AN EXAMINATION OF THE FRONTIERS IN BRITAIN AND NORTH AFRICA UNDER HADRIAN

1642:. In theory this was the back gate. Supplies were supposed to come in through it and so it was also called, descriptively, the 162: 3798: 6834: 6759: 6517: 3866:. Article republished on Bill Thayer's LacusCurtius site, which has the advantage of linking to ancient texts cited by Smith. 3642: 1996: 1149:

containing barracks and other buildings of more solid materials, with timber construction gradually being replaced by stone.

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meant 'camp'. The singular and plural forms could refer in Latin to either a building or plot of land, used as a fortified

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commonly translates to "Roman fort", "Roman camp" and "Roman fortress". However, scholastic convention tends to translate

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Verboven describes the process. A veteran with a certain skill continued it as a contractor for the army. For example, a

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interchangeable as possible. Even then the goal was not entirely achievable. The gap was bridged by the specialists, the

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is the hinge line of a door and therefore is any main axis. In surveying it was the line drawn across (at 90° using a

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camps whole-numbered right triangles. Laying it out was a geometric exercise conducted by experienced officers called

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built as bases for one or more whole legions. Summer was the campaign season. For the winter the soldiers retired to

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as fortified outposts to be manned by cavalry protecting a supply route; i.e., a base from which to conduct patrols.

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The duty year was divided into time slices, typically one or two months, which were apportioned to units, typically

2416:) of dependents and businessmen. Dependants were not allowed to follow an army on the march into hostile territory. 2130:

Many settlements in Europe originated as Roman military camps and still show traces of their original pattern (e.g.

1497:. The central portion was used as a parade ground and headquarters area. The "headquarters" building was called the 7829: 7493: 7385: 7155: 6927: 6749: 6657: 6522: 6465: 4903: 3857: 3703: 2760: 2691:, 3.8. In Clark's translation, section 3.8, we find "Rules for Encamping an Army", last paragraph. "Small fort" is 2609: 1393:. A legion-sized camp placed towers at intervals along the wall with positions between for the division artillery. 211: 2744:

Lewis & Short under External links, General, as well as many uncited Latin dictionaries, make this suggestion.

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in Sicily, the ancient Lilybaeum, where the name of the main street, the Cassaro, perpetuates the name "castrum".

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Hanel, Norbert (2007). "Military camps, canabae and vici: The archaeological evidence". In Erdkamp, Paul (ed.).

7905: 7450: 7360: 6869: 6849: 6844: 6829: 6782: 6722: 6677: 6479: 5849: 4927: 3986: 2046: 1169: 421: 76: 1971:("natives"), who were auxiliaries of foreign troops, and the legionaries in double rows of tents or barracks ( 1364:("wall"), which could be constructed under the protection of the legion in battle formation if necessary. The 1177: 1092:

Camps were the responsibility of engineering units to which specialists of many types belonged, officered by

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The equivalent concept of the duties performed in modern camps is roughly the detail. The responsibilities (

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The Impact of the Roman Army (200 BC - AD 476). Economic, Social, Political, Religious and Cultural Aspects

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was then drawn across it at right angles. This was necessary, because the ancient Romans did not have the

2714: 2473: 2280: 940: 770: 609: 288: 137: 7834: 7764: 7588: 7340: 7140: 7135: 6932: 6839: 6764: 6727: 6712: 6687: 6667: 6569: 5874: 5712: 5494: 5247: 4984: 4807: 4136: 3458: 1902:, the official pennants of the legion and its units). Troops who did not fit elsewhere also were there. 1843: 1247: 1141: 910: 656: 387: 123: 1878:("workshop", metals and wood), and further to the front the quarters of special forces. These included 1290: 1258: 3373: 3336:. Centre for the Study of Ancient Documents, Academic Computing Development Team at Oxford University. 2279:

The pillars supported a raised floor to keep food dry and free from vermin in the northern granary at

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all the time, but round-the-clock duty required a portion of the soldiers to be on duty at any time.

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or base commander ("first officer"), and his staff. In the camp of a full legion he held the rank of

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were assigned certain classes or types of troops; for example, wall sentries were chosen only from

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were required to assemble. The regimental commanders, the tribunes, were already converging on the

1607: 964: 504: 228: 1493:. This name applies more to cities than it does to ancient camps. Typically "main street" was the 7824: 7548: 7355: 7210: 7150: 7070: 7013: 6877: 6113: 6092: 5798: 5407: 5382: 5367: 5362: 5212: 5192: 4989: 4550: 4417: 4161: 3845: 2170: 2162: 473: 20: 7463: 3929:: History Honors Society, UCLA Theta Upsilon Chapter, UCLA Department of History. Archived from 3715: 1330:

The street plans of various present-day cities still retain traces of a Roman camp, for example

3571: 1757: 1085:, a manuscript of 11 pages that dates most probably from the late 1st to early 2nd century AD. 7458: 7310: 7065: 7025: 7003: 6211: 5854: 5813: 5788: 5661: 5342: 5182: 5029: 4615: 4493: 4171: 4114: 3976: 3916:"Castra et Coloniae: The Role of the Roman Army in the Romanization and Urbanization of Spain" 3598: 3575: 3548: 3529: 3507: 3439: 3403: 3341: 3014: 2831: 2457: 2288: 1672: 1227:, at Rainau-Buch, Germany. An ancient watchtower would have been surrounded by wall and ditch. 1194: 480: 346: 335: 7523: 7483: 7415: 7350: 7275: 7270: 7042: 6965: 6912: 6707: 6702: 6591: 6450: 6399: 6359: 6329: 6324: 6319: 6309: 6231: 6178: 6171: 6156: 6151: 6075: 6003: 5828: 5803: 5732: 5656: 5257: 5252: 5187: 4738: 4542: 4121: 3763: 3563: 2977: 2924: 2528:. They were always allowed to negotiate who took the duty and when. The most common kind of 2419: 1943: 928: 652: 648: 586: 457: 446: 361: 80: 3945: 2412:

build around a permanent base for purposes of trade, but also the base sponsored villages (

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The supply administration was run as a business using money as the medium of exchange. The

7618: 7430: 7410: 7370: 7305: 7255: 7250: 7125: 7075: 6983: 6817: 6797: 6717: 6166: 5991: 5717: 5569: 5542: 5482: 5452: 5337: 5302: 5282: 5267: 4822: 4817: 4785: 4546: 4488: 4476: 4458: 4325: 4306: 4232: 4209: 3941: 3926: 3612: 3313: 3046: 1316: 708: 698: 451: 429: 372: 44: 3431: 3326: 3356: 1884:("marines", as most European camps were on rivers and contained a river naval command), 7673: 7315: 7050: 6998: 6970: 6917: 6902: 6882: 6697: 6672: 6629: 6619: 6445: 6419: 6349: 6334: 6299: 6259: 6020: 5886: 5881: 5547: 5532: 5467: 5457: 5332: 5317: 5217: 5207: 5172: 5046: 4839: 4536: 4503: 4467: 4283: 4141: 4105: 3968: 3591: 3098: 2731: 2433: 2428: 2377: 2214: 2210: 2026: 1475: 1275: 1012: 970: 876: 722: 660: 644: 542: 466: 436: 397: 3789: 3650: 2968:

Richardson, Alan (2002). "Camps and forts of units and formations of the Roman army".

1858:, the quarters of officers who were below general but higher than company commanders ( 7894: 7205: 7175: 7090: 6624: 6601: 6414: 6269: 6254: 6201: 6008: 5891: 5844: 5752: 5742: 5696: 5666: 5651: 5620: 5601: 5462: 5402: 5357: 5272: 5231: 5041: 4674: 4669: 4402: 4365: 4350: 4301: 4246: 4225: 4034: 3871: 3830:"Pinnata Castra: Roman Legionary Fortress & Marching Camps: Inchtuthill, Tayside" 3564: 2437: 2376:

was the preferred coin of the late republic and early empire; in the late empire the

2059: 1750: 1537: 1381: 1190: 1007: 682: 617: 582: 574: 441: 413: 341: 40: 3829: 3806: 3478:. Clarke, Lieutenant John (translator); unknown editor. Brevik, Mads. Archived from 7683: 7543: 6988: 6937: 6892: 6887: 6739: 6549: 6435: 6379: 6374: 6264: 6146: 6030: 5964: 5869: 5727: 5691: 5646: 5630: 5558: 5511: 5487: 5477: 5472: 5287: 5104: 4965: 4932: 4797: 4733: 4708: 4620: 4594: 4562: 4556: 4498: 4437: 4407: 4255: 3127:

Sims, Lesley: "Roman Soldier's Handbook", page 55-56. Usborne Publishing Ltd, 2004.

2674:, p. 4. Included is a discussion about the typologies of Roman fortifications. 2245: 1890: 1746: 1738: 1733: 1511: 1450: 952: 605: 546: 3737: 3033:

were not just simple stakes. Three or four branches were left on for interlocking.

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See Hanson and Friel (1995) under External links, Forts and fortifications, below.

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M. C. Bishop, Handbook to Roman Legionary Fortresses, Pen & Sword, Hbk 208 pp

1541:, a small duplicate of an urban forum, where public business could be conducted. 3946:"Marriage, Families and Survival in the Roman Imperial Army: Demographic Aspects" 3674: 3479: 1987:

would make these barracks if the fort they had was going to stay there for good.

