1166:
27:
531:
865:
characterized by a decrease in resistance as the heater temperature increases and thus have a higher power at higher temperatures for a given input voltage. PTC heaters behave in an opposite manner with an increase of resistance and decreasing heater power at elevated temperatures. This characteristic of PTC heaters makes them self-regulating, as their power stabilizes at fixed temperatures. On the other hand, NTC-type heaters generally require a thermostat or a
824:
714:
398:
832:
uniformity, quick thermal response due to low thermal mass, high energy density, and wide range of voltage compatibility. Typically, thick-film heaters are printed on flat substrates, as well as on tubes in different heater patterns. These heaters can attain power densities of as high as 100 W/cm depending on the heat transfer conditions. The thick-film heater patterns are highly customizable based on the
137:
670:
727:
552:
437:. Compared to wire, ribbon can be bent with a tighter radius and can produce heat faster and at a lower cost due to its higher surface area to volume ratio. On the other hand, ribbon life is often shorter than wire life and the price per unit mass of ribbon is generally higher. In many applications, resistance ribbon is wound around a mica card or on one of its sides.
989:, are described by an ASTM standard. Manufacturers may opt to use this class of alloys as opposed to Ni-Cr(Fe) alloys to avoid the typically relatively higher cost of nickel as a raw material compared to aluminum. The tradeoff is that Fe-Cr-Al alloys are more brittle and less ductile than Ni-Cr(Fe) ones, making them more delicate and prone to failure.
1097:. New generation hot surface igniter for gas furnace and diesel engine glow plug are made of silicon nitride material. Such heating element or glow plug reach a maximum temperature of 1400 °C and are quick to ignite gasoline or kerosene. The material is also used in diesel and spark ignited engines for other combustion components and wear parts.
861:
heater design helps to control the heating power and modulate the local temperatures across the heater substrate. In cases where there is a requirement of two or more heating zones with different power densities over a relatively small area, a thick-film heater can be designed to achieve a zonal heating pattern on a single substrate.
685:
increases exponentially with increasing temperature. Such a heater will produce high power when it is cold, and rapidly heat itself to a constant temperature. Due to the exponentially increasing resistivity, the heater can never heat itself to warmer than this temperature. Above this temperature, the
860:
For most applications, the thermal performance and temperature distribution are the two key design parameters. In order to maintain a uniform temperature distribution across a substrate, the circuit design can be optimized by changing the localized power density of the resistor circuit. An optimized
922:
While the majority of atoms in these alloys correspond to the ones listed in their name, they also consist of trace elements. Trace elements play an important role in resistance alloys, as they have a substantial influence on mechanical properties such as work-ability, form stability, and oxidation
831:
Thick-film heaters are a type of resistive heater that can be printed on a thin substrate. Thick-film heaters exhibit various advantages over the conventional metal-sheathed resistance elements. In general, thick-film elements are characterized by their low-profile form factor, improved temperature
493:
Heating element terminals serve to isolate the active resistance material from the leads. Terminals are designed to have a lower resistance than the active material by having with a lower resistivity and/or a larger diameter. They may also have a lower oxidation resistance than the active material.
931:
are used to classify trace elements. Contaminates typically have undesirable effects such as decreased life and limited temperature range. Enhancements are intentionally added by the manufacturer and may provide improvements such as increased oxide layer adhesion, greater ability to hold shape, or
660:
Etched foil elements are generally made from the same alloys as resistance wire elements, but are produced with a subtractive photo-etching process that starts with a continuous sheet of metal foil and ends with a complex resistance pattern. These elements are commonly found in precision heating
992:
On the other hand, the aluminum oxide layer that forms on the surface of Fe-Cr-Al alloys is more thermodynamically stable than the chromium oxide layer that tends to form on Ni-Cr(Fe), making Fe-Cr-Al better at resisting corrosion. However, humidity may be more detrimental to the wire life of
651:
Removable ceramic core elements use a coiled resistance heating alloy wire threaded through one or more cylindrical ceramic segments to make a required length (related to output), with or without a center rod. Inserted into a metal sheath or tube sealed at one end, this type of element allows
864:
Thick-film heaters can largely be characterized under two subcategories – negative-temperature-coefficient (NTC) and positive-temperature-coefficient (PTC) materials – based on the effect of temperature changes on the element's resistance. NTC-type heaters are
432:
heating elements are made by flattening round resistance wire, giving them a rectangular cross-section with rounded corners. Generally ribbon widths are between 0.3 and 4 mm. If a ribbon is wider than that, it is cut out from a broader strip and may instead be called resistance
852:
There are several conventional applications of thick-film heaters. They can be used in griddles, waffle irons, stove-top electric heating, humidifiers, tea kettles, heat sealing devices, water heaters, clothes irons and steamers, hair straighteners, boilers, heated beds of
905:
Materials used in heating elements are selected for a variety of mechanical, thermal, and electrical properties. Due to the wide range of operating temperatures that these elements withstand, temperature dependencies of material properties are a common consideration.
