f-number - Knowledge (XXG)

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range is consequently the distance of the nearest object, which will be in good focus when the ground glass is adjusted for an extremely distant object. In the same lens, the focal range will depend upon the size of the diaphragm used, while in different lenses having the same apertal ratio the focal ranges will be greater as the focal length of the lens is increased. The terms 'apertal ratio' and 'focal range' have not come into general use, but it is very desirable that they should, in order to prevent ambiguity and circumlocution when treating of the properties of photographic lenses.

846: 812:. Aperture, shutter speed, and film sensitivity are linked: for constant scene brightness, doubling the aperture area (one stop), halving the shutter speed (doubling the time open), or using a film twice as sensitive, has the same effect on the exposed image. For all practical purposes extreme accuracy is not required (mechanical shutter speeds were notoriously inaccurate as wear and lubrication varied, with no effect on exposure). It is not significant that aperture areas and shutter speeds do not vary by a factor of precisely two. 837: 3993:. Lens transmittances of 60%–95% are typical. T-stops are often used in cinematography, where many images are seen in rapid succession and even small changes in exposure will be noticeable. Cinema camera lenses are typically calibrated in T-stops instead of f-numbers. In still photography, without the need for rigorous consistency of all lenses and cameras used, slight differences in exposure are less important; however, T-stops are still used in some kinds of special-purpose lenses such as 363: 4033: 5019: 4994:

the collodion slide, having previously inserted a piece of cardboard in place of the prepared plate. Make a small round hole in the centre of the cardboard with a piercer, and now remove to a darkened room; apply a candle close to the hole, and observe the illuminated patch visible upon the front combination; the diameter of this circle, carefully measured, is the actual working aperture of the lens in question for the particular stop employed.

4103: 7662: 385: 29: 7673: 4125: 5142: 5241: 5153: 4287: 121:, defined as the aperture diameter divided by focal length. The relative aperture indicates how much light can pass through the lens at a given focal length. A lower f-number means a larger relative aperture and more light entering the system, while a higher f-number means a smaller relative aperture and less light entering the system. The f-number is related to the 5083: 579:, etc. Each element in the sequence is one stop lower than the element to its left, and one stop higher than the element to its right. The values of the ratios are rounded off to these particular conventional numbers, to make them easier to remember and write down. The sequence above is obtained by approximating the following exact geometric sequence: 4024:. Both systems have a linear number where a doubling of sensitivity is represented by a doubling of the number, and a logarithmic number. In the ISO system, a 3° increase in the logarithmic number corresponds to a doubling of sensitivity. Doubling or halving the sensitivity is equal to a difference of one T-stop in terms of light transmittance. 1831: 4989:, the diameter of the actual working aperture must be ascertained. This is easily accomplished in the case of single lenses, or for double combination lenses used with the full opening, these merely requiring the application of a pair of compasses or rule; but when double or triple-combination lenses are used, with stops inserted 1563: 1374: 795: 4890:

In every lens there is, corresponding to a given apertal ratio (that is, the ratio of the diameter of the stop to the focal length), a certain distance of a near object from it, between which and infinity all objects are in equally good focus. For instance, in a single view lens of 6-inch focus, with

801:

are arranged so that each setting differs in duration by a factor of approximately two from its neighbour. Opening up a lens by one stop allows twice as much light to fall on the film in a given period of time. Therefore, to have the same exposure at this larger aperture as at the previous aperture,

4993:

the combinations, it is somewhat more troublesome; for it is obvious that in this case the diameter of the stop employed is not the measure of the actual pencil of light transmitted by the front combination. To ascertain this, focus for a distant object, remove the focusing screen and replace it by

4172:

since a smaller format requires a shorter focal length (wider angle lens) to produce the same angle of view, and depth of field increases with shorter focal lengths. Therefore, reduced–depth-of-field effects will require smaller f-numbers (and thus potentially more difficult or complex optics) when

5093:

systems based on actual intensity (proportional to reciprocal square of the f-number); and the U.S., C.I., and Dallmeyer systems based on exposure (proportional to square of the f-number). He calls the f-number the "ratio number", "aperture ratio number", and "ratio aperture". He calls expressions

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in. stop (apertal ratio one-twenty-fourth), all objects situated at distances lying between 20 feet from the lens and an infinite distance from it (a fixed star, for instance) are in equally good focus. Twenty feet is therefore called the 'focal range' of the lens when this stop is used. The focal

5026:

At the same time, there were a number of aperture numbering systems designed with the goal of making exposure times vary in direct or inverse proportion with the aperture, rather than with the square of the f-number or inverse square of the apertal ratio or intensity ratio. But these systems all

4050:

of gain is equivalent to one T-stop in terms of light transmittance. Many camcorders have a unified control over the lens f-number and gain. In this case, starting from zero gain and fully open iris, one can either increase f-number by reducing the iris size while gain remains zero, or one can

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of lenses is the key in lens design to decrease transmittance losses of lenses. Some reviews of lenses do measure the T-stop or transmission rate in their benchmarks. T-stops are sometimes used instead of f-numbers to more accurately determine exposure, particularly when using external

4135:

increases with f-number, as illustrated in the image here. This means that photographs taken with a low f-number (large aperture) will tend to have subjects at one distance in focus, with the rest of the image (nearer and farther elements) out of focus. This is frequently used for

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will give the sharpest image. The larger number of elements in modern lenses allow the designer to compensate for aberrations, allowing the lens to give better pictures at lower f-numbers. At small apertures, depth of field and aberrations are improved, but

5101:

the "fractional diameter" of the aperture, even though it is literally equal to the "absolute diameter" which he distinguishes as a different term. He also sometimes uses expressions like "an aperture of f 8" without the division indicated by the slash.

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in astronomy, there is no depth of field issue, and the brightness of stellar point sources in terms of total optical power (not divided by area) is a function of absolute aperture area only, independent of focal length. The focal length controls the

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of the lens in question; and note down the quotient as the denominator with 1, or unity, for the numerator. Thus to find the ratio of a lens of 2 inches diameter and 6 inches focus, divide the focus by the aperture, or 6 divided by 2 equals 3; i.e.,

1567:

As in the earlier DIN and ASA film-speed standards, the ISO speed is defined only in one-third stop increments, and shutter speeds of digital cameras are commonly on the same scale in reciprocal seconds. A portion of the ISO range is the sequence

253:

and thus the entrance pupil size. This allows the user to vary the f-number as needed. The entrance pupil diameter is not necessarily equal to the aperture stop diameter, because of the magnifying effect of lens elements in front of the aperture.

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in the dark. Computing the focal length requires that the light-refracting properties of the liquids in the eye be taken into account. Treating the eye as an ordinary air-filled camera and lens results in an incorrect focal length and f-number.

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The f-number accurately describes the light-gathering ability of a lens only for objects an infinite distance away. This limitation is typically ignored in photography, where f-number is often used regardless of the distance to the object. In

4834:

In photography this means that as one focuses closer, the lens's effective aperture becomes smaller, making the exposure darker. The working f-number is often described in photography as the f-number corrected for lens extensions by a

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This point is further emphasized by Czapski in 1893. According to an English review of his book, in 1894, "The necessity of clearly distinguishing between effective aperture and diameter of physical stop is strongly insisted upon."

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Notations for f-numbers were also quite variable in the early part of the twentieth century. They were sometimes written with a capital F, sometimes with a dot (period) instead of a slash, and sometimes set as a vertical fraction.

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lens projects an image of each object twice as high and twice as wide, covering four times the area, and so both lenses produce the same illuminance at the focal plane when imaging a scene of a given luminance.

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second. The f-number may then be adjusted downwards for situations with lower light. Selecting a lower f-number is "opening up" the lens. Selecting a higher f-number is "closing" or "stopping down" the lens.

3931: 1826:{\displaystyle \ldots 16/13^{\circ },\ 20/14^{\circ },\ 25/15^{\circ },\ 32/16^{\circ },\ 40/17^{\circ },\ 50/18^{\circ },\ 64/19^{\circ },\ 80/20^{\circ },\ 100/21^{\circ },\ 125/22^{\circ },\ \ldots } 452:" is marked with its corresponding f-number, and represents a halving of the light intensity from the previous stop. This corresponds to a decrease of the pupil and aperture diameters by a factor of 1/ 881:. Half-stop steps are used on some cameras. Usually the full stops are marked, and the intermediate positions click but are not marked. As an example, the aperture that is one-third stop smaller than 3979: 4623: 438:

used to quantify ratios of light or exposure, with each added stop meaning a factor of two, and each subtracted stop meaning a factor of one-half. The one-stop unit is also known as the EV (

4664: 2003: 5211:

specifies that "The symbol for relative apertures shall be ƒ/ or ƒ: followed by the effective ƒ-number." They show the hooked italic 'ƒ' not only in the symbol, but also in the term

1558:{\displaystyle ({\sqrt {2}})^{\frac {0}{3}},\ ({\sqrt {2}})^{\frac {1}{3}},\ ({\sqrt {2}})^{\frac {2}{3}},\ ({\sqrt {2}})^{\frac {3}{3}},\ ({\sqrt {2}})^{\frac {4}{3}},\ \ldots } 1369:{\displaystyle ({\sqrt {2}})^{\frac {0}{2}},\ ({\sqrt {2}})^{\frac {1}{2}},\ ({\sqrt {2}})^{\frac {2}{2}},\ ({\sqrt {2}})^{\frac {3}{2}},\ ({\sqrt {2}})^{\frac {4}{2}},\ \ldots } 177: 4260:

involves computing the physical aperture and focal length of the eye. The pupil can be as large as 6–7 mm wide open, which translates into the maximal physical aperture.

790:{\displaystyle f/1={\frac {f}{({\sqrt {2}})^{0}}},\ f/1.4={\frac {f}{({\sqrt {2}})^{1}}},\ f/2={\frac {f}{({\sqrt {2}})^{2}}},\ f/2.8={\frac {f}{({\sqrt {2}})^{3}}},\ \ldots } 7630: 7577: 5527: 4936: 4851:

The system of f-numbers for specifying relative apertures evolved in the late nineteenth century, in competition with several other systems of aperture notation.