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received the password and the orders of the day. They brought those back to the

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in front of the barracks of the units they commanded. The central region of the

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is much more frequently used as a proper name for geographical locations: e.g.,

351: 242: 3821: 3545:

Roman Forts of the 1st and 2nd centuries AD in Britain and the German Provinces

3167: 2448: 2344:

Swordsmanship lessons and use of the shooting range probably took place on the

1466: 7703: 7643: 7608: 7400: 7335: 7325: 7220: 7105: 6993: 6576: 6544: 6289: 6216: 6048: 6043: 5793: 5773: 5613: 5585: 5516: 5392: 5347: 5277: 5197: 5094: 4999: 4939: 4898: 4876: 4827: 4773: 4723: 4718: 4703: 4662: 4610: 4568: 4513: 4355: 4318: 4271: 3317: 2591: 2385: 2251: 2198: 2194: 2186: 2174: 2150:

following strict rules by the Spanish monarchy for founding new cities in the

1880: 1499: 906: 718: 382: 157: 147: 103: 3767: 3391: 2161:

in their names, usually as the suffixes "-caster", "-cester" or "-chester" –

2062:). Each doorway provides entry to a large room, the sleeping quarters of one 2000:, also used for "squad". A squad during some periods was 8 men or fewer. The 7733: 7728: 7688: 7613: 7583: 7563: 7440: 7380: 7290: 7240: 7235: 7160: 7120: 7008: 6978: 6787: 6662: 6455: 6339: 6314: 6193: 5202: 5133: 4960: 4955: 4888: 4529: 4442: 4372: 4330: 4156: 4126: 4087: 4053: 2981: 2928: 2300: 2182: 2178: 2166: 2151: 2139: 1959:). It is placed cross-slope with a slight decline and then exits down-slope. 1931: 1517: 622: 367: 48: 3901:(2010). "Women in Roman forts: Residents, visitors or barred from entry?". 2846:

see W.S. Hanson 2009 Building the forts and frontiers, in W.S. Hanson (ed)

626:

was used for fortlets, typically occupied by a detachment of a cohort or a

3726:. Note that both Latin and Greek terms with the same meaning are included. 3463:

Selections, Latin and English juxtaposed by paragraph. Translator unknown.

1838: 1835:, a long shed containing any heavy weapons and artillery not on the wall. 1375:), throwing the excavated material inward, to be formed into the rampart ( 7693: 7678: 7668: 7653: 7568: 7558: 7528: 7518: 7513: 7503: 7405: 7320: 7200: 7185: 7115: 7095: 7085: 7080: 7060: 6859: 6440: 6404: 6294: 6221: 6053: 5686: 5681: 5606: 5447: 5165: 5140: 5123: 5053: 4994: 4922: 4915: 4758: 4646: 4520: 4340: 4335: 4311: 4239: 4219: 4199: 4166: 3618:

A Grammar of the Latin Language from Plautus to Suetonius: Second Edition

3369: 3300: 2684: 2525: 1948: 1926: 1531: 1459: 1243: 1157: 920: 892: 888: 628: 675:("cutting tool"). These Italic reflexes based on *kastrom include Oscan 7713: 7708: 7698: 7663: 7658: 7648: 7593: 7578: 7395: 7390: 7375: 7345: 7300: 7280: 7260: 7215: 6947: 6802: 6581: 6389: 6384: 6274: 5818: 5783: 5778: 5116: 5099: 5084: 5068: 5020: 4948: 4893: 4883: 4851: 4753: 4728: 4713: 4483: 4427: 4345: 4192: 4185: 4131: 3094: 3082: 3054: 2564: 2514: 2502: 2423: 2364: 2309: 2235: 2190: 2131: 2021: 1956: 1899: 1808: 1742: 1620: 1616: 1569: 1505: 1331: 1324: 1271: 960: 944: 613: 132: 5933: 3199:, whose business was to supply the legion with money for a percentage. 2902:

pages 313-368 in Thayer's Loeb's Polybius under Primary sources below.

1354:

The castrum's special structure also defended from attacks. The base (

7723: 7603: 7533: 7473: 7468: 7435: 7195: 7180: 7130: 7110: 6409: 6304: 5823: 5177: 4743: 4681: 4625: 4603: 4580: 4573: 4449: 4432: 4264: 4078: 4048: 3265:, a supplier of swords. There were a large number of such names: the 3118:

had other meanings in other contexts, such as governor or ambassador.

3053:, which was the first line drawn based on the position of the sun at 2373: 2209:

or "little fort", but does not usually indicate a former Roman camp.

2202: 2135: 2055: 1766: 1360: 1347: 1219: 1186: 2756:"A Camp in search of a Campaign: The reality of Hyginus' Roman army" 2213:

however is an exception, referring to the Roman fort of Epiacum in

1584:). It was actually a square, as across this at right angles to the 1035: 7508: 7230: 6957: 6249: 5864: 5808: 5552: 5077: 4908: 4748: 4069: 2755: 2572: 2447: 2363: 2317:. There the general staff planned the day. At a staff meeting the 2274: 2143: 2045: 1942: 1837: 1803: 1756: 1732: 1606: 1485: 1465: 1449: 1438: 1409:, which served to catch enemy missiles, as an access route to the 1368:

was quadrangular, aligned on the cardinal points of the compass.

1341: 1289: 1281: 1257: 1204: 1176: 1168: 1034: 956: 948: 846: 550: 4003: 3305: 3029:

Smith (1875) under External links, Forts and fortifications. The

569:) was a military-related term. In Latin usage, the singular form 7718: 7285: 7225: 6807: 6183: 4846: 4688: 4655: 4630: 4422: 4412: 4381: 4360: 3086: 2659:. Via Dickinson College Commentaries. Retrieved 14 October 2021. 1390: 882: 752: 5937: 4007: 2850:, JRA Supplementary Series 74, Portsmouth, Rhode Island, 33-43. 1701:, the fifth). If the camp needed more gates, one or two of the 1646:. The term Decumana, "of the 10th", came from the arranging of 1521:

but officers of lesser ranks might command. On one side of the

919:, "son of the camps", was one of the names used by the emperor 19:

This article is about the Latin term. For the star system, see

6279: 3710:. John Murray, republished on Bill Thayer's LacusCurtius site. 3286:

Forman, Joan: "The Romans", p. 15. Macdonald educational. 1975

2915:

Richardson, Alan (2003). "Space and Manpower in Roman Camps".

1432:. Inside of the legionary quarters was a peripheral road, the 2497:. Soldiers could be temporarily or permanently exempted: the 996: 982: 3424:

Tombstone of Anicius Ingenuus, Museum of Antiquities Website

2821:

Roman Legionary Fortresses 27BC-378AD, D.B.Campbell, Osprey.

2157:

Many of the towns of England still retain forms of the word

2020:

For sanitary facilities, a camp had both public and private

1654:

from the first to the 10th, such that the 10th was near the

1428:, which they could rapidly cross to take up position on the 3738:"Antonine Wall Fort: Bearsden, New Kilpatrick, Strathclyde" 2325:, who returned to their company areas to instruct the men. 1979:

was as long as required and 18 m wide. In it were two

1424:

Legionaries were quartered in a peripheral zone inside the

3472:"The Military Institutions of the Romans (De Re Militari)" 1769:, but the longitudinal supports for the floor can be seen. 3708:

William Smith A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities

1604:

offered another division of the camp into four quarters.

1576:

with the buildings for the command staff was called the

3455:"Flavius Vegetius Renatus Epitoma Rei Militaris Book I" 2392:

Another feature of the camp was the military hospital (

963:, either by itself or in various compounds such as the 2263:, from which the trumpet derives. It was sounded by a 701:). They have the same meaning, says Pokorny, as Latin 3755:

Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland

3334:

Vindolanda Tablets Online: The Roman Army: Activities

2719:(in German). Vol. 2. Bern: Francke. p. 586. 2422:

was for about 25 years. At the end of that time, the

3822:"Nidum: Roman Auxiliary Fort: Neath, West Glamorgan" 3747:"Westerton: A Roman Watchtower on the Gask Frontier" 3593:

The Making of the Roman Army from Republic to Empire

3221:, a medicus ordinarius, under Primary sources below. 1131:, "summer camps", in which the soldiers were housed 7742: 7636: 7449: 7041: 7034: 6956: 6868: 6773: 6648: 6600: 6478: 6428: 6367: 6358: 6240: 6192: 6112: 6029: 5990: 5837: 5761: 5705: 5639: 5525: 5430: 5240: 5151: 4867: 4860: 4292: 4041: 3396:

Military Diploma of Discharge and Roman Citizenship

3239:

Scheidel pages 2-8 under External links, Camp life.