75:
839:
These heaters can be printed on a variety of substrates including metal, ceramic, glass, and polymer using metal- or alloy-loaded thick-film pastes. The most common substrates used to print thick-film heaters are aluminum 6061-T6, stainless steel, and
1223:
The life of a heating element specifies how long it is expected to last in an application. Generally heating elements in a domestic appliance will be rated for between 500 and 5000 hours of use, depending on the type of product and how it is used.
1057:) an inter-metallic compound, a silicide of molybdenum, is a refractory ceramic primarily used in heating elements. It has moderate density, melting point 2030 °C (3686 °F) and is electrically conductive. At high temperatures it forms a
514:
In a suspended design, a resistance heater is attached at two or more points to normally either a ceramic or mica insulator. Suspended resistance heaters can transfer heat via convection and radiation, but not conduction as they are surrounded by
559:
Tubular or sheathed elements (also referred to by their brand name, Calrods®) normally comprise a fine coil of resistance wire surrounded by an electrical insulator and a metallic tube-shaped sheath or casing. Insulation is typically a
80:
448:
is a resistance wire that has a coiled shape. Coils are wound very tightly and then relax to up to 10 times their original length in use. Coils are classified by their diameter and the pitch, or number of coils per unit length.
857:, thermal print heads, glue guns, laboratory heating equipment, clothes dryers, baseboard heaters, warming trays, heat exchangers, deicing and defogging devices for car windshields, side mirrors, refrigerator defrosting, etc.
635:
film is deposited on the inside that reduces the visible light and allows most of the short and medium wave infrared through. Mainly for heating people. A number of manufacturers now manufacture these lamps and they improve
104:. Heating elements are used in household appliances, industrial equipment, and scientific instruments enabling them to perform tasks such as cooking, warming, or maintaining specific temperatures higher than the ambient.
869:
in order to control the heater runaway. These heaters are used in applications which require a quick ramp-up of heater temperature to a predetermined set-point as they are usually faster-acting than PTC-type heaters.
297:(Ω/m) of a heating element material is defined in ASTM and DIN standards. In ASTM, wires greater than 0.127 mm in diameter are specified to be held within a tolerance of ±5% Ω/m and for thinner wires ±8% Ω/m.
848:
mica sheets. The applications and operational characteristics of these heaters vary widely based on the chosen substrate materials. This is primarily attributed to the thermal characteristics of the substrates.
918:
are metals that can be used for electrical heating purposes above 600 °C in air. They can be distinguished from resistance alloys which are used primarily for resistors operating below 600 °C.
461:
serve to electrically and thermally insulate the resistance heater from the environment and foreign objects. Generally for elements that operate higher than 600 °C, ceramic insulators are used.
1119:
composites) have a highly nonlinear thermal response, so that above a composition-dependent threshold temperature their resistance increases rapidly. This behavior causes the material to act as a
521:
Supported heating elements are a combination of the suspended and embedded frameworks. In these assemblies, the resistance heater can transfer heat via conduction, convection, or radiation.
1735:
190:
1258:. The standard specifies limits for parameters such as insulation strength, creepage distance, and leakage current. It also provides tolerances on the rating of a heating element.
686:
rubber acts as an electrical insulator. The temperature can be chosen during the production of the rubber. Typical temperatures are between 0 and 80 °C (32 and 176 °F).
923:
life. Some of these trace elements may be present in the basic raw materials, while others may be added deliberately to improve the performance of the material. The terms
347:
518:
In an embedded heating element, the resistance heater is encased in the insulator. In this framework the heater can only transfer heat via conduction to the insulator.
2074:
2037:
1508:
1494:
1405:
1365:
1234:. Accelerated life tests for Ni-Cr(Fe) alloys and Fe-Cr-Al alloys intended for electrical heating are used to measure the cyclic oxidation resistance of materials.
257:
235:
283:
213:
1202:
In industries, heating elements are integral to processes such as metal smelting, plastic molding, and chemical reactions that require controlled temperatures.
1971:
Jang, Joohee; Parmar, Narendra S.; Choi, Won-Kook; Choi, Ji-Won (2020). "Rapid
Defrost Transparent Thin-Film Heater with Flexibility and Chemical Stability".