4813: 4540:) is made possible by an error correction system which includes secondary and tertiary mirrors, a three element refractive system and active mounting and optics. 864:, with each full stop marked. Click-stopped aperture came into common use in the 1960s; the aperture scale usually had a click stop at every whole and half stop. 802:

the shutter would be opened for half as long (i.e., twice the speed). The film will respond equally to these equal amounts of light, since it has the property of

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On modern cameras, especially when aperture is set on the camera body, f-number is often divided more finely than steps of one stop. Steps of one-third stop (

823:

of exposure intensity. Given this interpretation, one can then think of taking a half-step along this scale, to make an exposure difference of a "half stop".

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In 1867, Sutton and Dawson defined "apertal ratio" as essentially the reciprocal of the modern f-number. In the following quote, an "apertal ratio" of "

421:

is sometimes confusing due to its multiple meanings. A stop can be a physical object: an opaque part of an optical system that blocks certain rays. The

3853:(for hole, by convention written with capital letter H) is an f-number equivalent for effective exposure based on the area covered by the holes in the 4519: 4184:

which is due to the wave nature of light. The blur-optimal f-stop varies with the lens design. For modern standard lenses having 6 or 7 elements, the

257:

Ignoring differences in light transmission efficiency, a lens with a greater f-number projects darker images. The brightness of the projected image (

5508: 4248:(in 35 mm and larger formats) allows adequate depth of field and sufficient lens speed for a decent base exposure in most daylight situations. 125:(NA) of the system, which measures the range of angles over which light can enter or exit the system. The numerical aperture takes into account the 5038:

in the 1880s. Bothamley in 1891 said "The stops of all the best makers are now arranged according to this system." U.S. 16 is the same aperture as

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8.4 m telescope, which will cover the entire sky every three days, has a very large field of view. Its short 10.3 m focal length (

3943: 3877:(for transmission stops, by convention written with capital letter T) is an f-number adjusted to account for light transmission efficiency ( 431:

is a stop intended to cut out light that would be outside the desired field of view and might cause flare or other problems if not stopped.

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of the film or sensor used to capture the image. Depth of field can be described as depending on just angle of view, subject distance, and

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the focal ratio varies the focal-plane illuminance (or optical power per unit area in the image) and is used to control variables such as

4168:). As a result, smaller formats will have a deeper field than larger formats at the same f-number for the same distance of focus and same 5547: 3985: 7567: 7119: 7328: 5973: 5791: 5672: 5618: 5347: 5318: 5156:

From the top, the Yashica-D's aperture setting window uses the "f:" notation. The aperture is continuously variable with no "stops".

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Computer simulation showing the effects of changing a camera's aperture in half-stops (at left) and from zero to infinity (at right)

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lens's entrance pupil, and thus collects four times as much light from each object in the lens's field of view. But compared to the

4831:. Since the pupil magnification is seldom known it is often assumed to be 1, which is the correct value for all symmetric lenses. 1926:

Modern electronically controlled interchangeable lenses, such as those used for SLR cameras, have f-stops specified internally in

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ISO, Photography—Apertures and related properties pertaining to photographic lenses—Designations and measurements, ISO 517:2008

4530: 1971: 7708: 7260: 6743: 6530: 5580: 36:, that is, increasing f-numbers, in one-stop increments; each aperture has half the light-gathering area of the previous one. 4490:

Even though the principles of focal ratio are always the same, the application to which the principle is put can differ. In

5690: 1180:{\displaystyle ({\sqrt {2}})^{0},\ ({\sqrt {2}})^{1},\ ({\sqrt {2}})^{2},\ ({\sqrt {2}})^{3},\ ({\sqrt {2}})^{4},\ \ldots } 7169: 7101: 6854: 6376: 4040:

Most electronic cameras allow to amplify the signal coming from the pickup element. This amplification is usually called

7597: 7592: 5636:

Selecting and Using Classic Cameras: A User's Guide to Evaluating Features, Condition & Usability of Classic Cameras

146: 5524: 7698: 7602: 6879: 6381: 1916:

to the power of a whole number), in which case it is usually a half or third stop above or below an integral power of

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Since real lenses have transmittances of less than 100%, a lens's T-stop number is always greater than its f-number.

4946:

of a lens depends upon the relation or ratio of the aperture to the equivalent focus. To ascertain this, divide the

7333: 6924: 6217: 5947: 5035: 5003: 5045:, but apertures that are larger or smaller by a full stop use doubling or halving of the U.S. number, for example 7300: 7250: 7210: 7063: 6949: 6899: 6591: 6535: 6391: 6143: 6068: 804: 20: 399:, as indicated by the white dot above the f-stop scale on the aperture ring. This lens has an aperture range of 7501: 7096: 6824: 6616: 5264: 427:

is the aperture setting that limits the brightness of the image by restricting the input pupil size, while a

7466: 7270: 7174: 7038: 6889: 6721: 6626: 6269: 6187: 6153: 5840:

The Principles and Methods of Geometrical Optics: Especially as applied to the theory of optical instruments

5133:, etc. The R.P.S. had changed their name and moved off of the U.S. system some time between 1895 and 1902. 5066:

By 1895, Hodges contradicts Bothamley, saying that the f-number system has taken over: "This is called the

4648:, an alternative is often needed for systems where the object is not far from the lens. In these cases the 7677: 7521: 7496: 7305: 7290: 7225: 7205: 7111: 7033: 6864: 6783: 6778: 6753: 6681: 6671: 6621: 6611: 6545: 6508: 6436: 6411: 4073: 845: 816: 310: 295:. Since the area is proportional to the square of the pupil diameter, the amount of light admitted by the 114: 81: 5505: 5022:

A 1922 Kodak with aperture marked in U.S. stops. An f-number conversion chart has been added by the user.

4241:", meaning that being on the scene is more important than worrying about technical details. Practically, 4221:

Light falloff is also sensitive to f-stop. Many wide-angle lenses will show a significant light falloff (

7582: 7377: 7285: 7280: 7265: 7255: 7230: 7215: 7076: 7009: 6979: 6939: 6849: 6839: 6676: 6555: 6518: 6441: 5884:

Telephotography: An elementary treatise on the construction and application of the telephotographic lens

5715: 4512: 4148:') can be aesthetically pleasing and puts the viewer's focus on the main subject in the foreground. The 7134: 7666: 7275: 7245: 7240: 7235: 7220: 6874: 6793: 6763: 6716: 6661: 6651: 6576: 6401: 6348: 6061: 4907: 4141: 3887:

projects an image of the same brightness as an ideal lens with 100% transmittance and an f-number of

85: 5486: 4836: 4759:{\displaystyle N_{w}\approx {1 \over 2\mathrm {NA} _{i}}\approx \left(1+{\frac {|m|}{P}}\right)N\,,} 4032: 362: 7372: 7345: 7315: 6969: 6884: 6788: 6666: 6646: 6636: 6631: 6601: 6493: 6406: 6234: 6229: 5254: 4828: 809: 5838: 5409:

Set lighting technician's handbook: film lighting equipment, practice, and electrical distribution

7516: 7179: 7129: 6954: 6809: 6768: 6748: 6686: 6641: 6606: 6581: 6138: 6103: 5960: 4782: 4397: 4339: 4185: 4177: 4152:

of an image produced at a given f-number is dependent on other parameters as well, including the

4137: 4042: 3994: 1835:

while shutter speeds in reciprocal seconds have a few conventional differences in their numbers (

463: 246: 122: 5825:

Photographic Lenses: On Their Choice and Use – Special Edition Edited for American Photographers

442:) unit. On a camera, the aperture setting is traditionally adjusted in discrete steps, known as 5923:

A First Book of the Lens: An Elementary Treatise on the Action and Use of the Photographic Lens

5027:

involved some arbitrary constant, as opposed to the simple ratio of focal length and diameter.

7486: 7422: 7409: 7340: 7004: 6929: 6919: 6909: 6894: 6758: 6726: 6586: 6421: 6192: 5969: 5787: 5749: 5668: 5639: 5614: 5555: 5467: 5461: 5440: 5413: 5407: 5353: 5343: 5314: 4974: 4840: 4499: 4013: 3862: 836: 820: 6020: 5434: 7541: 7491: 7449: 7434: 7417: 7387: 7382: 7026: 6984: 6934: 6696: 6656: 6596: 6451: 5393: 5274: 5018: 4232: 4176:

Beyond focus, image sharpness is related to f-number through two different optical effects:

4065:: an approximately correct exposure will be obtained on a sunny day by using an aperture of 4017: 471: 126: 4036:

Iris/Gain relationship on Panasonic camcorders as described in the HC-V785 operating manual

7546: 7454: 7071: 6819: 6701: 6396: 6343: 6338: 6306: 6291: 6249: 5728: 5531: 5512: 5493: 4228: 4165: 3895:, is given by dividing the f-number by the square root of the transmittance of that lens: 4913: 4788: 4507:

of the instrument and the scale of the image that is presented at the focal plane to an

7323: 7149: 7091: 6859: 6540: 6446: 6431: 6426: 6321: 6128: 6118: 6108: 5664: 5269: 5232: 4816: 4645: 4495: 4403: 4379: 4356: 4321: 4297: 4161: 4149: 4132: 4102: 3858: 3854: 861: 467: 439: 73: 53: 5148:

camera front view. This is one of the few cameras that actually says "F-NUMBER" on it.

204:", which forms a mathematical expression of the entrance pupil's diameter in terms of 7692: 7476: 7444: 7429: 7394: 7154: 6999: 6964: 6914: 6550: 6523: 6503: 6471: 6416: 6048: 5603: 5551: 5076:

system, and the diaphragms of all modern lenses of good construction are so marked."

5060: 4820: 4504: 4169: 4061: 3879: 3183:

Sometimes the same number is included on several scales; for example, an aperture of

798: 423: 250: 213: 5089:

Piper in 1901 discusses five different systems of aperture marking: the old and new

7642: 7536: 7531: 7526: 7481: 7367: 7362: 7016: 6736: 6706: 6488: 6483: 6466: 6311: 6133: 6123: 6113: 5209:

American Standard General-Purpose Photographic Exposure Meters (Photoelectric Type)

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is U.S. 4. The exposure time required is directly proportional to the U.S. number.

