Pallet - Knowledge

539:

these, carbon steel offers excellent durability at the lowest cost. Stainless steel doesn't require a paint coating, and is preferred for such applications as clean room environments. Carbon steel units are expensive compared to wood, and stainless and aluminum cost about 2–3 times that of carbon steel. Long term costs, however, can be lower than wood. General advantages of metal pallets are high strength and stiffness, excellent durability, resistance to bugs, the absence of splinters, sanitization, and recyclability. Disadvantages include a higher initial price, significant weight, low friction, and susceptibility to rusting (in the case of carbon steel). Metal is primarily used in captive or closed loop environments where durability and product protection are key performance requirements. Metal units today are increasingly price competitive and lighter in weight. Primary industries that use metal pallets include automotive, pharmaceutical, lawn tractors, motorcycles, and tires.

347: 452: 214: 467:(drink bottles). They are usually extremely durable, lasting for a hundred trips or more, and resist weathering, rot, chemicals and corrosion. The benefits of plastic pallets over wood pallets include the ability to be easily sanitized, resistance to odor, fire retardancy, longer service life span, durability and better product protection, non-splintering, and lighter weight, thus saving on transportation and labor costs and making them safer and more environmentally friendly. They often stack. Plastic pallets are exempt by inspection for biosafety concerns, and easily sanitize for international shipping. HDPE is impervious to most acids, and toxic chemicals clean from them more easily. Some plastic pallets can collapse from plastic 228:

types. George G. Raymond and William C. House filed for a patent in 1937 (granted US Patent 2178646 in 1939) for a pallet designed to complement a new pallet jack design; the essential features of both are still in common use today. A 1939 patent from Carl Clark shows a type of pallet with steel stringers. Wartime developments were often patented just after the war, so there is a patent from Robert Braun on a four-way pallet in 1945, and a patent from Norman Cahners (a U.S. Navy supply officer) shows a disposable pallet in 1949. The principle of a modern four-way pallet is described by Darling Graeme in 1949.

62: 1013: 38: 1213:

2010 recall of Johnson and Johnson Tylenol and other drugs was due to their being stored on wooden pallets that had been treated with the fungicide/pesticide 2,4,6-tribromophenol. This chemical can be degraded by molds to produce 2,4,6-tribromoanisole whose strong, musty odor caused consumers to complain. There is no acute or chronic health data on 2,4,6-tribromoanisole, but it is believed that the contaminated drugs caused nausea and other health effects in some people.

90: 242: 54: 1303:

Charities Foundation's Conference on a Sustainable Future organized in collaboration with IBM and The Financial Times. The Pallet House is an affordable transitional home that can become permanent over time. It can be used as refugee housing or as affordable housing as well. Due to the nature of the Pallet module, the wall cavity can be insulated with a variety of materials that are accessible to the user.

315:

If a pallet does not need to be lifted from all four sides, two-way pallets with unnotched stringers may be used, with the additional benefits of added rigidity and strength. Specifying tolerances on flatness and water content may help the supplier meet target requirements. Inspection of pallets, whether in person or by a third-party (such as "SPEQ" inspected pallets) offer additional assurance of quality.

46: 78: 339: 635:(IPPC) Pallets are approximately 44 inches (1,118 mm) wide by 48 inches (1,219 mm) long, have three wood stringers that are a nominal 4 inches (102 mm) high by 3 inches (76 mm) wide timber, and weigh about 135 pounds (61 kg). Their deck is fully covered by 30 mm (1.18 in) plywood, and is painted in blue in European and Russian countries. 1233:

are able to save warehouse space and truck load capacity. Another advantage of pallet boxes is that the goods are stored safely and are not easily damaged during logistic movements and transport. Furthermore, there are collapsible pallet boxes from which the pallet walls can be laid flat on the pallet. In this way, less space is required during empty return transport.

1248: 1183:

are less than 4,000 lb (1,814 kg), weatherproof, and stack 16 ft (4.88 m) high. They often use steel pallets, steel straps with notched seals, outdoor plywood, and plastic film. The standard describes tests for stacking, transport, sling, forklift and pallet jack, impact, drop tests, tip, water-retention, and disassembly.