1789:
639:
Ruby-coated – Same function as the gold-coated lamps, but at a fraction of the cost. The visible glare is much higher than the gold variant.
1643:
627:
reflector-lamp form. The reflector lamp style is often tinted red to minimize the visible light produced; the tubular form comes in different formats:
1255:
603:-insulated metal (generally steel) plates have found widespread application as elements in kettles and other domestic appliances since the mid-1990s.
882:
uses electricity flowing through streams of water to create steam. Operating voltages are typically between 240 and 600 volts, single or three-phase
92:
is a device used for conversion of electric energy into heat, consisting of a heating resistor and accessories. Heat is generated by the passage of
973:
Nichrome 80/20 is one of the most commonly used resistance heating alloys because it has relatively high resistance and forms an adherent layer of
145:
1107:
materials are named for their positive thermal coefficient of resistance (i.e., resistance increases upon heating). While most ceramics have a
1905:
1719:
1570:
568:
insulator, the ends are equipped with beads of insulating material such as ceramic or silicone rubber, or a combination of both. The tube is
149:
305:
Heating element performance is often quantified by characterizing the power density of the element. Power density is defined as the output
1669:
977:
when it is heated for the first time. Material beneath this layer will not oxidize, preventing the wire from breaking or burning out.
370:
Heating elements with low power density tend to be more expensive but have longer life than heating elements with high power density.
373:
In the United States, power density is often referred to as 'watt density.' It is also sometimes referred to as 'wire surface load.'
1762:"New raster-scanned CO2 laser heater for pulsed laser deposition applications: design and modeling for homogenous substrate heating"
810:
1282:
1101:
744:
1214:
Heating elements are utilized in vehicles for applications like heated seats, rear window defrosters, and engine block heaters.
481:
Electrical leads serve to connect a heating element to a power source. They generally are made of conductive materials such as
473:
are compounds commonly used in ceramic heating element insulators. For lower temperatures a wider range of materials are used.
159:
791:
748:
763:
701:
means that every point of the heater independently keeps a constant temperature without the need of regulating electronics.
1246:. Generally the thinner the wire, the smaller the spool. In some cases pail packs or rings may be used instead of spools.
1702:
Radosavljević, Goran; Smetana, Walter (2012). "Printed heater elements". In
Prudenziati, Maria; Hormadaly, Jacob (eds.).
770:
1208:
Laboratories use heating elements in various equipment, including incubators, furnaces, and analytical instruments.
959:
that should be present in an alloy. In ASTM three alloys that are specified contain, amongst other trace elements:
1761:
1165:
737:
1344:
Specification for Drawn or Rolled Nickel-Chromium and Nickel-Chromium-Iron Alloys for
Electrical Heating Elements
1315:
777:
1000:
at room temperature after being heated in the temperature range of 400 to 575 °C for an extended duration.
705:
means that the heater can never exceed a certain temperature in any point and requires no overheat protection.
286:
26:
1806:
1316:"IEC 60050 - International Electrotechnical Vocabulary - Details for IEV number 841-23-14: "heating element""
1087:, which are heating elements designed for igniting flammable gas, are common in gas ovens and clothes dryers.
1058:
759:
44:
2016:
Test Method for
Accelerated Life of Nickel-Chromium and Nickel-Chromium-Iron Alloys for Electrical Heating
1120:
690:
1736:"Electrode and Electric Resistance Steam Generators and Hot Water Heaters for low carbon process heating"
1639:
1293:
1074:
1050:
1029:
652:
replacement or repair without breaking into the process involved, usually fluid heating under pressure.
2088:
1131:, in automotive rear-window defrost heaters, and honeycomb-shaped elements are used in more expensive
564:
powder and the sheath is normally constructed of a copper or steel alloy. To keep moisture out of the
2068:
2031:
1773:
1399:
1359:
1227:
A thinner wire or ribbon will always have a shorter life than a thicker one at the same temperature.
1143:. Such heating elements can reach temperatures of 950–1000 °C and can reach equilibrium quickly.