4374: 4315: 4203: 4153: 186: 49: 5576: 384: 5743: 797:

In the same way as one f-stop corresponds to a factor of two in light intensity,

7647: 7511: 7506: 7439: 7352: 7189: 7164: 6994: 6989: 6974: 6829: 6711: 6691: 6560: 6461: 6353: 6316: 6286: 6239: 6207: 6202: 6163: 6084: 5697: 5610: 5246: 5082: 4557: 4491: 4291: 4215: 4181: 4157: 3990: 1965: 258: 77: 45: 5105:

Beck and Andrews in 1902 talk about the Royal Photographic Society standard of

4124: 819:

ratios in terms of 'stops'. Ignoring the f-number markings, the f-stops make a

28: 7637: 7159: 7139: 7053: 7043: 6904: 6869: 6844: 6773: 6513: 6498: 6478: 6360: 6296: 6212: 6158: 5259: 5222: 5141: 5090: 4970: 4553: 4222: 4076:

of the ISO speed of the film; for example, using ISO 200 film, an aperture of

4021: 878: 860:

Most twentieth-century cameras had a continuously variable aperture, using an

7551: 7124: 7086: 7048: 6944: 6834: 6301: 6264: 6259: 6244: 6197: 6180: 5357: 4632: 4257: 262: 5152: 129:

of the medium in which the system is working, while the f-number does not.

44:

is a measure of the light-gathering ability of an optical system such as a

4631:

is the transmission coefficient of the lens, and the units are in inverse

808:. This is less true for extremely long or short exposures, where there is 462:

Most modern lenses use a standard f-stop scale, which is an approximately

7144: 6959: 6386: 6254: 6175: 6170: 4549: 4508: 4481:{\displaystyle N={\frac {f}{D}}\quad {\xrightarrow {\times D}}\quad f=ND} 4421: 57: 33: 4286: 3190:

may be used in either a half-stop or a one-third-stop system; sometimes

7184: 6333: 6279: 5184:

are still found in a few books; not uncommonly, the initial lower-case

5145: 3998: 1899: 367: 261:) relative to the brightness of the scene in the lens's field of view ( 6731: 6148: 6098: 5525:

Colour rendering in binoculars and lenses - Colours and transmission

4455: 5215:, which today is more commonly set in an ordinary non-italic face. 1026:{\displaystyle f/4.5,\ f/5,\ f/5.6,\ f/6.3,\ f/7.1,\ f/8,\ \ldots } 7399: 6814: 6274: 5151: 5140: 5017: 4973:'s theory of stops and pupils, which was made widely available by 4285: 4173:

using small-format cameras than when using larger-format cameras.

4145: 4031: 383: 361: 27: 5339: 5063:

used U.S. stops on many of their cameras at least in the 1920s.

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was not the same as the physical diameter of the aperture stop:

4002: 89: 6057: 5869:

Henry Crew, "Theory of Optical Instruments by Dr. Czapski," in

459:

or about 0.7071, and hence a halving of the area of the pupil.

6053: 3984:

With 8% loss per air-glass surface on lenses without coating,

877:

EV) are the most common, since this matches the ISO system of

4985:

It must be observed, however, that in order to find the real

3204:

and other differences are used for the one-third stop scale.

5081: 3926:{\displaystyle T={\frac {N}{\sqrt {\text{transmittance}}}}.} 5745:

Encyclopedia of Optical Engineering: Pho-Z, pages 2049-3050

1898:

In practice the maximum aperture of a lens is often not an

1035:

To calculate the steps in a full stop (1 EV) one could use

4869:" is calculated as the ratio of 6 inches (150 mm) to 4345:

In astronomy, the f-number is commonly referred to as the

4202:, while for older standard lenses having only 4 elements ( 235:

in a lens system. The aperture diameter would be equal to

5938:, second edition, London: R. & J. Beck Ltd., c. 1902. 5811:, London: Sampson Low, Son & Marston, 1867, (p. 122). 4144:

because background blur (the aesthetic quality known as '

4059:

An example of the use of f-numbers in photography is the

2007:

Conventional and calculated f-numbers, full-stop series:

313:, the exposure time must be reduced by a factor of four. 5180:

are more common, though the earlier forms, as well as

3974:{\displaystyle T={\frac {2.0}{\sqrt {0.75}}}=2.309...} 224:, the f-number would be 2. This would be expressed as 5577:"Marianne Oelund, "Lens T-stops", dpreview.com, 2009" 5034:(U.S.) of apertures was adopted as a standard by the 4916: 4791: 4667: 4568: 4432: 4406: 4382: 4359: 4324: 4300: 3946: 3901: 1974: 1576: 1396: 1207: 1043: 917: 587: 335:

lens's entrance pupil has four times the area of the

149: 4618:{\displaystyle G\#={\frac {1+4N^{2}}{\tau \pi }}\,,} 3940:

lens with transmittance of 75% has a T-stop of 2.3:

7613: 7560: 7465: 7408: 7314: 7198: 7110: 7062: 6802: 6569: 6369: 6091: 4522:4-meter telescope has a small field of view (about 4218:creates more spreading of the light, causing blur. 466:of numbers that corresponds to the sequence of the 197:). It is customary to write f-numbers preceded by " 5910:Photographic Lenses: How to Choose, and How to Use 5602: 4930: 4807: 4758: 4617: 4480: 4412: 4388: 4365: 4330: 4306: 3973: 3925: 1997: 1825: 1557: 1368: 1179: 1025: 789: 171: 6049:Large format photography—how to select the f-stop 6022:Photography for Students of Physics and Chemistry 5338:. SPIE Field Guides vol. FG01. Bellingham, Wash: 5299:, 4th Ed., 2007 McGraw-Hill Professional, p. 183. 5925:, London: Hazell, Watson, and Viney, Ltd., 1901. 4548:The camera equation, or G#, is the ratio of the 4263:The f-number of the human eye varies from about 5006:, inventor of the telephoto lens, followed the 1946:-stop settings are approximated by the nearest 265:) decreases with the square of the f-number. A 5968:. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott. p. 61. 5773: 5771: 5506:Sigma 85mm F1.4 Art lens review: New benchmark 4823:for an object a particular distance away, and 6069: 5858:Theorie der optischen Instrumente, nach Abbe, 5689:Charles F. Claver; et al. (2007-03-19). 5313:(2nd ed.). Addison Wesley. p. 152. 4051:increase gain while iris remains fully open. 909:. The next few f-stops in this sequence are: 8: 5819: 5817: 5291: 5289: 88:and is usually expressed using a lower-case 48:. It is calculated by dividing the system's 7621:Conservation and restoration of photographs 4529:) which is useful for stellar studies. The 7358:Comparison of digital and film photography 6076: 6062: 6054: 5852: 5850: 7578:Photographs considered the most important 5899:, London: Britannia Works Co. Ltd., 1891. 5696:. LSST Corporation: 45–50. Archived from 4920: 4915: 4800: 4792: 4790: 4752: 4733: 4725: 4722: 4699: 4691: 4681: 4672: 4666: 4611: 4594: 4578: 4567: 4450: 4439: 4431: 4405: 4381: 4358: 4323: 4299: 3953: 3945: 3908: 3900: 1998:{\displaystyle N={\sqrt {2^{\text{AV}}}}} 1987: 1981: 1973: 1808: 1799: 1784: 1775: 1760: 1751: 1736: 1727: 1712: 1703: 1688: 1679: 1664: 1655: 1640: 1631: 1616: 1607: 1592: 1583: 1575: 1535: 1524: 1504: 1493: 1473: 1462: 1442: 1431: 1411: 1400: 1395: 1346: 1335: 1315: 1304: 1284: 1273: 1253: 1242: 1222: 1211: 1206: 1162: 1151: 1136: 1125: 1110: 1099: 1084: 1073: 1058: 1047: 1042: 1006: 989: 972: 955: 938: 921: 916: 769: 758: 749: 738: 720: 709: 700: 689: 671: 660: 651: 640: 622: 611: 602: 591: 586: 156: 148: 5542: 5540: 4879:inch (6.4 mm), corresponding to an 4123: 4101: 3521: 3211: 2586: 2206: 2009: 5912:, Bradford: Percy Lund & Co., 1895. 5285: 5079:Here is the situation as seen in 1899: 4969:Although he did not yet have access to 3208:Typical one-quarter-stop f-number scale 358:Stops, f-stop conventions, and exposure 327:lens has an entrance pupil diameter of 291:lens has an entrance pupil diameter of 276:lens has an entrance pupil diameter of 220:and its entrance pupil's diameter were 193:is the diameter of the entrance pupil ( 5936:Photographic Lenses: A Simple Treatise 5724: 5713: 4839:. This is of particular importance in 4270:in a very brightly lit place to about 815:Photographers sometimes express other 60:"). The f-number is also known as the 5995:Mees, Charles Edward Kenneth (1920). 5036:Photographic Society of Great Britain 4072:and the shutter speed closest to the 2583:Typical one-third-stop f-number scale 7: 5172:. In modern publications, the forms 4225:) at the edges for large apertures. 4180:, due to imperfect lens design, and 2203:Typical one-half-stop f-number scale 7573:Museums devoted to one photographer 5638:. Amherst Media, Inc. p. 163. 5548:"Kodak Motion Picture Camera Films" 5196:is set in a hooked italic form: ƒ. 4128:Shallow focus with a wide open lens 4046:and is measured in decibels. Every 72:, and it is key in determining the 7120:Timeline of photography technology 4695: 4692: 4572: 4552:reaching the camera sensor to the 4016:'s and electronic camera sensor's 1936:-stop increments, so the cameras' 172:{\displaystyle N={\frac {f}{D}}\ } 109:The f-number is also known as the 14: 7714:Logarithmic scales of measurement 5934:Conrad Beck and Herbert Andrews, 5807:Thomas Sutton and George Dawson, 5780:Field Guide to Geometrical Optics 5336:Field Guide to Geometrical Optics 4977:in 1893, Dallmeyer knew that his 4938:the "intensity ratio" of a lens: 4294:of a simple optical system where 1960:Standard full-stop f-number scale 434:In photography, stops are also a 84:of a photograph. The f-number is 7671: 7661: 7660: 5487:Transmission, light transmission 5239: 5225: 4156:, the subject distance, and the 902:, and one whole stop smaller is 844: 835: 249:, which changes the size of the 7672: 6028:. London: Macmillan. p. 83 5998:The Fundamentals of Photography 5583:from the original on 2012-11-10 5554:. November 2000. Archived from 4465: 4449: 4188:image is often obtained around 3771: 3449: 3044: 2479: 2073: 302:lens is four times that of the 245:Most lenses have an adjustable 5837:Southall, James P. C. (1910). 5601:Michael John Langford (2000). 4950:by the diameter of the actual 4801: 4793: 4734: 4726: 4652:is used. The working f-number 4256:Computing the f-number of the 3891:. A particular lens's T-stop, 1532: 1521: 1501: 1490: 1470: 1459: 1439: 1428: 1408: 1397: 1343: 1332: 1312: 1301: 1281: 1270: 1250: 1239: 1219: 1208: 1159: 1148: 1133: 1122: 1107: 1096: 1081: 1070: 1055: 1044: 766: 755: 717: 706: 668: 657: 619: 608: 1: 7170:Painted photography backdrops 7102:Golden triangle (composition) 6377:35 mm equivalent focal length 5959:Ives, Herbert Eugene (1920). 5778:Greivenkamp, John E. (2004). 5466:(2nd ed.). Focal Press. 5439:. Guild of Master Craftsman. 5412:(3rd ed.). Focal Press. 5334:Greivenkamp, John E. (2004). 5137:Typographical standardization 4772:is the uncorrected f-number, 4373:. It is still defined as the 5897:Ilford Manual of Photography 5742:Driggers, Ronald G. (2003). 4855:Origins of relative aperture 6880:Intentional camera movement 6001:. Eastman Kodak. p. 28 5871:Astronomy and Astro-physics 5809:A Dictionary of Photography 5463:Manual for cinematographers 5460:David W. Samuelson (1998). 3883:). A lens with a T-stop of 1956:-stop setting in the lens. 1378:The steps in a third stop ( 7732: 7568:Most expensive photographs 6925:Multi-exposure HDR capture 5886:, London: Heinemann, 1899. 5297:Modern Optical Engineering 5164:appeared in books both as 5014:Aperture numbering systems 5004:Thomas Rudolphus Dallmeyer 4556:on the focal plane of the 4098:Effects on image sharpness 1189:The steps in a half stop ( 18: 7656: 5843:. Macmillan. p. 537. 5782:. SPIE Field Guides vol. 4420:or by the diameter of an 4282:Focal ratio in telescopes 4020:is often specified using 3772: 3524: 3450: 3214: 3045: 2589: 2480: 2209: 2138: 2074: 2012: 309:lens. To obtain the same 111:inverse relative aperture 21:F-number (disambiguation) 7502:Digital image processing 5860:Breslau: Trewendt, 1893. 5265:Photographic lens design 4400:divided by its diameter 895:, two-thirds smaller is 7175:Photography and the law 5873:XIII pp. 241–243, 1894. 5691:"LSST Reference Design" 5002:J. H. Dallmeyer's son, 4965:is the intensity ratio. 4338:is the diameter of the 4083:and a shutter speed of 52:by the diameter of the 7704:Science of photography 7522:Gelatin silver process 6546:Science of photography 6531:Photographic processes 6509:Perspective distortion 5823:John Henry Dallmeyer, 5723:Cite journal requires 5659:Hecht, Eugene (1987). 5634:Levy, Michael (2001). 5436:Underwater photography 5309:Hecht, Eugene (1987). 