3590: 3105:was "cross street" than that it was "10th street." 1358:, "fortification") was placed entirely within the 597:as "fort", "camp", "marching camp" or "fortress". 3724:The Romans in Britain, Glossary of Military terms 3673:. Classical Association of Canada. Archived from 3378:The Loeb Classical Library, Volume III Section VI 3230:Scheidel page 14 under External links, Camp life. 3157:Vegetius Book I, linked in Primary sources below. 1638:continued to the wall, where it went through the 3975:. Leiden & Boston: Brill. pp. 295–314. 3923:Quaestio: The UCLA Undergraduate History Journal 3019:. Vancouver: THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA. 2963: 2961: 2910: 2908: 2426:was given a certificate of honorable discharge ( 1560:("left, etc."), which were gates fortified with 1442:, a kind of cloak, was the garment of soldiers. 761:may well have acquired the connotation of tent. 4275: 3277:for the salted vegetable concession, and so on. 2695:, which Vegetius explains as the diminutive of 869:. The plural was also used as a place name, as 604:for different sizes of camps – including large 4837: 4783: 4601: 4447: 2563:guarding and maintaining the quarters of each 1197:. Note the battlements, the Roman arches, the 976: 968: 5949: 5492: 5222: 5051: 5027: 4644: 4635: 4592: 4316: 4112: 4103: 4019: 3953:Princeton/Stanford Working Papers in Classics 3671:CAC Undergraduate Essay Contest for 2000-2001 3374:"The Histories (English translation) Book VI" 3304: 2205:has the same derivation, from the diminutive 1921:were the quarters of the headquarters guard ( 1630:) to the east or west was the main gate, the 926: 692: 686: 522: 8: 5611: 5592: 5583: 5574: 5163: 5138: 5114: 5075: 5066: 5018: 5004: 4975: 4946: 4937: 4913: 4874: 4679: 4660: 4578: 4527: 4518: 4474: 4465: 4456: 4393: 4379: 4370: 4253: 4230: 2667: 2665: 2532:were the posts of the sentinels, called the 1535:(supply officer). On the other side was the 1436:, probably a type of "service road", as the 741:, "a lager, as a cut-off piece of land"> 736: 670: 664: 620:, and "marching" forts. The diminutive form 4262: 4244: 4190: 4176: 4094: 4085: 4076: 4067: 4058: 3862:A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities 3444:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list ( 3408:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list ( 3346:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list ( 2400:). Augustus instituted the first permanent 1781:divided the camp into three districts: the 1350:. Note the classical "playing-card" layout. 1307:, who used graduated measuring rods called 1022: 1016: 934: 914: 880: 870: 864: 858: 852: 843: 837: 831: 819: 813: 803: 793: 783: 774: 756: 746: 726: 712: 702: 676: 7038: 6364: 5996: 5956: 5942: 5934: 4864: 4026: 4012: 4004: 2716:Indogermanisches Etymologisches Wörterbuch 1935:was present they served as his bodyguard. 1909:("stretching to the rear") closest to the 1854:("stretching to the front") contained the 1327:were based on the same geometrical skill. 663:traces a probable derivation from *k̂es-, 655:, suggesting an origin at least as old as 529: 515: 311: 281: 207: 99: 54: 2380:came into use. The larger bases, such as 1139:, "under tents". The largest castra were 2671: 1379:). On top of this a palisade of stakes ( 738:'Lager' als 'abgeschnittenes Stück Land' 27: 16:Roman term for a fortified military base 3647:Illustrated History of the Roman Empire 3153: 3151: 2631: 2556:guarding, cleaning and maintaining the 2452:The remains of the southern granary at 1568:were the homes or tents of the several 210: 146: 102: 75: 47:visualised 3D flythrough, produced for 3882:. bulgariancastles.com. Archived from 3716:"Introduction to Roman Military Camps" 3504:Handbook to Roman Legionary Fortresses 3437: 3401: 3339: 2548:, advance positions before the gates, 2110:) and pastureland to provide grazing ( 3844:. Exeter City Council. Archived from 2871:from the original on November 8, 2021 1371:The construction crews dug a trench ( 1123:). The least permanent of these were 7: 3864:. London: John Murray. p. 1183. 3745:Hanson, W.S.; Friel, J.G.P. (1995). 3689:Lewis, Charlton T.; Short, Charles. 3597:. New York: Barnes and Noble Books. 3547:. London: Adam & Charles Black. 3418:Unknown inscriber (3rd century AD). 2642:, had a possible meaning of "tents". 5418:Weapons Storage and Security System 3325:Population of Vindolanda (100 AD). 3145:Roby under Secondary sources below. 2570:tending the horses of each cavalry 2303:were up before them and off to the 1737:Model of the legionary fortress of 1713:. If the gates were not built, the 1413:and as a storage space for cattle ( 1401:Around the inside periphery of the 560: 3803:Livius articles on ancient history 3649:. roman-empire.net. Archived from 3526:Roman Auxiliary Forts 27 BC-AD 378 2790:. III.5.1, trans. William Whiston. 2341:or the emperor if he was in camp. 2082:, "small camps", and naval bases. 14: 3621:. London: Macmillan. p. 453. 3382:Web publication on Bill Thayer's 3219:The Tombstone of Anicius Ingenuus 3097:to determine the position of the 2126:Quadrangular camps in later times 1662:on that side might take the name 923:and then also by other emperors. 5917: 5916: 3468:Publius Flavius Vegetius Renatus 2615:Military history of ancient Rome 2594: 2295:Ordinary camp life began with a 2146:). The pattern was also used by 1446:Streets, gates and central plaza 1063:Porta Praetoria (main gate); (6) 498: 58: 3566:The Companion to the Roman Army 3457:. Armamentarium. Archived from 3085:in order to know exactly where 2402:medical corps in the Roman army 1067:Porta Principalis Sinistra; (7) 3697:. The Perseus Digital Library. 3570:. Oxford: Blackwell. pp. 2368:An aureus of the late republic 608:fortresses, smaller forts for 1: 5313:British "hedgehog" road block 3528:. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. 3261:or maker of swords, became a 3013:STEINHOFF, JOHN PAUL (2019). 2970:Oxford Journal of Archaeology 2917:Oxford Journal of Archaeology 2861:"The Life of a Roman Soldier" 2148:Spanish colonizers in America 2066:, or "squad" of about 10 men. 1725:a public market was allowed. 1705:were built, presumably named 1556:("right principal gate") and 1454:Reconstructed east gate of a 1173:Plan of a typical Roman fort. 1059:Porta Principalis Dextra; (5) 393:Upper Germanic-Rhaetian Limes 6528:Frontiers and fortifications 3805:. livius.org. Archived from 2941:An extensive lexicon at the 2754:Campbell, Duncan B. (2009). 2050:Reconstructed barracks of a 1458:, a more permanent base, at 1039:Basic ideal plan of a Roman 773:(here phrases) for the term 307:Frontiers and fortifications 7901:Ancient Roman city planning 6587:Decorations and punishments 5723:Cities with defensive walls 5308:Defensive fighting position 5223: 5028: 4838: 4784: 4645: 4636: 4602: 4593: 4448: 3960:Verboven, Koenraad (2007). 3506:. Barnsley: Pen and Sword. 3390:Roman government (160 AD). 3357:"De Munitionibus Castrorum" 3077:) derives most likely from 3061:would certainly be a cardo. 2229:Duty time was divided into 1223:), "watchtower", a type of 1181:Reconstructed gateway of a 1071:Porta Decumana (back gate). 119:Decorations and punishments 7932: 7916:Roman legionary fortresses 7494:Dionysius of Halicarnassus 6069:historiography of the fall 2808:See Rebecca H. Jones 2012 2610:List of castra by province 2540:at night. Wall posts were 1801:(sacrificial altars), the 1761:Not much remains of these 1626:Across the central plaza ( 1558:Porta Principalis Sinistra 1115:More permanent camps were 997: 875:, and from this comes the 18: 7875:External wars and battles 5999: 5972: 5907: 5353:Hardened aircraft shelter 5328:Entry control point (ECP) 3589:Keppie, Lawrence (1994). 