527:

fumigation and barrier "slip" sheets. They are cleaner, safer, and provide a cost-saving eco-friendly alternative to other pallet materials. Some engineered Corrugated pallets offer a significant reduced height, providing substantial freight cost reduction. Low profile hand pallet trucks allow picking up pallets as low as 25 mm.

189:

concrete is excellent. The greatest investment needed for economical pallet use is in the construction of commercial or industrial buildings. Ability to pass through standard doors and buildings make handling more convenient. For this reason, some modern pallet standards are designed to pass through standard doorways, for example the

310:

All stringer and some block pallets have "unidirectional bases," i.e. bottom boards oriented in one direction. While automated handling equipment can be designed for this, often it can operate faster and more effectively if the bottom edges of a pallet have bottom boards oriented in both directions.

293:

Stringer pallets are one of the original models of wooden pallets. They use a frame of three or more parallel pieces of timber (called stringers). The top deckboards are then affixed to the stringers to create the pallet structure. Stringer pallets can have a notch cut into them allowing "four-way"

1322:

and as the name suggests, reused pallets to form a modular, energy efficient and affordable housing. The idea was born in 2008 during a competition and the Pallet house has been exhibited in several European cities including Venice, Vienna, Linz and Grenoble. It could become a clever approach to low

1232:

Pallet boxes are pallets with four pallet walls on top and possibly a lid. Unlike pallets, pallet boxes can be stacked when they are fully loaded. They may also be fitted with a lid during stacking for stability reasons. By stacking pallet boxes on each other space can be used more efficiently, thus

1229:'. When combined with a cargo net, an air cargo pallet becomes an aircraft 'Unit Load Device' and must be inspected for integrity before use in an aircraft. It is handled on dedicated roller or ball-mat ground equipment and vehicles (fork-lifting is prohibited especially when the pallet is loaded). 314:

The least expensive way to improve a pallet is usually to specify better nails. With non-wood pallets, a controlled coefficient of friction is often helpful to prevent the pallet from slipping from forks and racks. Stiffer pallets are more durable, and are handled more easily by automated equipment.

1212:

Items made from pallet wood are likely to be durable and demonstrate good weather resistance due to these treatments. However, close contact with pallet wood or inhalation of dusts from sanding or sawing can be a source of exposure to pesticide and fungicide chemicals. It is likely that the January

1143:

of the Australian Railway. They are ill-suited for the standard 20-foot (6.1 m) and 40-foot (12 m) ISO shipping containers used around the globe. Australian standard pallets are usually manufactured in hardwood, but 1165 × 1165 mm pallets can also be manufactured using lighter timber

581:

A standard wooden pallet (48 in × 40 in × 6 in or 1,219 mm × 1,016 mm × 152 mm) with a static load bearing capacity of 3 short tons (2.7 long tons; 2.7 t) and a 1-short-ton (0.89-long-ton; 0.91 t) dynamic capacity, will weigh approximately

196:

The lack of a single international standard for pallets causes substantial continuing expense in international trade. A single standard is difficult because of the wide variety of needs a standard pallet would have to satisfy: passing doorways, fitting in standard containers, and bringing low labor

179:

alone. Organizations using standard pallets for loading and unloading can have much lower costs for handling and storage, with faster material movement than businesses that do not. The exceptions are establishments that move small items such as jewelry or large items such as cars. But even they can

1182:

The U.S. Department of Defense, Department of the Navy, Naval Sea Systems Command maintains MIL-STD-1660, the standard description of palletized unit loads for the U.S. Military and some allies. DOD Unit loads generally use 40 in × 48 in (1,016 mm × 1,219 mm) pallets,

538:

pallets are strong and are used for heavy loads, high-stacking loads, long term dry storage, and loads moved by abusive logistic systems. They are often used for military ammunition. Metal pallets make up less than 1% of the market. Materials include carbon steel, stainless steel, and aluminum. Of