5157: 5149: 5086: 5023: 4996: 4967: 4932: 4904: 4809: 4760: 4619: 4482: 4414: 4390: 4367: 4342: 4332: 4308: 4129: 4121: 4037: 3975: 3927: 1999: 1827: 1559: 1370: 1181: 1027: 791: 414: 381: 173: 37: 32:Diagram of decreasing 7709:Dimensionless numbers 6980:Schlieren photography 6519:Photographic printing 6442:Exposure compensation 5882:Thomas R. Dallmeyer, 5406:Harry C. Box (2003). 5207:standard PH2.12-1961 5155: 5144: 5085: 5021: 5010:terminology in 1899. 4983: 4940: 4933: 4888: 4810: 4761: 4620: 4483: 4415: 4391: 4368: 4333: 4309: 4289: 4127: 4105: 4035: 3976: 3928: 2000: 1828: 1560: 1371: 1182: 1028: 792: 387: 365: 311:photographic exposure 174: 31: 16:Measure of lens speed 6764:Straight photography 6402:Chromatic aberration 6019:Derr, Louis (1906). 5962:Airplane Photography 4914: 4908:John Henry Dallmeyer 4789: 4665: 4566: 4544:Camera equation (G#) 4430: 4424:stop in the system: 4404: 4380: 4357: 4322: 4298: 4113:(top-left half) and 4018:sensitivity to light 3944: 3899: 1972: 1574: 1394: 1388:EV) series would be 1205: 1199:EV) series would be 1041: 915: 585: 212:. For example, if a 147: 113:, because it is the 19:For other uses, see 7631:photographic plates 7316:Digital photography 6494:Hyperfocal distance 6407:Circle of confusion 5921:C. Welborne Piper, 5856:Siegfried Czapski, 5255:Circle of confusion 4931:{\displaystyle 1/N} 4829:pupil magnification 4808:{\displaystyle |m|} 4781:is the image-space 4462: 4120:(bottom-right half) 810:reciprocity failure 7699:Optical quantities 7135:Autochrome Lumière 7130:Analog photography 6955:Pigeon photography 6744:Social documentary 6223:discontinued films 5530:2018-01-04 at the 5511:2018-01-04 at the 5492:2021-05-08 at the 5372:Modern Lens Design 5160:By 1920, the term 5158: 5150: 5087: 5024: 4928: 4805: 4783:numerical aperture 4756: 4615: 4478: 4410: 4386: 4363: 4343: 4328: 4304: 4138:nature photography 4130: 4122: 4038: 3995:Smooth Trans Focus 3971: 3923: 1995: 1865:second instead of 1823: 1555: 1366: 1177: 1023: 787: 464:geometric sequence 415: 382: 216:focal length were 195:effective aperture 169: 123:numerical aperture 38: 7686: 7685: 7487:Collodion process 7423:Chromogenic print 7410:Color photography 6920:Multiple exposure 6895:Lo-fi photography 6422:Color temperature 5895:C. H. Bothamley, 5827:, pamphlet, 1874. 5755:978-0-8247-4252-2 5645:978-1-58428-054-5 5605:Basic Photography 5473:978-0-240-51480-2 5446:978-1-86108-322-7 5433:Paul Kay (2003). 5419:978-0-240-80495-8 5374:2005 McGraw-Hill. 5030:For example, the 4975:Siegfried Czapski 4910:called the ratio 4841:macro photography 4742: 4706: 4609: 4518:For example, the 4511:, film plate, or 4500:optical telescope 4463: 4447: 4413:{\displaystyle D} 4389:{\displaystyle f} 4366:{\displaystyle N} 4331:{\displaystyle D} 4307:{\displaystyle f} 4166:von Rohr's method 4014:Photographic film 3963: 3962: 3918: 3917: 3916: 3863:Rodenstock Imagon 3842: 3841: 3520: 3519: 3181: 3180: 2580: 2579: 2200: 2199: 1993: 1990: 1819: 1795: 1771: 1747: 1723: 1699: 1675: 1651: 1627: 1603: 1551: 1543: 1529: 1520: 1512: 1498: 1489: 1481: 1467: 1458: 1450: 1436: 1427: 1419: 1405: 1362: 1354: 1340: 1331: 1323: 1309: 1300: 1292: 1278: 1269: 1261: 1247: 1238: 1230: 1216: 1173: 1156: 1147: 1130: 1121: 1104: 1095: 1078: 1069: 1052: 1019: 1002: 985: 968: 951: 934: 821:logarithmic scale 783: 776: 763: 734: 727: 714: 685: 678: 665: 636: 629: 616: 168: 164: 119:relative aperture 106:is the f-number. 7721: 7675: 7674: 7664: 7663: 7542:Print permanence 7492:Cross processing 7450:CMYK color model 7435:Color management 7388:Foveon X3 sensor 7383:Three-CCD camera 7027:Miniature faking 6985:Sabattier effect 6597:Astrophotography 6452:Zebra patterning 6078: 6071: 6064: 6055: 6037: 6036: 6034: 6033: 6027: 6016: 6010: 6009: 6007: 6006: 5992: 5986: 5985: 5983: 5982: 5967: 5956: 5950: 5945: 5939: 5932: 5926: 5919: 5913: 5908:John A. Hodges, 5906: 5900: 5893: 5887: 5880: 5874: 5867: 5861: 5854: 5845: 5844: 5834: 5828: 5821: 5812: 5805: 5799: 5797: 5775: 5766: 5765: 5763: 5762: 5739: 5733: 5732: 5726: 5721: 5719: 5711: 5709: 5708: 5702: 5695: 5686: 5680: 5678: 5663:(2nd ed.). 5656: 5650: 5649: 5631: 5625: 5624: 5608: 5598: 5592: 5591: 5589: 5588: 5573: 5567: 5566: 5564: 5563: 5544: 5535: 5522: 5516: 5503: 5497: 5484: 5478: 5477: 5457: 5451: 5450: 5430: 5424: 5423: 5403: 5397: 5394:Area of a circle 5390: 5384: 5381: 5375: 5368: 5362: 5361: 5331: 5325: 5324: 5306: 5300: 5293: 5275:Preferred number 5249: 5244: 5243: 5242: 5235: 5230: 5229: 5132: 5130: 5125: 5123: 5118: 5116: 5111: 5109: 5100: 5098: 5075: 5070: 5058: 5056: 5051: 5049: 5044: 5042: 4979:working aperture 4964: 4963: 4959: 4952:working aperture 4948:equivalent focus 4937: 4935: 4934: 4929: 4924: 4900: 4899: 4895: 4885: 4883: 4878: 4877: 4873: 4868: 4867: 4863: 4826: 4814: 4812: 4811: 4806: 4804: 4796: 4780: 4771: 4765: 4763: 4762: 4757: 4748: 4744: 4743: 4738: 4737: 4729: 4723: 4707: 4705: 4704: 4703: 4698: 4682: 4677: 4676: 4658: 4650:working f-number 4639:Working f-number 4630: 4624: 4622: 4621: 4616: 4610: 4608: 4600: 4599: 4598: 4579: 4539: 4537: 4528: 4526: 4498:. When using an 4487: 4485: 4484: 4479: 4464: 4451: 4448: 4440: 4419: 4417: 4416: 4411: 4395: 4393: 4392: 4387: 4372: 4370: 4369: 4364: 4337: 4335: 4334: 4329: 4313: 4311: 4310: 4305: 4276: 4274: 4269: 4267: 4247: 4245: 4238: 4236: 4231:have a saying, " 4229:Photojournalists 4212: 4210: 4201: 4199: 4194: 4192: 4164:diameter (as in 4119: 4117: 4112: 4110: 4092: 4091: 4087: 4082: 4080: 4071: 4069: 4049: 3980: 3978: 3977: 3972: 3964: 3958: 3954: 3939: 3937: 3933:For example, an 3932: 3930: 3929: 3924: 3919: 3914: 3913: 3909: 3894: 3890: 3886: 3765: 3764: 3760: 3757: 3750: 3749: 3745: 3742: 3735: 3734: 3730: 3727: 3717: 3716: 3712: 3709: 3702: 3701: 3697: 3694: 3687: 3686: 3682: 3679: 3669: 3668: 3664: 3661: 3654: 3653: 3649: 3646: 3639: 3638: 3634: 3631: 3621: 3620: 3616: 3613: 3606: 3605: 3601: 3598: 3591: 3590: 3586: 3583: 3573: 3572: 3568: 3565: 3558: 3557: 3553: 3550: 3543: 3542: 3538: 3535: 3522: 3443: 3442: 3438: 3435: 3428: 3427: 3423: 3420: 3413: 3412: 3408: 3405: 3395: 3394: 3390: 3387: 3380: 3379: 3375: 3372: 3365: 3364: 3360: 3357: 3347: 3346: 3342: 3339: 3332: 3331: 3327: 3324: 3317: 3316: 3312: 3309: 3299: 3298: 3294: 3291: 3284: 3283: 3279: 3276: 3269: 3268: 3264: 3261: 3251: 3250: 3246: 3240: 3239: 3235: 3229: 3228: 3224: 3212: 3203: 3201: 3196: 3194: 3189: 3187: 3038: 3037: 3033: 3030: 3023: 3022: 3018: 3015: 3005: 3004: 3000: 2997: 2990: 2989: 2985: 2982: 2972: 2971: 2967: 2964: 2957: 2956: 2952: 2949: 2939: 2938: 2934: 2931: 2924: 2923: 2919: 2916: 2906: 2905: 2901: 2898: 2891: 2890: 2886: 2883: 2873: 2872: 2868: 2865: 2858: 2857: 2853: 2850: 2840: 2839: 2835: 2832: 2825: 2824: 2820: 2817: 2807: 2806: 2802: 2799: 2792: 2791: 2787: 2784: 2774: 2773: 2769: 2766: 2759: 2758: 2754: 2751: 2741: 2740: 2736: 2733: 2726: 2725: 2721: 2718: 2708: 2707: 2703: 2700: 2693: 2692: 2688: 2685: 2675: 2674: 2670: 2667: 2660: 2659: 2655: 2652: 2642: 2641: 2637: 2631: 2630: 2626: 2617: 2616: 2612: 2605: 2604: 2600: 2587: 2473: 2472: 2468: 2465: 2455: 2454: 2450: 2447: 2437: 2436: 2432: 2429: 2419: 2418: 2414: 2411: 2401: 2400: 2396: 2393: 2383: 2382: 2378: 2375: 2365: 2364: 2360: 2357: 2347: 2346: 2342: 2339: 2329: 2328: 2324: 2321: 2311: 2310: 2306: 2303: 2293: 2292: 2288: 2285: 2275: 2274: 2270: 2267: 2257: 2256: 2252: 2249: 2239: 2238: 2234: 2225: 2224: 2220: 2207: 2010: 2004: 2002: 2001: 1996: 1994: 1992: 1991: 1988: 1982: 1955: 1954: 1950: 1945: 1944: 1940: 1935: 1934: 1930: 1922: 1921: 1915: 1914: 1908: 1907: 1894: 1893: 1889: 1884: 1883: 1879: 1874: 1873: 1869: 1864: 1863: 1859: 1854: 1853: 1849: 1844: 1843: 1839: 1832: 1830: 1829: 1824: 1817: 1813: 1812: 1803: 1793: 1789: 1788: 1779: 1769: 1765: 1764: 1755: 1745: 1741: 1740: 1731: 1721: 1717: 1716: 1707: 1697: 1693: 1692: 1683: 1673: 1669: 1668: 1659: 1649: 1645: 1644: 1635: 1625: 1621: 1620: 1611: 