694:
1173:
Heating elements find application in a wide range of domestic, commercial, and industrial settings:
951:, are described by both ASTM and DIN standards. These standards specify the relative percentages of
1025:
883:
530:
418:
1996:
1953:
1615:
1254:
General safety requirements for heating elements used in household appliances are defined by the
1231:
1017:
108:
1930:
1591:
1423:
DIN 17470:1984-10, Heizleiterlegierungen; Technische
Lieferbedingungen für Rund- und Flachdrähte
823:
1470:
1445:
1384:
Specification for Drawn or Rolled Iron-Chromium-Aluminum Alloys for
Electrical Heating Elements
318:
1988:
1911:
1887:
1879:
1852:
1715:
1675:
1665:
1566:
1488:
1061:
layer of silicon dioxide, protecting it from further oxidation. The application area includes
612:
66:
784:
2106:
2056:
2019:
1980:
1945:
1844:
1781:
1707:
1426:
1387:
1347:
879:
833:
93:
242:
220:
1149:
1146:
1112:
1094:
1090:
1080:
986:
620:
596:
572:
to compress the powder and maximize heat transmission. These can be a straight rod (as in
561:
470:
466:
462:
392:
306:
485:
that do not have as high of a resistance to oxidation as the active resistance material.
1777:
2053:
Test Method of
Accelerated Life of Iron-Chromium-Aluminum Alloys for Electrical Heating
1704:
Printed Films: Materials
Science and Applications in Sensors, Electronics and Photonics
1662:
Printed films: materials science and applications in sensors, electronics and photonics
1277:
1267:
1062:
1037:
974:
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577:
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268:
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120:
74:
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2100:
2052:
2015:
2000:
1957:
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1181:
1136:
1116:
1070:
1066:
997:
631:
Gold-coated – Made famous by the patented
Phillips Helen lamp. A gold
101:
59:
136:
119:. They are different than devices that generate heat from electrical energy via the
1690:
1343:
1287:
1193:
1153:
1140:
866:
669:
585:
573:
569:
310:
1871:
1685:
1560:
417:, the diameter of resistance wire is often measured with a gauge system, such as
1711:
1272:
1010:
854:
726:
682:
565:
1832:
413:
s are very long and slender resistors that have a circular cross-section. Like
148:, which is a measure of the material's ability to resist electric current. The
1132:
1033:
845:
678:
356:
112:
1949:
1931:"A review of flexible electric heating element and electric heating garments"
1915:
1891:
1883:
1856:
1785:
1679:
1196:
rely on heating elements to generate the necessary heat for their functions.
1124:
841:
352:
116:
1992:
1984:
1741:. New Zealand: EECA Energy Efficiency and Conservation Authority. July 2019
1230:
Standardized life tests for resistance heating materials are described by
642:
Clear – No coating and mainly used in production processes.
1128:
1021:
956:
944:
632:
616:
97:
32:
2060:
2023:
1391:
897:
heaters are heating elements used for achieving very high temperatures.
1848:
1185:
1104:
1084:
948:
751: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
600:
403:
1422:
551:
502:
Heating elements are generally classified in one of three frameworks:
79:
1430:
1351:
1243:
1123:, since current passes when it is cool, and does not when it is hot.
952:
482:
260:
140:
A piece of resistive material with electrical contacts on both ends
1164:
915:
894:
822:
712:
668:
550:
529:
396:
215:
is the electrical resistance of a uniform specimen of the material
135:
123:, and have no dependence on the direction of electrical current.
581:
414:
364:
360:
1242:
Resistance wire and ribbon are most often shipped wound around
720:
576:) or bent to a shape to span an area to be heated (such as in
1907:
How to
Specify a PTC Heater for an Oven or Similar Appliance2
152:
that some amount of element material will have is defined by
355:(denoted Φ) and is most often expressed in watts per square
1929:
Fang, Shu; Wang, Rui; Ni, Haisu; Liu, Hao; Liu, Li (2022).
1446:"Understanding Watt Density When Choosing Flanged Elements"
623:
and food warmers, taking either a long, tubular form or an
313:, A, of the element. In mathematical terms it is given as:
144:
Materials used in heating elements have a relatively high
1562:
Integrating Electrical Heating Elements in Product Design
935:
The most common alloys used in heating elements include:
611:
Radiative heating elements (heat lamps) are high-powered
996:
Fe-Cr-Al alloys, like stainless steels, tend to undergo
1616:"Electric Stoves, Calrods and Cooking with Electricity"
615:
that run at less than maximum power to radiate mostly
1872:"Silicon Nitride (Si₃N₄) Properties and Applications"
661:
applications like medical diagnostics and aerospace.
619:
instead of visible light. These are usually found in
321:
271:
245:
223:
201:
162:
2089:
Household and similar electrical appliances - Safety
943:Ni-Cr(Fe) resistance heating alloys, also known as
65:
50:
40:
1831:Nichol, T. J.; Datta, A.; Aggen, G. (April 1980).
985:Fe-Cr-Al resistance heating alloys, also known as
341:
309:, P, from a heating element divided by the heated
277:
251:
229:
207:
184:
107:Heating elements may be used to transfer heat via
1706:. Oxford: Woodhead Publishing. pp. 429–468.