2900:The Roman Military System 2812:, Amberley Press, Stroud. 2098:Modifications in practice 1286:Late Roman fort in Jordan 1250:is a viable alternative. 1239:De Munitionibus Castrorum 1082:De Munitionibus Castrorum 1023: 1017: 977: 969: 871: 865: 859: 853: 844: 838: 790:Permanent camp/fortresses 721:deserts to the Persians, 577:', while the plural form 5850:Continuity of government 3872:"The Roman Camp in Bonn" 3768:10.9750/PSAS.125.499.519 3731:Forts and fortifications 3702:Ramsay, William (1875). 3168:"Life in the Roman Army" 2713:Pokorny, Julius (1959). 2348:, a "field" outside the 1592:, so called because the 1554:Porta Principalis Dextra 669:("cut") in *k̂es-tro-m, 422:Claustra Alpium Iuliarum 407:Danube–Iller–Rhine Limes 77:Military of ancient Rome 7870:Roman–Iranian relations 6345:Optimates and populares 5672:Motte-and-bailey castle 5378:Missile launch facility 5373:Main line of resistance 4068: 3955:. Princeton University. 3914:Miranda, Frank (2002). 3880:"The Roman Camp Sostra" 3197:negotiatores nummularii 2982:10.1111/1468-0092.00151 2929:10.1111/1468-0092.00189 2620:Outline of ancient Rome 2054:, or "winter camp", at 1925:), who amounted to two 1842:Roman artillery piece ( 1405:was a clear space, the 983: 895:) and English suffixes 693: 687: 677: 505:Ancient Rome portal 7880:Civil wars and revolts 7146:Sextus Pompeius Festus 6793:Conflict of the Orders 6152:Legislative assemblies 5748:Military installations 5612: 5593: 5584: 5575: 5493: 5164: 5139: 5115: 5105:Scarp and Counterscarp 5076: 5067: 5052: 5019: 5005: 4976: 4947: 4938: 4914: 4875: 4680: 4661: 4579: 4528: 4519: 4475: 4466: 4457: 4394: 4380: 4371: 4317: 4276: 4263: 4254: 4245: 4231: 4191: 4177: 4113: 4104: 4095: 4086: 4077: 4059: 3967:. In Lukas, De Blois; 3832:. roman-britain.co.uk. 3824:. roman-britain.co.uk. 3792:. roman-britain.co.uk. 3740:. roman-britain.co.uk. 3718:. roman-britain.co.uk. 3543:Johnson, Anne (1983). 3267:negotiatores vestiarii 2810:Roman camps in Britain 2460: 2404:. Its physicians, the 2369: 2292: 2281:Housesteads Roman Fort 2067: 1967:were the tents of the 1960: 1947:A sanitary channel at 1847: 1770: 1754: 1693:, (English: 5th street 1623: 1529:, the building of the 1503:because it housed the 1479: 1463: 1351: 1299: 1287: 1279: 1228: 1209:Reconstruction of the 1202: 1193:), a supply depot for 1174: 1072: 935: 927: 915: 881: 832: 820: 814: 810:Winter camp/fortresses 804: 800:Summer camp/fortresses 794: 784: 775: 765:Linguistic development 757: 747: 737: 727: 713: 703: 671: 665: 52: 7589:Simplicius of Cilicia 7341:Quintus Curtius Rufus 6570:Siege in Ancient Rome 6179:Executive magistrates 5517:Floating water castle 5248:Admiralty scaffolding 4541:Fortified buildings ( 3665:Bell, Anders (2001). 3502:Bishop, M.C. (2012). 3263:negotiator gladiarius 2689:Epitoma rei militaris 2651:Allen and Greenough. 2451: 2389:surrounding natives. 2367: 2278: 2049: 2008:and had their bread ( 1946: 1841: 1760: 1736: 1610: 1469: 1453: 1345: 1293: 1285: 1261: 1208: 1180: 1172: 1038: 1015:authors to translate 725:gives him an estate ( 657:Proto-Italic language 618:temporary encampments 600:Romans used the term 388:Neckar-Odenwald Limes 203:Technological history 39: 7911:Roman fortifications 7599:Stephanus Byzantinus 7504:Eusebius of Caesaria 7366:Sidonius Apollinaris 7056:Ammianus Marcellinus 6395:Tribune of the plebs 5860:Subterranean warfare 4813:Viking ring fortress 3874:. Eduvinet Services. 3720:Links to a Glossary. 3643:"Army Picture Index" 3428:Newcastle University 3414:Legion xxiv website. 3392:"(Military Diploma)" 3363:. Ad fontes Academy. 2657:Variable nouns, #107 1929:(companies). If the 1596:interrupted it. The 1142:legionary fortresses 1106:a camp of three days 1055:Via Principalis; (4) 933:, also derived from 826:Navy camp/fortresses 769:The commonest Latin 717:in that sense: when 378:Lower Germanic Limes 277:Strategy and tactics 212:Military engineering 114:Unit types and ranks 51:Museums and Archives 7775:Distinguished women 7426:Velleius Paterculus 7266:Nicolaus Damascenus 7246:Marcellus Empiricus 6635:Republican currency 5677:Quadrangular castle 5413:Weapon storage area 4769:Quadrangular castle 3899:Campbell, Duncan B. 3522:Campbell, Duncan B. 3307:The War of the Jews 3172:www.timetrips.co.uk 2898:Book VI Section 19 2867:. October 3, 2021. 2602:Ancient Rome portal 2471:were commanders of 2307:where they and the 1797:("sides") were the 1311:("10-footers") and 1232:Sources and origins 965:World Heritage Site 941:Spanish family name 373:Lauter Valley Limes 7549:Phlegon of Tralles 7356:Seneca the Younger 6830:Naming conventions 6560:Personal equipment 6093:Later Roman Empire 5408:Underground hangar 5193:Fire control tower 4990:Gunpowder magazine 4418:Butter-churn tower 3695:A Latin Dictionary 3275:salsari leguminari 2786:Flavius Josephus: 2730:Nepos, Cornelius. 2699:. He conceives of 2461: 2370: 2293: 2068: 1961: 1848: 1771: 1755: 1658:on that side. The 1624: 1611:Porta Decumana at 1480: 1464: 1352: 1300: 1288: 1280: 1262:The reconstructed 1229: 1203: 1175: 1073: 1051:Via Praetoria; (3) 860:Castrum Truentinum 830:In Latin the term 474:Limes Tripolitanus 95:Structural history 53: 21:Epsilon Capricorni 7888: 7887: 7850:Pontifices maximi 7632: 7631: 7489:Diogenes Laërtius 7311:Pliny the Younger 7066:Asconius Pedianus 7026:Romance languages 6898:Civil engineering 6640:Imperial currency 6513:Political control 6474: 6473: 6108: 6107: 5931: 5930: 5855:Military urbanism 5789:Fortified gateway 5662:Concentric castle 5426: 5425: 5343:Fire support base 5183:Coastal artillery 5058:(Spanish America) 4652: 4494:Concentric castle 3982:978-90-04-16044-6 3944:(November 2005). 3797:Lendering, Jona. 3581:978-1-4443-3921-5 3535:978-1-84603-380-3 3513:978-1-84884-138-3 3496:Secondary sources 3476:Digital Attic 2.0 3420:"(the Tombstone)" 3398:. Metz, George W. 3361:The Latin Library 2943:Romans in Britain 2501:. For example, a 2078:, "watchtowers", 1963:Further from the 1856:Scamnum Legatorum 1823:). Sometimes the 1745:) plus adjoining 1673:Decumanus Maximus 1670:be replaced with 1548:went through the 1242:and the works of 1156:From the time of 539: 538: 490: 489: 481:Limes Mauretaniae 336:Limes Britannicus 297: 296: 261:Political history 251: 250: 171: 170: 37: 7923: 7840:Magistri equitum 7755:Cities and towns 7748: 7674:Constantinopolis 7484:Diodorus Siculus 7416:Valerius Maximus 7351:Seneca the Elder 7271:Nonius Marcellus 7039: 6592:Hippika gymnasia 6555:Infantry tactics 6461:Consular tribune 6451:Magister equitum 6400:Military tribune 6365: 6325:Pontifex maximus 6320:Princeps senatus 6310:Magister militum 6076:Byzantine Empire 5997: 5958: 5951: 5944: 5935: 5920: 5919: 5913: 5804:National redoubt 5733:Fortified estate 5657:Circular rampart 5617: 5598: 5589: 5580: 5498: 5258:Anti-tank trench 5253:Air raid shelter 5228: 5188:Disappearing gun 5169: 5144: 5120: 5081: 5072: 5057: 5033: 5024: 5010: 4981: 4952: 4943: 4919: 4880: 4865: 4843: 4823:Bailey (or ward) 4789: 4694:Motte-and-bailey 4685: 4666: 4650: 4642: 4641: 4607: 4598: 4584: 4533: 4524: 4480: 4471: 4462: 4453: 4399: 4385: 4376: 4322: 4279: 4268: 4259: 4250: 4236: 4196: 4182: 4122:Circular rampart 4118: 4109: 4100: 4091: 4082: 4073: 4064: 4028: 4021: 4014: 4005: 4000: 3998: 3997: 3991: 3985:. Archived from 3966: 3956: 3950: 3942:Scheidel, Walter 3937: 3935: 3920: 3910: 3887: 3875: 3865: 3849: 3838:"Roman Fortress" 3833: 3825: 3817: 3815: 3814: 3793: 3785: 3783: 3782: 3776: 3770:. Archived from 3751: 3741: 3719: 3711: 3698: 3691:"Castrum/Castra" 3685: 3683: 3682: 3661: 3659: 3658: 3622: 3613:Roby, Henry John 3608: 3596: 3585: 3569: 3558: 3539: 3517: 3490: 3488: 3487: 3462: 3449: 3443: 3435: 3430:. Archived from 3413: 3407: 3399: 3381: 3364: 3355:pseudo-Hyginus. 