1601: 1597: 1596: 1587: 1564: 1562: 1561: 1556: 1549: 1545: 1544: 1536: 1530: 1525: 1518: 1514: 1513: 1505: 1499: 1494: 1487: 1483: 1482: 1474: 1468: 1463: 1456: 1452: 1451: 1443: 1437: 1432: 1425: 1421: 1420: 1412: 1406: 1401: 1387: 1386: 1382: 1375: 1373: 1372: 1367: 1360: 1356: 1355: 1347: 1341: 1336: 1329: 1325: 1324: 1316: 1310: 1305: 1298: 1294: 1293: 1285: 1279: 1274: 1267: 1263: 1262: 1254: 1248: 1243: 1236: 1232: 1231: 1223: 1217: 1212: 1198: 1197: 1193: 1186: 1184: 1183: 1178: 1171: 1167: 1166: 1157: 1152: 1145: 1141: 1140: 1131: 1126: 1119: 1115: 1114: 1105: 1100: 1093: 1089: 1088: 1079: 1074: 1067: 1063: 1062: 1053: 1048: 1032: 1030: 1029: 1024: 1017: 1010: 1000: 993: 983: 976: 966: 959: 949: 942: 932: 925: 908: 906: 901: 899: 894: 892: 887: 885: 876: 875: 871: 848: 839: 827:Fractional stops 796: 794: 793: 788: 781: 777: 775: 774: 773: 764: 759: 750: 742: 732: 728: 726: 725: 724: 715: 710: 701: 693: 683: 679: 677: 676: 675: 666: 661: 652: 644: 634: 630: 628: 627: 626: 617: 612: 603: 595: 578: 576: 571: 569: 564: 562: 557: 555: 550: 548: 543: 541: 536: 534: 529: 527: 522: 520: 515: 513: 508: 506: 501: 499: 494: 492: 487: 485: 480: 478: 472:square root of 2 458: 457: 412: 410: 405: 403: 398: 396: 391: 380: 378: 374:lens capable of 373: 352: 348: 344: 342: 338: 334: 330: 326: 324: 319: 308: 306: 301: 299: 294: 290: 288: 283: 279: 275: 273: 268: 241: 234: 232: 230: 223: 219: 211: 207: 203: 201: 192: 184: 178: 176: 175: 170: 166: 165: 157: 140: 127:refractive index 98: 96: 92:with the format 7731: 7730: 7724: 7723: 7722: 7720: 7719: 7718: 7689: 7688: 7687: 7682: 7652: 7609: 7556: 7547:Push processing 7468: 7461: 7455:RGB color model 7404: 7310: 7194: 7106: 7072:Diagonal method 7058: 6798: 6702:Photojournalism 6565: 6397:Black-and-white 6365: 6344:Slide projector 6339:Movie projector 6218:available films 6087: 6082: 6045: 6040: 6031: 6029: 6025: 6018: 6017: 6013: 6004: 6002: 5994: 5993: 5989: 5980: 5978: 5976: 5965: 5958: 5957: 5953: 5946: 5942: 5933: 5929: 5920: 5916: 5907: 5903: 5894: 5890: 5881: 5877: 5868: 5864: 5855: 5848: 5836: 5835: 5831: 5822: 5815: 5806: 5802: 5794: 5777: 5776: 5769: 5760: 5758: 5756: 5741: 5740: 5736: 5722: 5712: 5706: 5704: 5700: 5693: 5688: 5687: 5683: 5675: 5658: 5657: 5653: 5646: 5633: 5632: 5628: 5621: 5600: 5599: 5595: 5586: 5584: 5575: 5574: 5570: 5561: 5559: 5546: 5545: 5538: 5532:Wayback Machine 5523: 5519: 5513:Wayback Machine 5504: 5500: 5494:Wayback Machine 5485: 5481: 5474: 5459: 5458: 5454: 5447: 5432: 5431: 5427: 5420: 5405: 5404: 5400: 5391: 5387: 5382: 5378: 5369: 5365: 5350: 5333: 5332: 5328: 5321: 5308: 5307: 5303: 5294: 5287: 5283: 5245: 5240: 5238: 5231: 5224: 5221: 5139: 5128: 5127: 5121: 5120: 5114: 5113: 5107: 5106: 5096: 5095: 5068: 5067: 5054: 5053: 5047: 5046: 5040: 5039: 5016: 5008:intensity ratio 4987:intensity ratio 4961: 4957: 4956: 4912: 4911: 4897: 4893: 4892: 4881: 4880: 4875: 4871: 4870: 4865: 4861: 4860: 4857: 4849: 4824: 4787: 4786: 4779: 4773: 4769: 4724: 4715: 4711: 4690: 4686: 4668: 4663: 4662: 4657: 4653: 4641: 4628: 4601: 4590: 4580: 4564: 4563: 4546: 4535: 4534: 4524: 4523: 4428: 4427: 4402: 4401: 4378: 4377: 4355: 4354: 4320: 4319: 4296: 4295: 4290:Diagram of the 4284: 4272: 4271: 4265: 4264: 4254: 4243: 4242: 4234: 4233: 4208: 4207: 4197: 4196: 4190: 4189: 4115: 4114: 4108: 4107: 4100: 4089: 4085: 4084: 4078: 4077: 4067: 4066: 4057: 4047: 4030: 4022:ASA/ISO numbers 4011: 4009:ASA/ISO numbers 3942: 3941: 3935: 3934: 3897: 3896: 3892: 3888: 3884: 3871: 3855:diffusion discs 3847: 3762: 3758: 3755: 3753: 3747: 3743: 3740: 3738: 3732: 3728: 3725: 3723: 3714: 3710: 3707: 3705: 3699: 3695: 3692: 3690: 3684: 3680: 3677: 3675: 3666: 3662: 3659: 3657: 3651: 3647: 3644: 3642: 3636: 3632: 3629: 3627: 3618: 3614: 3611: 3609: 3603: 3599: 3596: 3594: 3588: 3584: 3581: 3579: 3570: 3566: 3563: 3561: 3555: 3551: 3548: 3546: 3540: 3536: 3533: 3531: 3440: 3436: 3433: 3431: 3425: 3421: 3418: 3416: 3410: 3406: 3403: 3401: 3392: 3388: 3385: 3383: 3377: 3373: 3370: 3368: 3362: 3358: 3355: 3353: 3344: 3340: 3337: 3335: 3329: 3325: 3322: 3320: 3314: 3310: 3307: 3305: 3296: 3292: 3289: 3287: 3281: 3277: 3274: 3272: 3266: 3262: 3259: 3257: 3248: 3244: 3243: 3237: 3233: 3232: 3226: 3222: 3221: 3210: 3199: 3198: 3192: 3191: 3185: 3184: 3035: 3031: 3028: 3026: 3020: 3016: 3013: 3011: 3002: 2998: 2995: 2993: 2987: 2983: 2980: 2978: 2969: 2965: 2962: 2960: 2954: 2950: 2947: 2945: 2936: 2932: 2929: 2927: 2921: 2917: 2914: 2912: 2903: 2899: 2896: 2894: 2888: 2884: 2881: 2879: 2870: 2866: 2863: 2861: 2855: 2851: 2848: 2846: 2837: 2833: 2830: 2828: 2822: 2818: 2815: 2813: 2804: 2800: 2797: 2795: 2789: 2785: 2782: 2780: 2771: 2767: 2764: 2762: 2756: 2752: 2749: 2747: 2738: 2734: 2731: 2729: 2723: 2719: 2716: 2714: 2705: 2701: 2698: 2696: 2690: 2686: 2683: 2681: 2672: 2668: 2665: 2663: 2657: 2653: 2650: 2648: 2639: 2635: 2634: 2628: 2624: 2623: 2614: 2610: 2609: 2602: 2598: 2597: 2585: 2470: 2466: 2463: 2461: 2452: 2448: 2445: 2443: 2434: 2430: 2427: 2425: 2416: 2412: 2409: 2407: 2398: 2394: 2391: 2389: 2380: 2376: 2373: 2371: 2362: 2358: 2355: 2353: 2344: 2340: 2337: 2335: 2326: 2322: 2319: 2317: 2308: 2304: 2301: 2299: 2290: 2286: 2283: 2281: 2272: 2268: 2265: 2263: 2254: 2250: 2247: 2245: 2236: 2232: 2231: 2222: 2218: 2217: 2205: 1983: 1970: 1969: 1962: 1952: 1948: 1947: 1942: 1938: 1937: 1932: 1928: 1927: 1919: 1917: 1912: 1910: 1905: 1903: 1891: 1887: 1886: 1881: 1877: 1876: 1871: 1867: 1866: 1861: 1857: 1856: 1851: 1847: 1846: 1841: 1837: 1836: 1804: 1780: 1756: 1732: 1708: 1684: 1660: 1636: 1612: 1588: 1572: 1571: 1531: 1500: 1469: 1438: 1407: 1392: 1391: 1384: 1380: 1379: 1342: 1311: 1280: 1249: 1218: 1203: 1202: 1195: 1191: 1190: 1158: 1132: 1106: 1080: 1054: 1039: 1038: 913: 912: 904: 903: 897: 896: 890: 889: 883: 882: 873: 869: 868: 858: 857: 856: 855: 851: 850: 849: 841: 840: 829: 765: 754: 716: 705: 667: 656: 618: 607: 583: 582: 574: 573: 567: 566: 560: 559: 553: 552: 546: 545: 539: 538: 532: 531: 525: 524: 518: 517: 511: 510: 504: 503: 497: 496: 490: 489: 483: 482: 476: 475: 455: 453: 408: 407: 401: 400: 394: 393: 389: 376: 375: 371: 370:mounted with a 360: 350: 346: 340: 339: 336: 332: 328: 322: 321: 317: 304: 303: 297: 296: 292: 286: 285: 281: 277: 271: 270: 266: 236: 228: 227: 225: 221: 217: 209: 205: 199: 198: 190: 182: 145: 144: 138: 135: 94: 93: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 7729: 7728: 7725: 7717: 7716: 7711: 7706: 7701: 7691: 7690: 7684: 7683: 7681: 7680: 7669: 7657: 7654: 7653: 7651: 7650: 7645: 7640: 7635: 7634: 7633: 7628: 7617: 7615: 7611: 7610: 7608: 7607: 7606: 7605: 7600: 7595: 7590: 7580: 7575: 7570: 7564: 7562: 7558: 7557: 7555: 7554: 7549: 7544: 7539: 7534: 7529: 7524: 7519: 7514: 7509: 7504: 7499: 7494: 7489: 7484: 7479: 7473: 7471: 7463: 7462: 7460: 7459: 7458: 7457: 7452: 7447: 7442: 7432: 7427: 7426: 7425: 7414: 7412: 7406: 7405: 7403: 7402: 7397: 7392: 7391: 7390: 7385: 7380: 7375: 7365: 7360: 7355: 7350: 7349: 7348: 7343: 7338: 7337: 7336: 7324:Digital camera 7320: 7318: 7312: 7311: 7309: 7308: 7303: 7298: 7293: 7288: 7283: 7278: 7273: 7268: 7263: 7258: 7253: 7248: 7243: 7238: 7233: 7228: 7223: 7218: 7213: 7208: 7202: 7200: 7196: 7195: 7193: 7192: 7187: 7182: 7177: 7172: 7167: 7162: 7157: 7152: 7150:Camera obscura 7147: 7142: 7137: 7132: 7127: 7122: 7116: 7114: 7108: 7107: 7105: 7104: 7099: 7094: 7092:Rule of thirds 7089: 7084: 7079: 7074: 7068: 7066: 7060: 7059: 7057: 7056: 7051: 7046: 7041: 7036: 7031: 7030: 7029: 7019: 7014: 7013: 7012: 7002: 6997: 6992: 6987: 6982: 6977: 6972: 6967: 6962: 6957: 6952: 6947: 6942: 6937: 6932: 6927: 6922: 6917: 6912: 6907: 6902: 6897: 6892: 6887: 6882: 6877: 6872: 6867: 6862: 6860:Harris shutter 6857: 6855:Hand-colouring 6852: 6847: 6842: 6837: 6832: 6827: 6822: 6817: 6812: 6806: 6804: 6800: 