1256:International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC)
827:Thick-film heaters printed on a metal substrate
673:A flexible PTC heater made of conductive rubber
1020:are often made of exotic materials, including
1660:Prudenziati, Maria; Hormadaly, Jacob (2012).
8:
1833:"Embrittlement of ferritic stainless steels"
677:Resistive heaters can be made of conducting
19:
2073:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
2036:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
1807:"Why Your Toaster Will Eventually Fail You"
1760:Rashidian Vaziri, M R; et al. (2012).
1493:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
1404:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
1364:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
717:A thick-film heater printed on a mica sheet
402:A coiled heating element from an electric
25:
16:Device that converts electricity into heat
811:Learn how and when to remove this message
331:
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270:
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185:{\displaystyle R=\rho {\frac {\ell }{A}}}
172:
161:
31:A folded tubular heating element from an
939:Ni-Cr(Fe) alloys (AKA nichrome, Chromel)
1307:
2066:
2029:
1973:ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces
1811:Wirecutter: Reviews for the Real World
1664:. Cambridge, UK: Woodhead Publishing.
1486:
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1016:Heating elements for high-temperature
18:
1801:
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1169:Toaster with red hot heating elements
1127:of this material are used in heating
1095:silicon nitride § automotive industry
7:
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1335:
1180:Common household appliances such as
1111:coefficient, these materials (often
932:longer life at higher temperatures.
749:adding citations to reliable sources
1013:): Used for low temperature heating
599:metal–ceramic tracks deposited on
322:
237:is the resistivity of the material
14:
1910:. Process Heating. 26 May 2005.
1792:from the original on 2016-10-10.
1283:Positive temperature coefficient
725:
78:
73:
836:of the printed resistor paste.
736:needs additional citations for
647:Removable ceramic core elements
2055:(Report). ASTM International.
2018:(Report). ASTM International.
1938:Journal of Industrial Textiles
1469:iqsupport91hn7l (2014-11-03).
1386:(Report). ASTM International.
1346:(Report). ASTM International.
981:Fe-Cr-Al alloys (AKA Kanthal®)
351:Power density is a measure of
1:
1870:Sorrell, Chris (2001-02-06).
1596:TUTCO HEATING SOLUTIONS GROUP
1444:Toledano, Ilan (2022-10-04).
1425:(Report). Beuth Verlag GmbH.
1045:Ceramics & semiconductors
1837:Metallurgical Transactions A
1471:"Watt Density | What is it?"
665:Polymer PTC heating elements
555:Tubular oven heating element
132:Resistance & resistivity
1712:10.1533/9780857096210.2.429
1559:Hegbom, Thor (2017-12-19).
100:through a process known as
2123:
1509:"Resistance Wire Overview"
538:Resistance heating element
390:
295:resistance per wire length
1152:are also used to provide
1083:, is used in hot surface
993:Fe-Cr-Al than Ni-Cr(Fe).
534:Tubular electric heater.
419:American Wire Gauge (AWG)
342:{\displaystyle \Phi =P/A}
72:
24:
1950:10.1177/1528083720968278
1876:AZo Journal of Materials
1786:10.1117/1.OE.51.4.044301
1640:US patent 6,734,250
1206:Scientific Instruments:
1067:heat treatment furnaces
592:Screen-printed elements
127:Principles of operation
1985:10.1021/acsami.0c10852
1772:(4): 044301–044301–9.
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1121:self-regulating heater
1100:PTC ceramic elements:
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146:electrical resistivity
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1294:Thermoelectric effect
1200:Industrial Processes:
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1065:, ceramic sintering,
1051:Molybdenum disilicide
1030:molybdenum disilicide
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621:radiant space heaters
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252:{\displaystyle \ell }
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230:{\displaystyle \rho }
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150:electrical resistance
139:
1320:www.electropedia.org
1212:Automotive Industry:
745:improve this article
695:self-limiting heater
681:materials where the
656:Etched foil elements
541:Electrical insulator
504:suspended, embedded,
319:
287:cross-sectional area
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2061:10.1520/b0078-90r19
2024:10.1520/b0076-90r18
1979:(34): 38406–38414.
1778:2012OptEn..51d4301R
1766:Optical Engineering
1513:temcoindustrial.com
1392:10.1520/b0603-07r18
1188:, electric stoves,
1026:tungsten disilicide
914:Resistance heating
689:It is a point-wise
570:drawn through a die
21:
2087:IEC 60335-1:2020,
1849:10.1007/BF02670694
1620:Edison Tech Center
1592:"Heating Elements"
1232:ASTM International
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709:Thick-film heaters
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613:incandescent lamps
607:Radiative elements
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1944:(15): 1015–136S.