3351: 3345: 3337: 3331: 3321: 3312:. Translated by 3311: 3287: 3284: 3278: 3255: 3249: 3246: 3240: 3237: 3231: 3228: 3222: 3215: 3209: 3206: 3200: 3188: 3182: 3181: 3179: 3178: 3164: 3158: 3155: 3146: 3143: 3137: 3134: 3128: 3125: 3119: 3112: 3106: 3068: 3062: 3049:) the east-west 3040: 3034: 3027: 3021: 3020: 3010: 3004: 3001: 2995: 2992: 2986: 2985: 2965: 2956: 2952: 2946: 2939: 2933: 2932: 2912: 2903: 2896: 2890: 2887: 2881: 2880: 2878: 2876: 2857: 2851: 2844: 2838: 2828: 2822: 2819: 2813: 2806: 2800: 2797: 2791: 2784: 2778: 2777: 2775: 2773: 2751: 2745: 2742: 2736: 2735: 2734:. Latin Library. 2732:"Alcibiades 9.3" 2727: 2721: 2720: 2710: 2704: 2681: 2675: 2669: 2660: 2649: 2643: 2636: 2604: 2599: 2598: 2597: 2420:Military service 2406:medici ordinarii 1905:The part of the 1894:("scouts"), and 1783:Latera Praetorii 1753:(reconstruction) 1717:also became the 1644:Porta Quaestoria 1456:Castrum Stativum 1183:Castrum Stativum 1070: 1066: 1062: 1058: 1054: 1050: 1046: 1027:, respectively. 1026: 1025: 1020: 1019: 1004: 1003: 990: 980: 979: 974: 973: 938: 932: 918: 916:Castrorum Filius 886: 877:Welsh place name 874: 873: 868: 867: 862: 861: 856: 855: 850: 849: 841: 840: 835: 823: 817: 807: 797: 787: 778: 760: 750: 740: 730: 716: 706: 696: 690: 680: 674: 672:Schneidewerkzeug 668: 653:Italic languages 562: 531: 524: 517: 503: 502: 501: 362:Limes Germanicus 312: 289:Infantry tactics 282: 238:Triumphal arches 208: 189:Wars and battles 181:Campaign history 100: 62: 61: 55: 38: 7931: 7930: 7926: 7925: 7924: 7922: 7921: 7920: 7906:Castles by type 7891: 7890: 7889: 7884: 7746: 7744: 7738: 7628: 7464:Aëtius of Amida 7445: 7431:Verrius Flaccus 7411:Valerius Antias 7371:Silius Italicus 7306:Pliny the Elder 7251:Marcus Aurelius 7126:Cornelius Nepos 7076:Aurelius Victor 7030: 6952: 6864: 6798:Secessio plebis 6769: 6644: 6596: 6470: 6424: 6354: 6236: 6188: 6104: 6025: 5986: 5968: 5962: 5932: 5927: 5911: 5903: 5833: 5757: 5701: 5635: 5570:Imperial castle 5543:Coercion castle 5538:Coastal defence 5521: 5483:Promontory fort 5453:Hillside castle 5422: 5338:Fallout shelter 5303:Concertina wire 5283:Border security 5236: 5147: 4856: 4489:Coercion castle 4477:Cheval de frise 4459:Chemin de ronde 4307:Albarrana tower 4288: 4233:Schwedenschanze 4210:Promontory fort 4037: 4032: 3995: 3993: 3989: 3983: 3969:Elio, Lo Cascio 3964: 3959: 3948: 3940: 3933: 3927:Phi Alpha Theta 3918: 3913: 3903:Ancient Warfare 3897: 3894: 3878: 3869: 3852: 3836: 3828: 3820: 3812: 3810: 3796: 3788: 3780: 3778: 3774: 3749: 3744: 3736: 3733: 3714: 3701: 3688: 3680: 3678: 3664: 3656: 3654: 3641: 3638: 3629: 3611: 3605: 3588: 3582: 3561: 3555: 3542: 3536: 3520: 3514: 3501: 3498: 3485: 3483: 3466: 3452: 3436: 3417: 3400: 3389: 3368: 3354: 3338: 3329: 3327:"(the Tablets)" 3324: 3314:William Whiston 3299: 3296: 3294:Primary sources 3291: 3290: 3285: 3281: 3256: 3252: 3247: 3243: 3238: 3234: 3229: 3225: 3216: 3212: 3207: 3203: 3189: 3185: 3176: 3174: 3166: 3165: 3161: 3156: 3149: 3144: 3140: 3135: 3131: 3126: 3122: 3113: 3109: 3069: 3065: 3059:via principalis 3041: 3037: 3028: 3024: 3012: 3011: 3007: 3002: 2998: 2993: 2989: 2967: 2966: 2959: 2953: 2949: 2940: 2936: 2914: 2913: 2906: 2897: 2893: 2888: 2884: 2874: 2872: 2859: 2858: 2854: 2845: 2841: 2829: 2825: 2820: 2816: 2807: 2803: 2798: 2794: 2785: 2781: 2771: 2769: 2761:Ancient Warfare 2753: 2752: 2748: 2743: 2739: 2729: 2728: 2724: 2712: 2711: 2707: 2682: 2678: 2670: 2663: 2650: 2646: 2637: 2633: 2628: 2600: 2595: 2593: 2590: 2536:by day and the 2446: 2273: 2223: 2128: 2100: 2044: 2036:Via Principalis 2018: 2010:panis militaris 1941: 1779:Via Principalis 1765:(granaries) at 1731: 1729:Major buildings 1682: 1632:Porta Praetoria 1598:Via Principalis 1586:Via Principalis 1574:Via Principalis 1566:Via Principalis 1546:Via Principalis 1495:via principalis 1448: 1417:) and plunder ( 1399: 1340: 1264:porta praetoria 1256: 1248:Etruscan origin 1234: 1167: 1151:Castra hibernas 1068: 1064: 1060: 1056: 1052: 1048: 1044: 1033: 1011:) were used by 872:Castra Cornelia 866:Castrum Vergium 767: 709:Cornelius Nepos 699:accusative case 638: 535: 499: 497: 492: 491: 486: 458:Limes Sarmatiae 452:Anastasian Wall 430:Pannonian Limes 309: 299: 298: 293: 279: 269: 268: 267: 263: 253: 252: 247: 233: 205: 195: 194: 193: 183: 173: 172: 167: 142: 128: 97: 87: 59: 45:South Yorkshire 28: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 7929: 7927: 7919: 7918: 7913: 7908: 7903: 7893: 7892: 7886: 7885: 7883: 7882: 7877: 7872: 7867: 7862: 7857: 7852: 7847: 7842: 7837: 7832: 7827: 7822: 7817: 7812: 7807: 7802: 7797: 7792: 7787: 7782: 7777: 7772: 7767: 7762: 7757: 7751: 7749: 7740: 7739: 7737: 7736: 7731: 7726: 7721: 7716: 7711: 7706: 7701: 7696: 7691: 7686: 7681: 7676: 7671: 7666: 7661: 7656: 7651: 7646: 7640: 7638: 7634: 7633: 7630: 7629: 7627: 7626: 7621: 7616: 7611: 7606: 7601: 7596: 7591: 7586: 7581: 7576: 7571: 7566: 7561: 7556: 7551: 7546: 7541: 7536: 7531: 7526: 7521: 7516: 7511: 7506: 7501: 7496: 7491: 7486: 7481: 7476: 7471: 7466: 7461: 7455: 7453: 7447: 7446: 7444: 7443: 7438: 7433: 7428: 7423: 7418: 7413: 7408: 7403: 7398: 7393: 7388: 7383: 7378: 7373: 7368: 7363: 7358: 7353: 7348: 7343: 7338: 7333: 7328: 7323: 7318: 7316:Pomponius Mela 7313: 7308: 7303: 7298: 7293: 7288: 7283: 7278: 7273: 7268: 7263: 7258: 7253: 7248: 7243: 7238: 7233: 7228: 7223: 7218: 7213: 7208: 7203: 7198: 7193: 7188: 7183: 7178: 7173: 7168: 7163: 7158: 7153: 7148: 7143: 7138: 7133: 7128: 7123: 7118: 7113: 7108: 7103: 7098: 7093: 7088: 7083: 7078: 7073: 7068: 7063: 7058: 7053: 7051:Aelius Donatus 7047: 7045: 7036: 7032: 7031: 7029: 7028: 7023: 7022: 7021: 7019:Ecclesiastical 7016: 7011: 7006: 7001: 6996: 6991: 6986: 6981: 6973: 6968: 6962: 6960: 6954: 6953: 6951: 6950: 6945: 6940: 6935: 6930: 6925: 6920: 6915: 6910: 6905: 6900: 6895: 6890: 6885: 6880: 6874: 6872: 6866: 6865: 6863: 6862: 6857: 6852: 6847: 6842: 6837: 6832: 6827: 6822: 6821: 6820: 6810: 6805: 6800: 6795: 6790: 6785: 6779: 6777: 6771: 6770: 6768: 6767: 6762: 6760:Toys and games 6757: 6752: 6747: 6742: 6737: 6732: 6731: 6730: 6720: 6715: 6710: 6705: 6700: 6695: 6690: 6685: 6680: 6675: 6670: 6665: 6660: 6654: 6652: 6646: 6645: 6643: 6642: 6637: 6632: 6627: 6622: 6617: 6612: 6606: 6604: 6598: 6597: 6595: 6594: 6589: 6584: 6579: 6574: 6573: 6572: 6567: 6562: 6557: 6552: 6542: 6537: 6536: 6535: 6525: 6520: 6515: 6510: 6505: 6500: 6495: 6490: 6484: 6482: 6476: 6475: 6472: 6471: 6469: 6468: 6463: 6458: 6453: 6448: 6443: 6438: 6432: 6430: 6426: 6425: 6423: 6422: 6417: 6412: 6407: 6402: 6397: 6392: 6387: 6382: 6377: 6371: 6369: 6362: 6356: 6355: 6353: 6352: 6347: 6342: 6337: 6332: 6327: 6322: 6317: 6312: 6307: 6302: 6300:Vigintisexviri 6297: 6292: 6287: 6282: 6277: 6272: 6267: 6262: 6260:Cursus honorum 6257: 6252: 6246: 6244: 6238: 6237: 6235: 6234: 6229: 6224: 6219: 6214: 6209: 6204: 6198: 6196: 6190: 6189: 6187: 6186: 6181: 6176: 6175: 6174: 6169: 6164: 6159: 6149: 6144: 6139: 6134: 