526:

pallets are also used where recycling and easy disposal is important. New designs of ecopallets have been made from just two flat pieces of corrugated board (no glue/staples) and weigh just 4.5 kg (9.9 lb), offering dramatic freight savings. Ecopallets are also ISPM 15 exempt, negating

1302:

for their submission of “The Pallet House”, a design solution to house the returning refugees of Kosovo. Full-scale prototypes of The Pallet House were featured in the "Casa per Tutti" Exhibit at the Milan Triennale and the Earth Awards in HRH Prince Charles’ Royal Gardens as part of The Prince's

476:

can be combined (for example the Pally), eliminating pallet instability and the need for additional lifting equipment along with creating valuable space in busy operating environments. They also deliver significant time and cost savings by reducing supply chain handling. Plastics' reusability has

471:

if used to store heavy loads for long periods. Plastic pallets cannot easily be repaired, and can be ten times as expensive as hardwood, so they are often used by logistics service providers who can profit from their durability and stackability. The large supply chains have increased the use of

227:

References to the early modern pallets types are slim with a string of patents showing parts of the development. The earliest may be a U.S. patent on a skid from 1924 describing Howard T. Hallowell's "Lift Truck Platform". In the late 1930s, pallets became more commonplace with the newer forklift

188:

and car manufacturers use pallets to move components and spare parts. Pallets make it easier to move heavy stacks. Loads with pallets under them can be hauled by forklift trucks of different sizes, or even by hand-pumped and hand-drawn pallet jacks. Movement is easy on a wide, strong, flat floor:

289:

Although pallets come in all sizes and configurations, all pallets fall into two very broad categories: "stringer" and "block" pallets. Various software packages exist to assist the pallet maker in designing an appropriate pallet for a specific load and evaluating wood options to reduce costs.

1171:

ISO Technical Committee 51 (Pallets for unit load method of materials handling) states its scope of work entailing the "standardization of pallets in general use in the form of platforms or trays on which goods may be packed to form unit loads for handling by mechanical devices". The Technical

1167:

A number of different organizations and associations around the world work towards establishing and promulgating standards for pallets. Some strive to develop universal standards for pallet dimensions, types of material used in construction, performance standards, and testing procedures. Other

569:

Though some major standards exist, there are no universally accepted standards for pallet dimensions. Companies and organizations utilize hundreds of different pallet sizes around the globe. While no single dimensional standard governs pallet production, a few different sizes are widely used.

278:

Wooden pallet construction specifications can depend on the pallet's intended use: general, FDA, storage, chemical, export; the expected load weight; type of wood desired: recycled, hard, soft, kiln dried or combo (new & recycle); and even the type of fasteners desired to hold the pallet

554:

Wooden pallets typically consist of three or four stringers that support several deckboards, on top of which goods are placed. In a pallet measurement, the first number is the stringer length and the second is the deckboard length. Square or nearly square pallets help a load resist tipping.

777:

Of the top pallets used in North America, the most commonly used by far is the Grocery Manufacturers Association (GMA) pallet, which accounts for 30% of all new wood pallets produced in the United States. The ISO also recognizes the GMA pallet footprint as one of its six standard sizes.

264:

block pallets, plastic pallets and metal pallets can be lifted from all four sides. These costlier pallets usually require a deposit and are returned to the sender or resold as used. Many "four way" pallets are color-coded according to the loads they can bear, and other attributes.

1190:, also known as the Comité Européen de Normalisation (CEN), produces standards for pallets. While the standards are voluntary in nature, many companies and organizations involved in transportation have adopted them. The major standard for pallets produced by CEN is 1138:

The Australian standard pallet is a pallet size commonly found in Australia but rarely found elsewhere. It is a square pallet originally made of hardwood 1,165 mm × 1,165 mm (45.9 in × 45.9 in) in size which fits perfectly in the

377:

Pallets made of raw, untreated wood are not compliant with ISPM 15. To be compliant the pallets (or other wood packaging material) must meet debarked standards, and must be treated by either of the following means under the supervision of an approved agency:

1144:

suitable for use as disposable pallets using 16 millimeter boards. Extensively used in storage and warehousing, they are popular pallets for racking, with the right shape and size to be removed from transport and directly onto warehouse racking for storage.