1721:978-1-84569-988-8
1572:978-1-4822-9220-6
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760:"Heating element"
430:Resistance ribbon
382:Resistance heater
278:{\displaystyle A}
208:{\displaystyle R}
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1363:
1355:
1352:10.1520/b0344-20
1339:
1330:
1329:
1327:
1326:
1312:
1178:Home Appliances:
1150:infrared heaters
1139:and most modern
880:electrode boiler
834:sheet resistance
816:
809:
805:
802:
796:
794:
753:
729:
721:
526:Tubes (Calrods®)
457:Heating element
348:
346:
345:
340:
335:
284:
282:
281:
276:
258:
256:
255:
250:
236:
234:
233:
228:
214:
212:
211:
206:
191:
189:
188:
183:
181:
173:
94:electric current
82:
77:
56:
55:
29:
22:
2122:
2121:
2117:
2116:
2115:
2113:
2112:
2111:
2097:
2096:
2095:
2094:
2086:
2082:
2065:
2051:B02 Committee.
2050:
2049:
2045:
2028:
2014:B02 Committee.
2013:
2012:
2008:
1970:
1969:
1965:
1933:
1928:
1927:
1923:
1904:
1903:
1899:
1869:
1868:
1864:
1830:
1829:
1825:
1816:
1814:
1805:
1804:
1797:
1759:
1758:
1754:
1744:
1742:
1738:
1734:
1733:
1729:
1722:
1701:
1700:
1696:
1672:
1659:
1658:
1651:
1644:
1638:
1637:
1633:
1624:
1622:
1614:
1613:
1609:
1600:
1598:
1590:
1589:
1580:
1573:
1558:
1557:
1526:
1517:
1515:
1507:
1506:
1502:
1485:
1479:
1477:
1468:
1467:
1463:
1454:
1452:
1443:
1442:
1438:
1421:
1420:
1413:
1396:
1382:B02 Committee.
1381:
1380:
1373:
1356:
1342:B02 Committee.
1341:
1340:
1333:
1324:
1322:
1314:
1313:
1309:
1304:
1264:
1252:
1240:
1221:
1163:
1154:radiant heating
1113:barium titanate
1091:Silicon nitride
1081:Silicon carbide
1056:
1047:
1038:vacuum furnaces
1006:
983:
941:
912:
903:
892:
876:
817:
806:
800:
797:
754:
752:
742:
730:
711:
699:Self-regulating
691:self-regulating
667:
658:
649:
609:
594:
578:electric stoves
562:magnesium oxide
547:
528:
500:
491:
479:
471:magnesium oxide
467:silicon dioxide
455:
446:Resistance coil
443:
427:
415:conductive wire
411:Resistance wire
395:
393:Resistance wire
389:
384:
379:
317:
316:
303:
289:of the specimen
267:
266:
263:of the specimen
241:
240:
219:
218:
197:
196:
158:
157:
134:
129:
90:heating element
53:
51:
36:
20:Heating element
17:
12:
11:
5:
2120:
2118:
2110:
2109:
2099:
2098:
2093:
2092:
2080:
2043:
2006:
1963:
1921:
1897:
1862:
1843:(4): 573–585.