6129: 6124: 6118: 6116: 6110: 6109: 6106: 6105: 6103: 6102: 6101: 6100: 6090: 6089: 6088: 6083: 6073: 6072: 6071: 6066: 6059:Western Empire 6056: 6051: 6046: 6041: 6035: 6033: 6027: 6026: 6024: 6023: 6018: 6017: 6016: 6006: 6000: 5994: 5988: 5987: 5985: 5984: 5979: 5973: 5970: 5969: 5963: 5961: 5960: 5953: 5946: 5938: 5929: 5928: 5926: 5925: 5908: 5905: 5904: 5902: 5901: 5900: 5899: 5889: 5887:Trench warfare 5884: 5882:Tunnel warfare 5879: 5878: 5877: 5867: 5862: 5857: 5852: 5847: 5841: 5839: 5835: 5834: 5832: 5831: 5826: 5821: 5816: 5811: 5806: 5801: 5796: 5791: 5786: 5781: 5776: 5771: 5765: 5763: 5759: 5758: 5756: 5755: 5750: 5745: 5740: 5738:Fortifications 5735: 5730: 5725: 5720: 5715: 5709: 5707: 5703: 5702: 5700: 5699: 5694: 5689: 5684: 5679: 5674: 5669: 5664: 5659: 5654: 5649: 5643: 5641: 5637: 5636: 5634: 5633: 5628: 5623: 5618: 5609: 5604: 5599: 5590: 5581: 5572: 5567: 5562: 5555: 5550: 5548:Counter-castle 5545: 5540: 5535: 5533:Border barrier 5529: 5527: 5523: 5522: 5520: 5519: 5514: 5509: 5504: 5499: 5490: 5485: 5480: 5475: 5470: 5468:Lowland castle 5465: 5460: 5458:Hilltop castle 5455: 5450: 5445: 5440: 5434: 5432: 5428: 5427: 5424: 5423: 5421: 5420: 5415: 5410: 5405: 5400: 5395: 5390: 5385: 5380: 5375: 5370: 5365: 5360: 5355: 5350: 5345: 5340: 5335: 5333:Electric fence 5330: 5325: 5323:Dragon's teeth 5320: 5318:Czech hedgehog 5315: 5310: 5305: 5300: 5295: 5290: 5285: 5280: 5275: 5270: 5265: 5260: 5255: 5250: 5244: 5242: 5238: 5237: 5235: 5234: 5232:Wire obstacles 5229: 5220: 5218:Polygonal fort 5215: 5210: 5208:Martello tower 5205: 5200: 5195: 5190: 5185: 5180: 5175: 5173:Border outpost 5170: 5161: 5155: 5153: 5149: 5148: 5146: 5145: 5136: 5131: 5126: 5121: 5112: 5107: 5102: 5097: 5092: 5087: 5082: 5073: 5064: 5059: 5049: 5047:Polygonal fort 5044: 5039: 5034: 5025: 5016: 5011: 5002: 4997: 4992: 4987: 4982: 4973: 4968: 4963: 4958: 4953: 4944: 4935: 4930: 4925: 4920: 4911: 4906: 4901: 4896: 4891: 4886: 4881: 4871: 4869: 4862: 4858: 4857: 4855: 4854: 4849: 4844: 4835: 4830: 4825: 4820: 4815: 4810: 4805: 4800: 4795: 4790: 4781: 4776: 4771: 4766: 4761: 4756: 4751: 4746: 4741: 4736: 4731: 4726: 4721: 4716: 4711: 4706: 4701: 4696: 4691: 4686: 4677: 4672: 4667: 4658: 4653: 4633: 4628: 4623: 4618: 4613: 4608: 4599: 4590: 4585: 4576: 4571: 4566: 4559: 4554: 4539: 4537:Flanking tower 4534: 4525: 4516: 4511: 4506: 4504:Counter-castle 4501: 4496: 4491: 4486: 4481: 4472: 4463: 4454: 4445: 4440: 4435: 4430: 4425: 4420: 4415: 4410: 4405: 4400: 4391: 4386: 4377: 4368: 4363: 4358: 4353: 4348: 4343: 4338: 4333: 4328: 4323: 4314: 4309: 4304: 4298: 4296: 4294:Post-classical 4290: 4289: 4287: 4286: 4284:Vitrified fort 4281: 4269: 4260: 4251: 4242: 4237: 4228: 4223: 4217: 4212: 4207: 4202: 4197: 4188: 4183: 4174: 4169: 4164: 4159: 4154: 4149: 4144: 4142:Defensive wall 4139: 4134: 4129: 4124: 4119: 4110: 4101: 4092: 4083: 4074: 4065: 4056: 4051: 4045: 4043: 4039: 4038: 4035:Fortifications 4033: 4031: 4030: 4023: 4016: 4008: 4002: 4001: 3981: 3957: 3938: 3936:on 2006-09-13. 3911: 3893: 3890: 3889: 3888: 3886:on 2008-07-24. 3876: 3867: 3854:Smith, William 3850: 3848:on 2006-06-12. 3834: 3826: 3818: 3794: 3786: 3742: 3732: 3729: 3728: 3727: 3721: 3712: 3699: 3686: 3662: 3637: 3634: 3628: 3627:External links 3625: 3624: 3623: 3609: 3603: 3586: 3580: 3559: 3553: 3540: 3534: 3518: 3512: 3497: 3494: 3493: 3492: 3464: 3461:on 2006-06-18. 3450: 3434:on 2006-08-25. 3415: 3387: 3366: 3352: 3322: 3295: 3292: 3289: 3288: 3279: 3269:for clothing, 3250: 3241: 3232: 3223: 3210: 3201: 3183: 3159: 3147: 3138: 3129: 3120: 3107: 3099:magnetic north 3063: 3035: 3022: 3005: 2996: 2987: 2957: 2947: 2934: 2923:(3): 303–313. 2904: 2891: 2882: 2852: 2839: 2823: 2814: 2801: 2792: 2788:The Jewish War 2779: 2746: 2737: 2722: 2705: 2676: 2661: 2644: 2630: 2629: 2627: 2624: 2623: 2622: 2617: 2612: 2606: 2605: 2589: 2586: 2585: 2584: 2577: 2568: 2561: 2544:, gate posts, 2458:Hadrian's Wall 2456:Roman Fort on 2445: 2442: 2434:Antoninus Pius 2429:honesta missio 2394:valetudinarium 2289:Hadrian's Wall 2272: 2269: 2222: 2219: 2215:Northumberland 2211:Whitley Castle 2127: 2124: 2099: 2096: 2052:Castra Hiberna 2043: 2040: 2017: 2014: 1992:Porta Decumana 1940: 1937: 1913:contained the 1874:(for horses), 1868:Valetudinarium 1730: 1727: 1719:Porta Quintana 1715:Porta Decumana 1703:Porta Quintana 1681: 1678: 1666:or the entire 1640:Porta Decumana 1491:cardus maximus 1476:Susa, Piedmont 1447: 1444: 1398: 1395: 1339: 1338:Wall and ditch 1336: 1276:Rhaetian Limes 1255: 1252: 1233: 1230: 1195:Hadrian's Wall 1166: 1163: 1147:castra hiberna 1125:castra aestiva 1121:standing camps 1117:castra stativa 1047:Principia; (2) 1032: 1029: 1013:Greek language 939:, is a common 828: 827: 824: 821:castra nautica 815:castra navalia 811: 808: 805:castra hiberna 801: 798: 795:castra aestiva 791: 788: 785:castra stativa 766: 763: 685:) and Umbrian 661:Julius Pokorny 637: 634: 543:Roman Republic 537: 536: 534: 533: 526: 519: 511: 508: 507: 494: 493: 488: 487: 485: 484: 477: 470: 467:Limes Arabicus 462: 461: 454: 449: 444: 439: 437:Limes Alutanus 433: 432: 426: 425: 417: 416: 410: 409: 403: 402: 401: 400: 398:Wetterau Limes 395: 390: 385: 380: 375: 370: 357: 356: 355: 354: 349: 347:Hadrian's Wall 344: 331: 330: 329: 328: 315: 310: 305: 304: 301: 300: 295: 294: 292: 291: 285: 280: 275: 274: 271: 270: 265: 264: 259: 258: 255: 254: 249: 248: 246: 245: 240: 234: 232: 231: 226: 218: 215: 214: 206: 201: 200: 197: 196: 192: 191: 185: 184: 179: 178: 175: 174: 169: 168: 166: 165: 160: 154: 151: 150: 144: 143: 141: 140: 135: 129: 127: 126: 121: 116: 110: 107: 106: 98: 93: 92: 89: 88: 79: 73: 72: 64: 63: 43:Roman fort in 15: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7928: 7917: 7914: 7912: 7909: 7907: 7904: 7902: 7899: 7898: 7896: 7881: 7878: 7876: 7873: 7871: 7868: 7866: 7863: 7861: 7858: 7856: 7853: 7851: 7848: 7846: 7843: 7841: 7838: 7836: 7833: 7831: 7828: 7826: 7823: 7821: 7818: 7816: 7813: 7811: 7808: 7806: 7803: 7801: 7798: 7796: 7793: 7791: 7788: 7786: 7783: 7781: 7778: 7776: 7773: 7771: 7768: 7766: 7763: 7761: 7758: 7756: 7753: 7752: 7750: 7741: 7735: 7732: 7730: 7727: 7725: 7722: 7720: 7717: 7715: 7712: 7710: 7707: 7705: 7702: 7700: 7697: 7695: 7692: 7690: 7687: 7685: 7682: 7680: 7677: 7675: 7672: 7670: 7667: 7665: 7662: 7660: 7657: 7655: 7652: 7650: 7647: 7645: 7642: 7641: 7639: 7635: 7625: 7622: 7620: 7617: 7615: 7612: 7610: 7607: 7605: 7602: 7600: 7597: 7595: 7592: 7590: 7587: 7585: 7582: 7580: 7577: 7575: 7572: 7570: 7567: 7565: 7562: 7560: 7557: 7555: 7552: 7550: 7547: 7545: 7542: 7540: 7537: 7535: 7532: 7530: 7527: 7525: 7522: 7520: 7517: 7515: 7512: 7510: 7507: 7505: 7502: 7500: 7497: 7495: 7492: 7490: 7487: 7485: 7482: 7480: 7477: 7475: 7472: 7470: 7467: 7465: 7462: 7460: 7457: 7456: 7454: 7452: 7448: 7442: 7439: 7437: 7434: 7432: 7429: 7427: 7424: 7422: 7419: 7417: 7414: 7412: 7409: 7407: 7404: 7402: 7399: 7397: 7394: 7392: 7389: 7387: 7384: 7382: 7379: 7377: 7374: 7372: 7369: 7367: 7364: 7362: 7359: 7357: 7354: 7352: 7349: 7347: 7344: 7342: 7339: 7337: 7334: 7332: 7329: 7327: 7324: 7322: 7319: 7317: 7314: 7312: 7309: 7307: 7304: 7302: 7299: 7297: 7294: 7292: 7289: 7287: 7284: 7282: 7279: 7277: 7274: 7272: 7269: 7267: 7264: 7262: 7259: 7257: 7254: 7252: 7249: 7247: 7244: 7242: 7239: 7237: 7234: 7232: 7229: 7227: 7224: 7222: 7219: 7217: 7214: 7212: 7209: 7207: 7206:Julius Paulus 7204: 7202: 7199: 7197: 7194: 7192: 7189: 7187: 7184: 7182: 7179: 7177: 7174: 7172: 7169: 7167: 