6799: 6797: 6796: 6791: 6786: 6781: 6776: 6771: 6766: 6761: 6756: 6751: 6746: 6741: 6740: 6739: 6729: 6724: 6719: 6714: 6709: 6704: 6699: 6694: 6689: 6684: 6679: 6674: 6669: 6664: 6659: 6654: 6649: 6644: 6639: 6634: 6629: 6624: 6619: 6614: 6609: 6604: 6599: 6594: 6589: 6584: 6579: 6573: 6571: 6567: 6566: 6564: 6563: 6558: 6553: 6548: 6543: 6541:Red-eye effect 6538: 6533: 6528: 6527: 6526: 6516: 6511: 6506: 6501: 6496: 6491: 6486: 6481: 6476: 6475: 6474: 6469: 6459: 6454: 6449: 6447:Exposure value 6444: 6439: 6434: 6432:Depth of focus 6429: 6427:Depth of field 6424: 6419: 6414: 6409: 6404: 6399: 6394: 6389: 6384: 6379: 6373: 6371: 6367: 6366: 6364: 6363: 6358: 6357: 6356: 6346: 6341: 6336: 6331: 6326: 6325: 6324: 6319: 6314: 6309: 6304: 6299: 6294: 6284: 6283: 6282: 6277: 6272: 6267: 6262: 6257: 6252: 6247: 6242: 6232: 6227: 6226: 6225: 6220: 6215: 6210: 6205: 6200: 6190: 6185: 6184: 6183: 6178: 6168: 6167: 6166: 6161: 6156: 6151: 6146: 6141: 6136: 6131: 6126: 6121: 6116: 6111: 6106: 6095: 6093: 6089: 6088: 6083: 6081: 6080: 6073: 6066: 6058: 6052: 6051: 6044: 6043:External links 6041: 6039: 6038: 6011: 5987: 5974: 5951: 5940: 5927: 5914: 5901: 5888: 5875: 5862: 5846: 5829: 5813: 5800: 5792: 5767: 5754: 5734: 5725:|journal= 5681: 5673: 5665:Addison Wesley 5651: 5644: 5626: 5619: 5593: 5568: 5536: 5517: 5498: 5479: 5472: 5452: 5445: 5425: 5418: 5398: 5385: 5376: 5370:Smith, Warren 5363: 5348: 5342:. p. 29. 5326: 5319: 5301: 5295:Smith, Warren 5284: 5282: 5279: 5278: 5277: 5272: 5270:Pinhole camera 5267: 5262: 5257: 5251: 5250: 5236: 5233:Physics portal 5220: 5217: 5138: 5135: 5052:is U.S. 8 and 5032:Uniform System 5015: 5012: 4927: 4923: 4919: 4856: 4853: 4848: 4845: 4837:bellows factor 4819:of the lens's 4817:absolute value 4803: 4799: 4795: 4775: 4755: 4751: 4747: 4741: 4736: 4732: 4728: 4721: 4718: 4714: 4710: 4702: 4697: 4694: 4689: 4685: 4680: 4675: 4671: 4655: 4646:optical design 4640: 4637: 4614: 4607: 4604: 4597: 4593: 4589: 4586: 4583: 4577: 4574: 4571: 4545: 4542: 4496:depth of field 4477: 4474: 4471: 4468: 4461: 4458: 4454: 4446: 4443: 4438: 4435: 4409: 4385: 4362: 4327: 4303: 4283: 4280: 4253: 4250: 4206:) stopping to 4204:Tessar formula 4162:entrance pupil 4150:depth of field 4133:Depth of field 4106:Comparison of 4099: 4096: 4056: 4053: 4029: 4026: 4010: 4007: 3970: 3967: 3961: 3957: 3952: 3949: 3922: 3912: 3907: 3904: 3870: 3867: 3859:sieve aperture 3846: 3843: 3840: 3839: 3836: 3833: 3830: 3827: 3824: 3821: 3818: 3815: 3812: 3809: 3806: 3803: 3800: 3797: 3794: 3791: 3788: 3785: 3782: 3779: 3776: 3770: 3769: 3766: 3751: 3736: 3721: 3718: 3703: 3688: 3673: 3670: 3655: 3640: 3625: 3622: 3607: 3592: 3577: 3574: 3559: 3544: 3529: 3526: 3518: 3517: 3514: 3511: 3508: 3505: 3502: 3499: 3496: 3493: 3490: 3487: 3484: 3481: 3478: 3475: 3472: 3469: 3466: 3463: 3460: 3457: 3454: 3448: 3447: 3444: 3429: 3414: 3399: 3396: 3381: 3366: 3351: 3348: 3333: 3318: 3303: 3300: 3285: 3270: 3255: 3252: 3241: 3230: 3219: 3216: 3209: 3206: 3179: 3178: 3175: 3172: 3169: 3166: 3163: 3160: 3157: 3154: 3151: 3148: 3145: 3142: 3139: 3136: 3133: 3130: 3127: 3124: 3121: 3118: 3115: 3112: 3109: 3106: 3103: 3100: 3097: 3094: 3091: 3088: 3085: 3082: 3079: 3076: 3073: 3070: 3067: 3064: 3061: 3058: 3055: 3052: 3049: 3043: 3042: 3039: 3024: 3009: 3006: 2991: 2976: 2973: 2958: 2943: 2940: 2925: 2910: 2907: 2892: 2877: 2874: 2859: 2844: 2841: 2826: 2811: 2808: 2793: 2778: 2775: 2760: 2745: 2742: 2727: 2712: 2709: 2694: 2679: 2676: 2661: 2646: 2643: 2632: 2621: 2618: 2606: 2594: 2591: 2584: 2581: 2578: 2577: 2574: 2571: 2568: 2565: 2562: 2559: 2556: 2553: 2550: 2547: 2544: 2541: 2538: 2535: 2532: 2529: 2526: 2523: 2520: 2517: 2514: 2511: 2508: 2505: 2502: 2499: 2496: 2493: 2490: 2487: 2484: 2478: 2477: 2474: 2459: 2456: 2441: 2438: 2423: 2420: 2405: 2402: 2387: 2384: 2369: 2366: 2351: 2348: 2333: 2330: 2315: 2312: 2297: 2294: 2279: 2276: 2261: 2258: 2243: 2240: 2229: 2226: 2214: 2211: 2204: 2201: 2198: 2197: 2194: 2191: 2188: 2185: 2182: 2179: 2176: 2173: 2170: 2167: 2164: 2161: 2158: 2155: 2152: 2149: 2146: 2143: 2140: 2136: 2135: 2132: 2129: 2126: 2123: 2120: 2117: 2114: 2111: 2108: 2105: 2102: 2099: 2096: 2093: 2090: 2087: 2084: 2081: 2078: 2072: 2071: 2068: 2065: 2062: 2059: 2056: 2053: 2050: 2047: 2044: 2041: 2038: 2035: 2032: 2029: 2026: 2023: 2020: 2017: 2014: 1986: 1980: 1977: 1966:aperture value 1961: 1958: 1822: 1816: 1811: 1807: 1802: 1798: 1792: 1787: 1783: 1778: 1774: 1768: 1763: 1759: 1754: 1750: 1744: 1739: 1735: 1730: 1726: 1720: 1715: 1711: 1706: 1702: 1696: 1691: 1687: 1682: 1678: 1672: 1667: 1663: 1658: 1654: 1648: 1643: 1639: 1634: 1630: 1624: 1619: 1615: 1610: 1606: 1600: 1595: 1591: 1586: 1582: 1579: 1554: 1548: 1542: 1539: 1534: 1528: 1523: 1517: 1511: 1508: 1503: 1497: 1492: 1486: 1480: 1477: 1472: 1466: 1461: 1455: 1449: 1446: 1441: 1435: 1430: 1424: 1418: 1415: 1410: 1404: 1399: 1365: 1359: 1353: 1350: 1345: 1339: 1334: 1328: 1322: 1319: 1314: 1308: 1303: 1297: 1291: 1288: 1283: 1277: 1272: 1266: 1260: 1257: 1252: 1246: 1241: 1235: 1229: 1226: 1221: 1215: 1210: 1176: 1170: 1165: 1161: 1155: 1150: 1144: 1139: 1135: 1129: 1124: 1118: 1113: 1109: 1103: 1098: 1092: 1087: 1083: 1077: 1072: 1066: 1061: 1057: 1051: 1046: 1022: 1016: 1013: 1009: 1005: 999: 996: 992: 988: 982: 979: 975: 971: 965: 962: 958: 954: 948: 945: 941: 937: 931: 928: 924: 920: 862:iris diaphragm 853: 852: 843: 842: 834: 833: 832: 831: 830: 828: 825: 799:shutter speeds 786: 780: 772: 768: 762: 757: 753: 748: 745: 741: 737: 731: 723: 719: 713: 708: 704: 699: 696: 692: 688: 682: 674: 670: 664: 659: 655: 650: 647: 643: 639: 633: 625: 621: 615: 610: 606: 601: 598: 594: 590: 440:exposure value 359: 356: 163: 160: 155: 152: 134: 131: 74:depth of field 54:entrance pupil 15: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7727: 7726: 7715: 7712: 7710: 7707: 7705: 7702: 7700: 7697: 7696: 7694: 7679: 7670: 7668: 7659: 7658: 7655: 7649: 7646: 7644: 7641: 7639: 7636: 7632: 7629: 7627: 7624: 7623: 7622: 7619: 7618: 7616: 7612: 7604: 7601: 7599: 7596: 7594: 7591: 7589: 7586: 7585: 7584: 7583:Photographers 7581: 7579: 7576: 7574: 7571: 7569: 7566: 7565: 7563: 7559: 7553: 7550: 7548: 7545: 7543: 7540: 7538: 7535: 7533: 7530: 7528: 7525: 7523: 7520: 7518: 7515: 7513: 7510: 7508: 7505: 7503: 7500: 7498: 7495: 7493: 7490: 7488: 7485: 7483: 7480: 7478: 7477:Bleach bypass 7475: 7474: 7472: 7470: 7464: 7456: 7453: 7451: 7448: 7446: 7445:primary color 7443: 7441: 7438: 7437: 7436: 7433: 7431: 7430:Reversal film 7428: 7424: 7421: 7420: 7419: 7416: 7415: 7413: 7411: 7407: 7401: 7398: 7396: 7395:Image sharing 7393: 7389: 7386: 7384: 7381: 7379: 7376: 7374: 7371: 7370: 7369: 7366: 7364: 7361: 7359: 7356: 7354: 7351: 7347: 7344: 7342: 7339: 7335: 7332: 7331: 7330: 7327: 7326: 7325: 7322: 7321: 7319: 7317: 7313: 7307: 7304: 7302: 7299: 7297: 7296:United States 7294: 7292: 7289: 7287: 7284: 7282: 7279: 7277: 7274: 7272: 7269: 7267: 7264: 7262: 7259: 7257: 7254: 7252: 7249: 7247: 7244: 7242: 7239: 7237: 7234: 7232: 7229: 7227: 7224: 7222: 7219: 7217: 7214: 7212: 7209: 7207: 7204: 7203: 7201: 7197: 7191: 7188: 7186: 7183: 7181: 7178: 7176: 7173: 7171: 7168: 7166: 7163: 7161: 7158: 7156: 7155:Daguerreotype 7153: 7151: 7148: 7146: 7143: 7141: 7138: 7136: 7133: 7131: 7128: 7126: 7123: 7121: 7118: 7117: 7115: 7113: 7109: 7103: 7100: 7098: 7095: 7093: 7090: 7088: 7085: 7083: 7080: 7078: 7075: 7073: 7070: 7069: 7067: 7065: 7061: 7055: 7052: 7050: 7047: 7045: 7042: 7040: 7037: 7035: 7032: 7028: 7025: 7024: 7023: 7020: 7018: 7015: 7011: 7008: 7007: 7006: 7003: 7001: 7000:Stopping down 6998: 6996: 6993: 6991: 6988: 6986: 6983: 6981: 6978: 6976: 6973: 6971: 6968: 6966: 6965:Rephotography 6963: 6961: 6958: 6956: 6953: 6951: 6948: 6946: 6943: 6941: 6938: 6936: 6933: 6931: 6928: 6926: 6923: 6921: 