1823:
1795:
1752:
1727:
1720:
1694:
1671:978-0857096210
1670:
1649:
1631:
1607:
1578:
1571:
1524:
1500:
1461:
1436:
1411:
1371:
1331:
1306:
1305:
1303:
1300:
1299:
1298:
1296:
1291:
1288:Resistive load
1285:
1280:
1278:Heating mantle
1275:
1270:
1268:Ceramic heater
1263:
1260:
1251:
1248:
1239:
1236:
1220:
1217:
1216:
1215:
1209:
1203:
1197:
1162:
1159:
1158:
1157:
1147:Quartz halogen
1144:
1098:
1088:
1078:
1063:glass industry
1054:
1046:
1043:
1042:
1041:
1014:
1009:Cu-Ni alloys (
1005:
1002:
982:
979:
975:chromium oxide
971:
970:
969:35% Ni, 20% Cr
967:
966:60% Ni, 16% Cr
964:
963:80% Ni, 20% Cr
940:
937:
911:
908:
902:
899:
891:
888:
875:
872:
819:
818:
733:
731:
724:
710:
707:
666:
663:
657:
654:
648:
645:
644:
643:
640:
637:
608:
605:
597:Screen-printed
593:
590:
546:
545:
542:
539:
535:
527:
524:
523:
522:
519:
516:
499:
496:
490:
487:
478:
475:
463:Aluminum oxide
454:
451:
442:
439:
426:
423:
391:Main article:
388:
385:
383:
380:
378:
375:
338:
334:
330:
327:
324:
302:
299:
291:
290:
274:
264:
248:
238:
226:
216:
204:
179:
176:
171:
168:
165:
154:Pouillet's law
133:
130:
128:
125:
121:Peltier effect
84:
83:
70:
69:
63:
62:
57:
48:
47:
42:
38:
37:
30:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2119:
2108:
2105:
2104:
2102:
2090:
2084:
2081:
2076:
2070:
2062:
2058:
2054:
2047:
2044:
2039:
2033:
2025:
2021:
2017:
2010:
2007:
2002:
1998:
1994:
1990:
1986:
1982:
1978:
1974:
1967:
1964:
1959:
1955:
1951:
1947:
1943:
1939:
1932:
1925:
1922:
1917:
1913:
1909:
1908:
1901:
1898:
1893:
1889:
1885:
1881:
1877:
1873:
1866:
1863:
1858:
1854:
1850:
1846:
1842:
1838:
1834:
1827:
1824:
1812:
1808:
1802:
1800:
1796:
1791:
1787:
1783:
1779:
1775:
1771:
1767:
1763:
1756:
1753:
1737:
1731:
1728:
1723:
1717:
1713:
1709:
1705:
1698:
1695:
1692:
1688:
1687:
1681:
1677:
1673:
1667:
1663:
1656:
1654:
1650:
1641:
1635:
1632:
1621:
1617:
1611:
1608:
1597:
1593:
1587:
1585:
1583:
1579:
1574:
1568:
1565:. CRC Press.
1564:
1563:
1555:
1553:
1551:
1549:
1547:
1545:
1543:
1541:
1539:
1537:
1535:
1533:
1531:
1529:
1525:
1514:
1510:
1504:
1501:
1496:
1490:
1476:
1472:
1465:
1462:
1451:
1447:
1440:
1437:
1432:
1428:
1424:
1418:
1416:
1412:
1407:
1401:
1393:
1389:
1385:
1378:
1376:
1372:
1367:
1361:
1353:
1349:
1345:
1338:
1336:
1332:
1321:
1317:
1311:
1308:
1301:
1297:
1295:
1292:
1289:
1286:
1284:
1281:
1279:
1276:
1274:
1271:
1269:
1266:
1265:
1261:
1259:
1257:
1249:
1247:
1245:
1237:
1235:
1233:
1228:
1225:
1218:
1213:
1210:
1207:
1204:
1201:
1198:
1195:
1194:space heaters
1191:
1190:water heaters
1187:
1183:
1179:
1176:
1175:
1174:
1167:
1160:
1155:
1151:
1148:
1145:
1142:
1141:pellet stoves
1138:
1137:space heaters
1134:
1130:
1126:
1122:
1118:
1117:lead titanate
1114:
1110:
1106:
1103:
1099:
1096:
1092:
1089:
1086:
1082:
1079:
1076:
1072:
1071:semiconductor
1068:
1064:
1060:
1052:
1049:
1048:
1044:
1039:
1035:
1031:
1027:
1023:
1019:
1015:
1012:
1008:
1007:
1003:
1001:
999:
998:embrittlement
994:
990:
988:
980:
978:
976:
968:
965:
962:
961:
960:
958:
954:
950:
946:
938:
936:
933:
930:
926:
920:
917:
909:
907:
900:
898:
896:
890:Laser heaters
889:
887:
885:
881:
873:
871:
868:
862:
858:
856:
850:
847:
843:
837:
835:
825:
815:
812:
804:
793:
790:
786:
783:
779:
776:
772:
769:
765:
762: –
761:
757:
756:Find sources:
750:
746:
740:
739:
734:This section
732:
728:
723:
722:
715:
708:
706:
704:
703:Self-limiting
700:
696:
692:
687:
684:
680:
671:
664:
662:
655:
653:
646:
641:
638:
634:
630:
629:
628:
626:
622:
618:
614:
606:
604:
602:
598:
591:
589:
587:
586:coffee makers
583:
579:
575:
574:toaster ovens
571:
567:
563:
553:
543:
540:
537:
536:
532:
525:
520:
517:
513:
512:
511:
509:
505:
497:
495:
488:
486:
484:
476:
474:
472:
468:
464:
460:
452:
450:
447:
440:
438:
436:
431:
424:
422:
420:
416:
412:
406:
405:
399:
394:
386:
381:
376:
374:
371:
368:
366:
362:
358:
354:
349:
336:
332:
328:
325:
314:
312:
308:
301:Power density
300:
298:
296:
288:
272:
265:
262:
246:
239:
224:
217:
202:
195:
194:
193:
177:
174:
169:
166:
163:
155:
151:
147:
138:
131:
126:
124:
122:
118:
114:
110:
105:
103:
102:Joule Heating
99:
95:
91:
81:
76:
71:
68:
64:
61:
60:Joule heating
58:
49:
46:
43:
39:
34:
28:
23:
2083:
2046:
2009:
1976:
1972:
1966:
1941:
1937:
1924:
1906:
1900:
1875:
1865:
1840:
1836:
1826:
1815:. Retrieved
1813:. 2021-09-27
1810:
1769:
1765:
1755:
1743:. Retrieved
1730:
1703:
1697:
1691:Google Books
1684:
1661:
1634:
1623:. Retrieved
1619:
1610:
1599:. Retrieved
1595:
1561:
1516:. Retrieved
1512:
1503:
1478:. Retrieved
1474:
1464:
1453:. Retrieved
1449:
1439:
1323:. Retrieved
1319:
1310:
1253:
1241:
1229:
1226:
1222:
1211:
1205:
1199:
1177:
1172:
1161:Applications
1108:
1004:Other alloys
995:
991:
984:
972:
942:
934:
929:enhancements
928:
925:contaminates
924:
921:
913:
910:Metal alloys
904:
893:
877:
867:thermocouple
863:
859:
851:
838:
830:
807:
798:
788:
781:
774:
767:
755:
743:Please help
738:verification
735:
702:
698:
688:
676:
659:
650:
624:
610:
595:
558:
544:Metal casing
507:
503:
501:
492:
480:
458:
456:
445:
444:
434:
429:
428:
410:
409:
401:
372:
369:
350:
315:
311:surface area
304:
294:
292:
153:
143:
106:
89:
87:
2069:cite report
2032:cite report
1400:cite report
1360:cite report
1273:Heated hose
1133:hair dryers
1059:passivation
1011:cupronickel
855:3D printers
683:resistivity
636:constantly.
566:hygroscopic
363:per square
1817:2023-12-29
1625:2024-01-28
1601:2024-01-11
1518:2024-01-08
1480:2023-12-27
1455:2023-12-27
1325:2023-12-27
1302:References
1219:Life cycle
1125:Thin films
1073:diffusion
1034:molybdenum
846:phlogopite
771:newspapers
679:PTC rubber
459:insulators
377:Components
357:millimeter
113:convection
109:conduction
96:through a
2001:220717357
1958:228936246
1916:1077-5870
1892:939116350
1884:1833-122X
1857:0360-2133
1745:2 October
1680:823040859
1238:Packaging
901:Materials
842:muscovite
801:June 2023
508:supported
489:Terminals
453:Insulator
353:heat flux
323:Φ
247:ℓ
225:ρ
175:ℓ
170:ρ
117:radiation
2101:Category
1993:32698575
1790:Archived
1489:cite web
1262:See also
1186:toasters
1129:garments
1109:negative
1085:igniters
1075:furnaces
1022:platinum
1018:furnaces
987:Kanthal®
957:chromium
945:nichrome
633:dichroic
617:infrared
98:resistor
33:espresso
2107:Heating
1774:Bibcode
1686:Preview
1475:Indeeco
1105:ceramic
949:Chromel
785:scholar
601:ceramic
404:toaster
285:is the
259:is the
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45:Passive
35:machine
1999:
1991:
1956:
1914:
1890:
1882:
1855:
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1678:
1668:
1645:
1569:
1450:Wattco
1250:Safety
1244:spools
1192:, and
1093:, see
1032:, and
953:nickel
916:alloys
874:Liquid
787:
780:
773:
766:
758:
584:, and
483:copper
469:, and
425:Ribbon
261:length
192:where
1997:S2CID
1954:S2CID
1934:(PDF)
1739:(PDF)
1182:ovens
1053:(MoSi
895:Laser
792:JSTOR
778:books
582:ovens
498:Types
477:Leads
435:strip
361:watts
307:power
115:, or
2075:link
2038:link
1989:PMID
1912:ISSN
1888:OCLC
1880:ISSN
1853:ISSN
1747:2023
1716:ISBN
1676:OCLC
1666:ISBN
1567:ISBN
1495:link
1406:link
1366:link
1115:and
1069:and
955:and
927:and
764:news
693:and
515:air.
441:Coil
387:Wire
365:inch
293:The
41:Type
2057:doi
2020:doi
1981:doi
1946:doi
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1689:at
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