158:

for transport has spurred the use of pallets because shipping containers have the smooth, level surfaces needed for easy pallet movement. Since its invention in the twentieth century, its use has dramatically supplanted older forms of crating like the

1361:. They are built in the weeks ahead and are lit in loyalist neighbourhoods, often accompanied by street parties and marching bands. There is some contention to this practice, especially when they involve the burning of flags or effigies. 1444:"Remains of timber, the lengths laid upon the pavement parallel to one another (fig. 114) where a large number of blocks were found, suggest skids upon which they were moved". (Loud, 1936: 108). Cited by Peter Roger Stuart Moorey, 641:

Four-way pallets, or pallets for heavy loads (or general-purpose systems that might have heavy loads) are best lifted by their more rigid stringers. These pallets are usually heavier, bigger and more durable than two-way pallets.

1275:

are common treatments for wooden pallets. In addition, imported palletized goods are routinely fumigated with highly toxic pesticides. During use, harmful materials or chemicals also may spill on the pallet wood and be absorbed.

1419: 545:

pallets are stronger than wood or plastic, lighter than steel, and resist weather, rotting, plastic creep and corrosion. They are sometimes used for air-freight, long-term outdoor or at-sea storage, or military transport.

297:

Block pallets utilize both parallel and perpendicular stringers to better facilitate efficient handling. A block pallet is also known as a "four-way" pallet, since a pallet-jack may be used from any side to move it.

1630:

Commission Decision of 18 September 2008 concerning the non-inclusion of methyl bromide in Annex I to Council Directive 91/414/EEC and the withdrawal of authorisations for plant protection products containing that

627:

Lightweight plastic pallets can weigh as little as 3 to 15 pounds (1.4 to 6.8 kg), while heavier models may weigh up to 300 pounds (140 kg). Standard GMA pallets can hold up to 460 pounds (210 kg).

1266:

Discarded wooden pallets should not be used for firewood or crafts unless it has been determined that the wood in these pallets has not been treated with wood preservatives, fungicides and/or pesticides. Various

403:

near the IPPC logo. From 19 March 2010 the use of methyl bromide as a treatment according to ISPM15 has been banned within all EU member states. This is due to causing potential harm to the Earth's stratospheric

1287:

games, or other sport-related items. Other publications have suggested using pallet wood for small animal cages or fences. Pallet wood has been recycled for use as furniture wood by at least one company.

256:

and are often considered expendable, to be discarded as trash along with other wrapping elements, at the end of the trip. These pallets are simple stringer pallets, and able to be lifted from two sides.

197:

costs. For example, organizations already handling large pallets often see no reason to pay the higher handling cost of using smaller pallets that can fit through doors. Heavy-duty pallets are a form of

346: 1812:

Raballand, Gaël; Aldaz-Carroll, Enrique (February 2005). How Do Differing Standards Increase Trade Costs? The Case of Pallets (Report). World Bank Policy Research Working Paper No. 3519.

1179:

The National Wood Pallet and Container Association (NWPCA) is a trade organization based in the United States representing the interests of wood pallet and container manufacturers.

49:

A plastic skid with nine legs, which can be lifted from all four sides. This type of transport is commonly called a pallet, but since it has no bottom it is technically a skid.

1172:

Committee works in conjunction with other Technical Committees focused on transportation infrastructure to develop interrelated standards. TC 51 is responsible for developing

294:

entry. Forklifts can lift a stringer pallet from all four directions, though lifting by the stringers is more secure. Stringer pallets can be made of both wood and plastic.