6918: 6916: 6913: 6911: 6908: 6906: 6903: 6901: 6900:Long-exposure 6898: 6896: 6893: 6891: 6888: 6886: 6883: 6881: 6878: 6876: 6873: 6871: 6868: 6866: 6863: 6861: 6858: 6856: 6853: 6851: 6848: 6846: 6843: 6841: 6838: 6836: 6833: 6831: 6828: 6826: 6823: 6821: 6818: 6816: 6813: 6811: 6808: 6807: 6805: 6801: 6795: 6792: 6790: 6787: 6785: 6782: 6780: 6777: 6775: 6772: 6770: 6767: 6765: 6762: 6760: 6757: 6755: 6752: 6750: 6747: 6745: 6742: 6738: 6735: 6734: 6733: 6730: 6728: 6725: 6723: 6720: 6718: 6715: 6713: 6710: 6708: 6705: 6703: 6700: 6698: 6695: 6693: 6690: 6688: 6685: 6683: 6680: 6678: 6675: 6673: 6670: 6668: 6665: 6663: 6660: 6658: 6655: 6653: 6650: 6648: 6645: 6643: 6640: 6638: 6635: 6633: 6630: 6628: 6625: 6623: 6620: 6618: 6615: 6613: 6610: 6608: 6605: 6603: 6600: 6598: 6595: 6593: 6592:Architectural 6590: 6588: 6585: 6583: 6580: 6578: 6575: 6574: 6572: 6568: 6562: 6559: 6557: 6554: 6552: 6551:Shutter speed 6549: 6547: 6544: 6542: 6539: 6537: 6534: 6532: 6529: 6525: 6522: 6521: 6520: 6517: 6515: 6512: 6510: 6507: 6505: 6504:Metering mode 6502: 6500: 6497: 6495: 6492: 6490: 6487: 6485: 6482: 6480: 6477: 6473: 6470: 6468: 6465: 6464: 6463: 6460: 6458: 6455: 6453: 6450: 6448: 6445: 6443: 6440: 6438: 6435: 6433: 6430: 6428: 6425: 6423: 6420: 6418: 6417:Color balance 6415: 6413: 6410: 6408: 6405: 6403: 6400: 6398: 6395: 6393: 6390: 6388: 6385: 6383: 6382:Angle of view 6380: 6378: 6375: 6374: 6372: 6368: 6362: 6359: 6355: 6352: 6351: 6350: 6347: 6345: 6342: 6340: 6337: 6335: 6332: 6330: 6329:Manufacturers 6327: 6323: 6320: 6318: 6315: 6313: 6310: 6308: 6305: 6303: 6300: 6298: 6295: 6293: 6290: 6289: 6288: 6285: 6281: 6278: 6276: 6273: 6271: 6268: 6266: 6263: 6261: 6258: 6256: 6253: 6251: 6248: 6246: 6243: 6241: 6238: 6237: 6236: 6233: 6231: 6228: 6224: 6221: 6219: 6216: 6214: 6211: 6209: 6206: 6204: 6201: 6199: 6196: 6195: 6194: 6191: 6189: 6186: 6182: 6179: 6177: 6174: 6173: 6172: 6169: 6165: 6162: 6160: 6157: 6155: 6152: 6150: 6147: 6145: 6142: 6140: 6137: 6135: 6132: 6130: 6127: 6125: 6122: 6120: 6117: 6115: 6112: 6110: 6107: 6105: 6102: 6101: 6100: 6097: 6096: 6094: 6090: 6086: 6079: 6074: 6072: 6067: 6065: 6060: 6059: 6056: 6050: 6047: 6046: 6042: 6024: 6023: 6015: 6012: 6000: 5999: 5991: 5988: 5977: 5975:9780598722225 5971: 5964: 5963: 5955: 5952: 5949: 5948:Google search 5944: 5941: 5937: 5931: 5928: 5924: 5918: 5915: 5911: 5905: 5902: 5898: 5892: 5889: 5885: 5879: 5876: 5872: 5866: 5863: 5859: 5853: 5851: 5847: 5842: 5841: 5833: 5830: 5826: 5820: 5818: 5814: 5810: 5804: 5801: 5795: 5793:0-8194-5294-7 5789: 5785: 5781: 5774: 5772: 5768: 5757: 5751: 5748:. CRC Press. 5747: 5746: 5738: 5735: 5730: 5717: 5703:on 2009-03-06 5699: 5692: 5685: 5682: 5676: 5674:0-201-11609-X 5670: 5666: 5662: 5655: 5652: 5647: 5641: 5637: 5630: 5627: 5622: 5620:0-240-51592-7 5616: 5612: 5607: 5606: 5597: 5594: 5582: 5578: 5572: 5569: 5558:on 2002-10-02 5557: 5553: 5552:Eastman Kodak 5549: 5543: 5541: 5537: 5534:, LensTip.com 5533: 5529: 5526: 5521: 5518: 5514: 5510: 5507: 5502: 5499: 5495: 5491: 5488: 5483: 5480: 5475: 5469: 5465: 5464: 5456: 5453: 5448: 5442: 5438: 5437: 5429: 5426: 5421: 5415: 5411: 5410: 5402: 5399: 5395: 5389: 5386: 5380: 5377: 5373: 5367: 5364: 5359: 5355: 5351: 5349:9780819452948 5345: 5341: 5337: 5330: 5327: 5322: 5320:0-201-11609-X 5316: 5312: 5305: 5302: 5298: 5292: 5290: 5286: 5280: 5276: 5273: 5271: 5268: 5266: 5263: 5261: 5258: 5256: 5253: 5252: 5248: 5237: 5234: 5228: 5223: 5218: 5216: 5214: 5210: 5206: 5201: 5197: 5195: 5191: 5187: 5183: 5179: 5175: 5171: 5167: 5163: 5154: 5147: 5146:Yashica-D TLR 5143: 5136: 5134: 5103: 5092: 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1875:, 1872:16 1862:60 1852:30 1845:, 1842:15 1806:22 1782:21 1758:20 1749:80 1734:19 1725:64 1710:18 1701:50 1686:17 1677:40 1662:16 1653:32 1638:15 1629:25 1614:14 1605:20 1590:13 1581:16 907:/4 572:, 565:, 558:, 551:, 544:, 537:, 530:, 523:, 521:/8 516:, 509:, 507:/4 502:, 495:, 493:/2 488:, 481:, 479:/1 404:/2 388:A 366:A 343:/4 325:/4 316:A 307:/4 300:/2 289:/2 274:/4 242:. 240:/2 231:/2 76:, 64:, 6077:e 6070:t 6063:v 6035:. 6008:. 5984:. 5796:. 5764:. 5731:) 5727:( 5710:. 5677:. 5648:. 5623:. 5590:. 5565:. 5476:. 5449:. 5422:. 5396:. 5360:. 5323:. 5186:f 5129:f 5122:f 5115:f 5108:f 5097:f 5073:x 5071:/ 5069:f 5055:f 5048:f 5041:f 4962:3 4958:1 4926:N 4922:/ 4918:1 4898:4 4894:1 4882:f 4876:4 4872:1 4862:1 4825:P 4802:| 4798:m 4794:| 4777:i 4770:N 4754:, 4750:N 4746:) 4740:P 4735:| 4731:m 4727:| 4720:+ 4717:1 4713:( 4701:i 4696:A 4693:N 4688:2 4684:1 4674:w 4670:N 4656:w 4654:N 4629:τ 4613:, 4596:2 4592:N 4588:4 4585:+ 4582:1 4576:= 4570:G 4536:f 4525:f 4476:D 4473:N 4470:= 4467:f 4460:D 4445:D 4442:f 4437:= 4434:N 4408:D 4384:f 4361:N 4326:D 4302:f 4273:f 4266:f 4244:f 4235:f 4209:f 4198:f 4195:– 4191:f 4116:f 4109:f 4086:1 4079:f 4068:f 3966:= 3951:= 3948:T 3936:f 3921:. 3911:N 3906:= 3903:T 3893:T 3889:N 3885:N 3790:8 3774:N 3763:4 3759:3 3756:+ 3754:9 3748:2 3744:1 3741:+ 3739:9 3733:4 3729:1 3726:+ 3724:9 3720:9 3715:4 3711:3 3708:+ 3706:8 3700:2 3696:1 3693:+ 3691:8 3685:4 3681:1 3678:+ 3676:8 3672:8 3667:4 3663:3 3660:+ 3658:7 3652:2 3648:1 3645:+ 3643:7 3637:4 3633:1 3630:+ 3628:7 3624:7 3619:4 3615:3 3612:+ 3610:6 3604:2 3600:1 3597:+ 3595:6 3589:4 3585:1 3582:+ 3580:6 3576:6 3571:4 3567:3 3564:+ 3562:5 3556:2 3552:1 3549:+ 3547:5 3541:4 3537:1 3534:+ 3532:5 3528:5 3504:4 3480:2 3452:N 3441:4 3437:3 3434:+ 3432:4 3426:2 3422:1 3419:+ 3417:4 3411:4 3407:1 3404:+ 3402:4 3398:4 3393:4 3389:3 3386:+ 3384:3 3378:2 3374:1 3371:+ 3369:3 3363:4 3359:1 3356:+ 3354:3 3350:3 3345:4 3341:3 3338:+ 3336:2 3330:2 3326:1 3323:+ 3321:2 3315:4 3311:1 3308:+ 3306:2 3302:2 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2467:1 2464:+ 2453:2 2449:1 2446:+ 2435:2 2431:1 2428:+ 2417:2 2413:1 2410:+ 2399:2 2395:1 2392:+ 2390:9 2386:9 2381:2 2377:1 2374:+ 2372:8 2368:8 2363:2 2359:1 2356:+ 2354:7 2350:7 2345:2 2341:1 2338:+ 2336:6 2332:6 2327:2 2323:1 2320:+ 2318:5 2314:5 2309:2 2305:1 2302:+ 2300:4 2296:4 2291:2 2287:1 2284:+ 2282:3 2278:3 2273:2 2269:1 2266:+ 2264:2 2260:2 2255:2 2251:1 2248:+ 2246:1 2242:1 2237:2 2233:1 2228:0 2223:2 2219:1 2216:− 2104:8 2098:4 2092:2 2076:N 2049:9 2046:8 2043:7 2040:6 2037:5 2034:4 2031:3 2028:2 2025:1 2022:0 1985:2 1979:= 1976:N 1953:8 1949:1 1943:3 1939:1 1933:8 1929:1 1920:2 1913:2 1906:2 1888:1 1878:1 1868:1 1858:1 1848:1 1838:1 1815:, 1801:/ 1791:, 1777:/ 1767:, 1753:/ 1743:, 1729:/ 1719:, 1705:/ 1695:, 1681:/ 1671:, 1657:/ 1647:, 1633:/ 1623:, 1609:/ 1599:, 1585:/ 1547:, 1541:3 1538:4 1533:) 1527:2 1522:( 1516:, 1510:3 1507:3 1502:) 1496:2 1491:( 1485:, 1479:3 1476:2 1471:) 1465:2 1460:( 1454:, 1448:3 1445:1 1440:) 1434:2 1429:( 1423:, 1417:3 1414:0 1409:) 1403:2 1398:( 1385:3 1381:1 1358:, 1352:2 1349:4 1344:) 1338:2 1333:( 1327:, 1321:2 1318:3 1313:) 1307:2 1302:( 1296:, 1290:2 1287:2 1282:) 1276:2 1271:( 1265:, 1259:2 1256:1 1251:) 1245:2 1240:( 1234:, 1228:2 1225:0 1220:) 1214:2 1209:( 1196:2 1192:1 1169:, 1164:4 1160:) 1154:2 1149:( 1143:, 1138:3 1134:) 1128:2 1123:( 1117:, 1112:2 1108:) 1102:2 1097:( 1091:, 1086:1 1082:) 1076:2 1071:( 1065:, 1060:0 1056:) 1050:2 1045:( 1015:, 1012:8 1008:/ 1004:f 998:, 991:/ 987:f 981:, 974:/ 970:f 964:, 957:/ 953:f 947:, 944:5 940:/ 936:f 930:, 923:/ 919:f 905:f 898:f 891:f 884:f 874:3 870:1 779:, 771:3 767:) 761:2 756:( 752:f 747:= 740:/ 736:f 730:, 722:2 718:) 712:2 707:( 703:f 698:= 695:2 691:/ 687:f 681:, 673:1 669:) 663:2 658:( 654:f 649:= 642:/ 638:f 632:, 624:0 620:) 614:2 609:( 605:f 600:= 597:1 593:/ 589:f 575:f 568:f 561:f 554:f 547:f 540:f 533:f 526:f 519:f 512:f 505:f 498:f 491:f 484:f 477:f 456:2 413:. 409:f 402:f 395:f 377:f 341:f 323:f 305:f 298:f 287:f 272:f 238:f 233:" 229:f 226:" 210:N 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