7164: 7162: 7159: 7157: 7154: 7152: 7149: 7147: 7144: 7142: 7141:Fabius Pictor 7139: 7137: 7134: 7132: 7129: 7127: 7124: 7122: 7119: 7117: 7114: 7112: 7109: 7107: 7104: 7102: 7099: 7097: 7094: 7092: 7089: 7087: 7084: 7082: 7079: 7077: 7074: 7072: 7069: 7067: 7064: 7062: 7059: 7057: 7054: 7052: 7049: 7048: 7046: 7044: 7040: 7037: 7033: 7027: 7024: 7020: 7017: 7015: 7012: 7010: 7007: 7005: 7002: 7000: 6997: 6995: 6992: 6990: 6987: 6985: 6982: 6980: 6977: 6976: 6974: 6972: 6969: 6967: 6964: 6963: 6961: 6959: 6955: 6949: 6946: 6944: 6941: 6939: 6936: 6934: 6931: 6929: 6926: 6924: 6921: 6919: 6916: 6914: 6911: 6909: 6906: 6904: 6901: 6899: 6896: 6894: 6891: 6889: 6886: 6884: 6881: 6879: 6878:Amphitheatres 6876: 6875: 6873: 6871: 6867: 6861: 6858: 6856: 6853: 6851: 6848: 6846: 6843: 6841: 6838: 6836: 6833: 6831: 6828: 6826: 6823: 6819: 6816: 6815: 6814: 6811: 6809: 6806: 6804: 6801: 6799: 6796: 6794: 6791: 6789: 6786: 6784: 6781: 6780: 6778: 6776: 6772: 6766: 6763: 6761: 6758: 6756: 6753: 6751: 6748: 6746: 6743: 6741: 6738: 6736: 6733: 6729: 6726: 6725: 6724: 6721: 6719: 6716: 6714: 6711: 6709: 6706: 6704: 6701: 6699: 6696: 6694: 6691: 6689: 6686: 6684: 6681: 6679: 6676: 6674: 6671: 6669: 6666: 6664: 6661: 6659: 6656: 6655: 6653: 6651: 6647: 6641: 6638: 6636: 6633: 6631: 6628: 6626: 6623: 6621: 6618: 6616: 6615:Deforestation 6613: 6611: 6608: 6607: 6605: 6603: 6599: 6593: 6590: 6588: 6585: 6583: 6580: 6578: 6575: 6571: 6568: 6566: 6565:Siege engines 6563: 6561: 6558: 6556: 6553: 6551: 6548: 6547: 6546: 6543: 6541: 6538: 6534: 6531: 6530: 6529: 6526: 6524: 6521: 6519: 6516: 6514: 6511: 6509: 6506: 6504: 6501: 6499: 6498:Establishment 6496: 6494: 6491: 6489: 6486: 6485: 6483: 6481: 6477: 6467: 6464: 6462: 6459: 6457: 6454: 6452: 6449: 6447: 6444: 6442: 6439: 6437: 6434: 6433: 6431: 6429:Extraordinary 6427: 6421: 6418: 6416: 6415:Promagistrate 6413: 6411: 6408: 6406: 6403: 6401: 6398: 6396: 6393: 6391: 6388: 6386: 6383: 6381: 6378: 6376: 6373: 6372: 6370: 6366: 6363: 6361: 6357: 6351: 6348: 6346: 6343: 6341: 6338: 6336: 6333: 6331: 6328: 6326: 6323: 6321: 6318: 6316: 6313: 6311: 6308: 6306: 6303: 6301: 6298: 6296: 6293: 6291: 6288: 6286: 6283: 6281: 6278: 6276: 6273: 6271: 6268: 6266: 6263: 6261: 6258: 6256: 6253: 6251: 6248: 6247: 6245: 6243: 6239: 6233: 6230: 6228: 6225: 6223: 6220: 6218: 6215: 6213: 6210: 6208: 6205: 6203: 6202:Twelve Tables 6200: 6199: 6197: 6195: 6191: 6185: 6182: 6180: 6177: 6173: 6170: 6168: 6165: 6163: 6160: 6158: 6155: 6154: 6153: 6150: 6148: 6145: 6143: 6140: 6138: 6135: 6133: 6130: 6128: 6125: 6123: 6120: 6119: 6117: 6115: 6111: 6099: 6096: 6095: 6094: 6091: 6087: 6084: 6082: 6079: 6078: 6077: 6074: 6070: 6067: 6065: 6062: 6061: 6060: 6057: 6055: 6052: 6050: 6047: 6045: 6042: 6040: 6037: 6036: 6034: 6032: 6028: 6022: 6019: 6015: 6012: 6011: 6010: 6007: 6005: 6002: 6001: 5998: 5995: 5993: 5989: 5983: 5980: 5978: 5975: 5974: 5971: 5966: 5959: 5954: 5952: 5947: 5945: 5940: 5939: 5936: 5924: 5923: 5910: 5909: 5906: 5898: 5895: 5894: 5893: 5892:Urban warfare 5890: 5888: 5885: 5883: 5880: 5876: 5873: 5872: 5871: 5868: 5866: 5863: 5861: 5858: 5856: 5853: 5851: 5848: 5846: 5845:Civil defense 5843: 5842: 5840: 5836: 5830: 5827: 5825: 5822: 5820: 5817: 5815: 5812: 5810: 5807: 5805: 5802: 5800: 5797: 5795: 5792: 5790: 5787: 5785: 5782: 5780: 5777: 5775: 5772: 5770: 5767: 5766: 5764: 5760: 5754: 5751: 5749: 5746: 5744: 5741: 5739: 5736: 5734: 5731: 5729: 5726: 5724: 5721: 5719: 5716: 5714: 5713:Bastion forts 5711: 5710: 5708: 5704: 5698: 5697:Z-plan castle 5695: 5693: 5690: 5688: 5685: 5683: 5680: 5678: 5675: 5673: 5670: 5668: 5667:L-plan castle 5665: 5663: 5660: 5658: 5655: 5653: 5652:Bridge castle 5650: 5648: 5645: 5644: 5642: 5638: 5632: 5629: 5627: 5624: 5622: 5621:Refuge castle 5619: 5616: 5615: 5610: 5608: 5605: 5603: 5602:Military base 5600: 5597: 5596: 5591: 5588: 5587: 5582: 5579: 5578: 5573: 5571: 5568: 5566: 5565:Hunting lodge 5563: 5561: 5560: 5556: 5554: 5551: 5549: 5546: 5544: 5541: 5539: 5536: 5534: 5531: 5530: 5528: 5524: 5518: 5515: 5513: 5510: 5508: 5505: 5503: 5500: 5497: 5496: 5491: 5489: 5486: 5484: 5481: 5479: 5478:Moated castle 5476: 5474: 5471: 5469: 5466: 5464: 5463:Island castle 5461: 5459: 5456: 5454: 5451: 5449: 5446: 5444: 5441: 5439: 5436: 5435: 5433: 5431:By topography 5429: 5419: 5416: 5414: 5411: 5409: 5406: 5404: 5403:Submarine pen 5401: 5399: 5396: 5394: 5391: 5389: 5386: 5384: 5381: 5379: 5376: 5374: 5371: 5369: 5366: 5364: 5361: 5359: 5358:Hesco bastion 5356: 5354: 5351: 5349: 5346: 5344: 5341: 5339: 5336: 5334: 5331: 5329: 5326: 5324: 5321: 5319: 5316: 5314: 5311: 5309: 5306: 5304: 5301: 5299: 5296: 5294: 5291: 5289: 5286: 5284: 5281: 5279: 5276: 5274: 5273:Blast shelter 5271: 5269: 5266: 5264: 5261: 5259: 5256: 5254: 5251: 5249: 5246: 5245: 5243: 5239: 5233: 5230: 5227: 5226: 5221: 5219: 5216: 5214: 5211: 5209: 5206: 5204: 5201: 5199: 5196: 5194: 5191: 5189: 5186: 5184: 5181: 5179: 5176: 5174: 5171: 5168: 5167: 5162: 5160: 5157: 5156: 5154: 5150: 5143: 5142: 5137: 5135: 5132: 5130: 5127: 5125: 5122: 5119: 5118: 5113: 5111: 5108: 5106: 5103: 5101: 5098: 5096: 5093: 5091: 5088: 5086: 5083: 5080: 5079: 5074: 5071: 5070: 5065: 5063: 5060: 5056: 5055: 5050: 5048: 5045: 5043: 5042:Place-of-arms 5040: 5038: 5035: 5032: 5031: 5026: 5023: 5022: 5017: 5015: 5012: 5009: 5008: 5003: 5001: 4998: 4996: 4993: 4991: 4988: 4986: 4983: 4980: 4979: 4974: 4972: 4969: 4967: 4964: 4962: 4959: 4957: 4954: 4951: 4950: 4945: 4942: 4941: 4936: 4934: 4931: 4929: 4926: 4924: 4921: 4918: 4917: 4912: 4910: 4907: 4905: 4902: 4900: 4897: 4895: 4892: 4890: 4887: 4885: 4882: 4879: 4878: 4873: 4872: 4870: 4866: 4863: 4859: 4853: 4850: 4848: 4845: 4842: 4841: 4836: 4834: 4831: 4829: 4826: 4824: 4821: 4819: 4816: 4814: 4811: 4809: 4806: 4804: 4801: 4799: 4796: 4794: 4791: 4788: 4787: 4782: 4780: 4777: 4775: 4772: 4770: 4767: 4765: 4762: 4760: 4757: 4755: 4752: 4750: 4747: 4745: 4742: 4740: 4737: 4735: 4732: 4730: 4727: 4725: 4722: 4720: 4717: 4715: 4712: 4710: 4707: 4705: 4702: 4700: 4697: 4695: 4692: 4690: 4687: 4684: 4683: 4678: 4676: 4675:Machicolation 4673: 4671: 4670:L-plan castle 4668: 4665: 4664: 4659: 4657: 4654: 4649: 4648: 4640: 4639: 4634: 4632: 4629: 4627: 4624: 4622: 4619: 4617: 4614: 4612: 4609: 4606: 4605: 4600: 4597: 4596: 4591: 4589: 4586: 4583: 4582: 4577: 4575: 4572: 4570: 4567: 4565: 4564: 4560: 4558: 4555: 4552: 4548: 4544: 4540: 4538: 4535: 4532: 4531: 4526: 4523: 4522: 4517: 4515: 4512: 4510: 4507: 4505: 4502: 4500: 4497: 4495: 4492: 4490: 4487: 4485: 4482: 4479: 4478: 4473: 4470: 4469: 4464: 4461: 4460: 4455: 4452: 4451: 4446: 4444: 4441: 4439: 4436: 4434: 4431: 4429: 4426: 4424: 4421: 4419: 4416: 4414: 4411: 4409: 4406: 4404: 4403:Bridge castle 4401: 4398: 4397: 4392: 4390: 4387: 4384: 4383: 4378: 4375: 4374: 4369: 4367: 4366:Bent entrance 4364: 4362: 4359: 4357: 4354: 4352: 4351:Battery tower 4349: 4347: 4344: 4342: 4339: 4337: 4334: 4332: 4329: 4327: 4324: 4321: 4320: 4315: 4313: 4310: 4308: 4305: 4303: 4302:Advanced work 4300: 4299: 4297: 4295: 4291: 4285: 4282: 4278: 4273: 4270: 4267: 4266: 4261: 4258: 4257: 4252: 4249: 4248: 4243: 4241: 4238: 4235: 4234: 4229: 4227: 4226:Refuge castle 4224: 4221: 4218: 4216: 4213: 4211: 4208: 4206: 4203: 4201: 4198: 4195: 4194: 4189: 4187: 4184: 4181: 4180: 4175: 4173: 4170: 4168: 4165: 4163: 4160: 4158: 4155: 4153: 4150: 4148: 4145: 4143: 4140: 4138: 4135: 4133: 4130: 4128: 4125: 4123: 4120: 4117: 4116: 4111: 4108: 4107: 4102: 4099: 4098: 4093: 4090: 4089: 4084: 4081: 4080: 4075: 4072: 4071: 4066: 4063: 4062: 4057: 4055: 4052: 4050: 4047: 4046: 4044: 4040: 4036: 4029: 4024: 4022: 4017: 4015: 4010: 4009: 4006: 3992:on 2007-09-26 3988: 3984: 3978: 3974: 3970: 3963: 3958: 3954: 3947: 3943: 3939: 3932: 3928: 3924: 3917: 3912: 3908: 3904: 3900: 3896: 3895: 3891: 3885: 3881: 3877: 3873: 3868: 3863: 3859: 3855: 3851: 3847: 3843: 3839: 3835: 3831: 3827: 3823: 3819: 3809:on 2014-07-10 3808: 3804: 3800: 3795: 3791: 3787: 3777:on 2006-10-26 3773: 3769: 3765: 3761: 3757: 3756: 3748: 3743: 3739: 3735: 3734: 3730: 3725: 3722: 3717: 3713: 3709: 3705: 3700: 3696: 3692: 3687: 3677:on 2011-07-06 3676: 3672: 3668: 3663: 3653:on 2010-06-12 3652: 3648: 3644: 3640: 3639: 3635: 3633: 3626: 3620: 3619: 3614: 3610: 3606: 3604:1-56619-359-1 3600: 3595: 3594: 3587: 3583: 3577: 3573: 3568: 3567: 3560: 3556: 3554:0-7136-2223-7 3550: 3546: 3541: 3537: 3531: 3527: 3523: 3519: 3515: 3509: 3505: 3500: 3499: 3495: 3482:on 2020-04-21 3481: 3477: 3473: 3469: 3465: 3460: 3456: 3451: 3447: 3441: 3433: 3429: 3425: 3421: 3416: 3411: 3405: 3397: 3393: 3388: 3385: 3379: 3375: 3371: 3367: 3365:(Latin text.) 3362: 3358: 3353: 3349: 3343: 3335: 3328: 3323: 3319: 3315: 3310: 3308: 3302: 3298: 3297: 3293: 3283: 3280: 3276: 3272: 3268: 3264: 3260: 3254: 3251: 3245: 3242: 3236: 3233: 3227: 3224: 3220: 3214: 3211: 3205: 3202: 3198: 3194: 3187: 3184: 3173: 3169: 3163: 3160: 3154: 3152: 3148: 3142: 3139: 3133: 3130: 3124: 3121: 3117: 3111: 3108: 3104: 3100: 3096: 3092: 3088: 3084: 3080: 3076: 3073:(feminine of 3072: 3067: 3064: 3060: 3056: 3052: 3048: 3044: 3039: 3036: 3032: 3026: 3023: 3018: 3017: 3009: 3006: 3000: 2997: 2991: 2988: 2983: 2979: 2975: 2971: 2964: 2962: 2958: 2951: 2948: 2944: 2938: 2935: 2930: 2926: 2922: 2918: 2911: 2909: 2905: 2901: 2895: 2892: 2886: 2883: 2870: 2866: 2862: 2856: 2853: 2849: 2843: 2840: 2837: 2836:9781848841383 2833: 2827: 2824: 2818: 2815: 2811: 2805: 2802: 2796: 2793: 2789: 2783: 2780: 2767: 2763: 2762: 2757: 2750: 2747: 2741: 2738: 2733: 2726: 2723: 2718: 2717: 2709: 2706: 2702: 2698: 2694: 2690: 2686: 2680: 2677: 2673: 2672:Campbell 2009 2668: 2666: 2662: 2658: 2654: 2653:Latin Grammar 2648: 2645: 2641: 2635: 2632: 2625: 2621: 2618: 2616: 2613: 2611: 2608: 2607: 2603: 2592: 2587: 2582: 2579:guarding the 2578: 2575: 2574: 2569: 2566: 2562: 2559: 2555: 2554: 2553: 2551: 2547: 2543: 2539: 2535: 2531: 2527: 2523: 2518: 2516: 2512: 2508: 2504: 2500: 2496: 2492: 2488: 2483: 2481: 2476: 2475: 2470: 2466: 2459: 2455: 2450: 2443: 2441: 2439: 2438:Saint Patrick 2435: 2431: 2430: 2425: 2421: 2417: 2415: 2409: 2407: 2403: 2399: 2395: 2390: 2387: 2383: 2379: 2375: 2366: 2362: 2359: 2353: 2351: 2347: 2342: 2340: 2336: 2330: 2326: 2324: 2320: 2316: 2312: 2311: 2306: 2302: 2298: 2290: 2286: 2282: 2277: 2271:Ordinary life 2270: 2268: 2266: 2262: 2258: 2254: 2253: 2248: 2247: 2242: 2238: 2237: 2232: 2227: 2220: 2218: 2216: 2212: 2208: 2204: 2201:for example. 2200: 2196: 2192: 2188: 2184: 2180: 2176: 2172: 2168: 2164: 2160: 2155: 2153: 2149: 2145: 2141: 2137: 2133: 2125: 2123: 2119: 2117: 2113: 2109: 2104: 2097: 2095: 2093: 2089: 2083: 2081: 2077: 2073: 2065: 2061: 2060:South Shields 2057: 2053: 2048: 2041: 2039: 2037: 2033: 2029: 2028: 2023: 2015: 2013: 2011: 2005: 2003: 1999: 1998: 1993: 1988: 1984: 1982: 1978: 1974: 1970: 1966: 1958: 1954: 1950: 1945: 1938: 1936: 1934: 1933: 1928: 1924: 1920: 1916: 1912: 1908: 1903: 1901: 1898:(carriers of 1897: 1893: 1892: 1888:("cavalry"), 1887: 1883: 1882: 1877: 1873: 1869: 1865: 1861: 1857: 1853: 1845: 1840: 1836: 1834: 1833:Armamentarium 1830: 1826: 1822: 1818: 1814: 1810: 1806: 1805: 1800: 1796: 1792: 1788: 1784: 1780: 1776: 1768: 1764: 1759: 1752: 1748: 1744: 1740: 1735: 1728: 1726: 1724: 1720: 1716: 1712: 1708: 1704: 1700: 1696: 1692: 1689:, called the 1688: 1679: 1677: 1675: 1674: 1669: 1668:Via Praetoria 1665: 1661: 1660:Via Praetoria 1657: 1653: 1649: 1645: 1641: 1637: 1636:Via Praetoria 1633: 1629: 1622: 1618: 1614: 1609: 1605: 1603: 1602:Via Praetoria 1599: 1595: 1591: 1590:Via Praetoria 1587: 1583: 1579: 1575: 1571: 1567: 1563: 1559: 1555: 1551: 1547: 1542: 1540: 1539: 1534: 1533: 1528: 1524: 1520: 1519: 1514: 1513: 1508: 1507: 1502: 1501: 1496: 1492: 1488: 1487: 1478:, 275-290 BC. 1477: 1473: 1470:Porta called 1468: 1461: 1457: 1452: 1445: 1443: 1441: 1440: 1435: 1434:Via Sagularis 1431: 1427: 1422: 1420: 1416: 1412: 1408: 1404: 1396: 1394: 1392: 1388: 1384: 1383: 1378: 1374: 1369: 1367: 1363: 1362: 1357: 1349: 1344: 1337: 1335: 1333: 1328: 1326: 1322: 1318: 1314: 1310: 1306: 1297: 1296:Quadriburgium 1292: 1284: 1277: 1273: 1269: 1268:Castrum Pfünz 1265: 1260: 1253: 1251: 1249: 1245: 1241: 1240: 1231: 1226: 1222: 1221: 1216: 1212: 1207: 1200: 1196: 1192: 1191:South Shields 1188: 1184: 1179: 1171: 1165:Plan of forts 1164: 1162: 1159: 1154: 1152: 1148: 1144: 1143: 1138: 1137:sub tentoriis 1134: 1130: 1126: 1122: 1118: 1113: 1111: 1107: 1103: 1102:quarta castra 1099: 1098:tertia castra 1095: 1090: 1086: 1084: 1083: 1078: 1042: 1037: 1030: 1028: 1014: 1010: 1009: 1008:fortification 1002: 1001: 994: 989: 988: 987: 981:). The terms 972: 966: 962: 958: 954: 950: 946: 942: 937: 931: 930: 924: 922: 917: 912: 908: 904: 903: 901: 894: 890: 885: 884: 878: 854:Castrum Novum 848: 839:Castrum Album 834: 825: 822: 816: 812: 809: 806: 802: 799: 796: 792: 789: 786: 782: 781: 780: 777: 772: 764: 762: 759: 754: 749: 742: 739: 734: 729: 724: 720: 715: 710: 705: 700: 695: 689: 684: 683:genitive case 679: 673: 667: 662: 658: 654: 650: 646: 642: 635: 633: 631: 630: 625: 624: 619: 615: 611: 607: 603: 598: 596: 592: 588: 584: 583:military base 580: 576: 572: 568: 567: 558: 557: 552: 548: 544: 532: 527: 525: 520: 518: 513: 512: 510: 509: 506: 496: 495: 483: 482: 478: 476: 475: 471: 469: 468: 464: 463: 460: 459: 455: 453: 450: 448: 447:Trajan's Wall 445: 443: 442:Limes Moesiae 440: 438: 435: 434: 431: 428: 427: 424: 423: 419: 418: 415: 414:Norican Limes 412: 411: 408: 405: 404: 399: 396: 394: 391: 389: 386: 384: 381: 379: 376: 374: 371: 369: 366: 365: 364: 363: 359: 358: 353: 350: 348: 345: 343: 342:Antonine Wall 340: 339: 338: 337: 333: 332: 327: 324: 323: 322: 321: 317: 316: 314: 313: 308: 303: 302: 290: 287: 286: 284: 283: 278: 273: 272: 262: 257: 256: 244: 241: 239: 236: 235: 230: 229:Siege engines 227: 225: 224: 220: 219: 217: 216: 213: 209: 204: 199: 198: 190: 187: 186: 182: 177: 176: 164: 161: 159: 156: 155: 153: 152: 149: 145: 139: 136: 134: 131: 130: 125: 122: 120: 117: 115: 112: 111: 109: 108: 105: 101: 96: 91: 90: 86: 82: 78: 74: 70: 66: 65: 57: 56: 50: 46: 42: 41:Templeborough 26: 22: 7820:Institutions 7684:Leptis Magna 7637:Major cities 7544:Philostratus 7331:Quadrigarius 7151:Rufus Festus 7014:Contemporary 6735:Romanization 6658:Architecture 6532: 6265:Collegiality 6114:Constitution 5965:Ancient Rome 5915: 5870:Siege engine 5838:Other topics 5762:Related word 5728:Defense line 5692:Tower castle 5647:Bastion fort 5631:Urban castle 5559:Ganerbenburg 5557: 5512:Water castle 5488:Ridge castle 5473:Marsh castle 5288:Bomb shelter 5268:Belgian gate 5241:20th century 5152:19th century 5090:Retrenchment 5062:Punji sticks 4971:Entrenchment 4966:Device Forts 4933:Counterguard 4868:Early modern 4798:Tower castle 4734:Powder tower 4709:Outer bailey 4621:Inner bailey 4595:Gulyay-gorod 4563:Ganerbenburg 4561: 4557:Fujian tulou 4499:Corner tower 4438:Chamber gate 4408:Bridge tower 4256:Trou de loup 4096: 3994:. 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