121:, or an erect crane. Many pallets can handle a load of 1,000 kg (2,200 lb). While most pallets are wooden, pallets can also be made of plastic, metal, paper, and 385:

The wood must be heated to achieve a minimum core temperature of 56 °C (132.8 °F) for at least 30 minutes. Pallets treated using this method bear the initials

451: 1295:

once produced a high quality "pallet guitar" made from pallet wood, in order to demonstrate the importance of construction technique versus expensive exotic woods.

480:

Plastic pallets are produced and used widely in the U.S. and Europe, spurred by the adoption of the ISPM 15. A full comparison of wood vs plastic can be made by a

1990: 1853: 1603: 651: 1463: 522:, also referred to as "ecopallets", are often used for light loads, but engineered paper pallets are increasingly used for loads that compare with wood. 632: 355: 213: 1585: 1338:

with live musical performances, sustainable living demonstrations, an upcycled fashion show, vendors and artists selling upcycled goods, and a

1187: 1225:

Most less than 1 in (25 mm) thick, for a Cargo aircraft. Many civilian types have evolved over 6 decades from the thicker military '

201:

and are designed to be used multiple times. Lightweight pallets are designed for a single use. In the EU, government legislation based on the

2216: 2207: 1778: 1429: 573:

The standard 48×40 North American pallet, or GMA pallet, has stringers of 48 inches and deckboards of 40 inches, and was standardized by the

175:

commonly used for bulk shipping. In 2020 about half a billion pallets are made each year and about two billion pallets are in use across the

1961: 1657: 1202: 1155:, is square, and leaves less wasted space than other pallets, including the GMA pallet. In 2010, Australia adopted the globally accepted 307:

Flush pallets are pallets with deck boards that are flush with the stringers and stringer boards along the ends and sides of the pallet.

2116: 484:. Plastic pallets can cost 10 times as much as hardwood pallets and even more expensive compared to cheap expendable softwood pallets. 1560: 1330:

was host to an Inaugural Pallet-Fest festival, which showcased the versatility of pallets and included large art structures made with

1221:

An air cargo pallet is a detachable and interchangeable airworthy floor panel. It can be loaded and unloaded on aircraft to transport

412:

Treated wood pallets must be stamped on two opposite sides, indicating either HT for heat treated or MB for methyl bromide treatment.

574: 358:(abbreviated IPPC), most pallets shipped across national borders must be made of materials that are incapable of being a carrier of 1905: 1874: 1168:

organizations choose to focus on pallet standards for a specific industry (such as groceries) or type of material (such as wood).

1298:

I-Beam Design, an architecture and interior design firm based in New York, NY won an award in a 1999 competition sponsored by

1151:, while ISO containers date to the late 1950s. Although the pallet's dimensions pre-date the ISO containers, it requires less 2094: 1736: 1449: 472:

plastic pallets as many organisations seek to reduce costs through waste, transport and health & safety. Pallets and

2010: 1679: 1607: 193:(800 mm × 1,200 mm) and the U.S. military 35 in × 45.5 in (890 mm × 1,160 mm). 1489: 224:

The development of the forklift and the needs of World War II logistics operations led to substantial use of pallets.

61: 2134: 1133: 269:

pallets can pose serious bio-hazard risks as they are susceptible to bacterial and chemical contamination, such as

1701:

Lee, S. G. (March 2004), "A simplified life cycle assessment of re-usable and single-use bulk transit packaging",

1528: 311:

For example, it may not need to turn a pallet to rack it, and operation is less sensitive to pallet orientation.

2220: 1299: 656:

ISO Standard 6780:2003 Flat pallets for intercontinental materials handling — Principal dimensions and tolerances

464: 202: 24: 1850:"ISO 6780:2003 - Flat pallets for intercontinental materials handling -- Principal dimensions and tolerances" 31: 1629: 1174:

ISO Standard 6780: Flat pallets for intercontinental materials handling—Principal dimensions and tolerances

221:

Skids date back to Ancient Egypt and Ancient Mesopotamia, at least as far back as the 1st millennium B.C.

275:

problems in food and produce transportation, and even insect infestation, and thus the need for ISPM 15.

1924: 1206: 440: 436: 1506: 2212: 1770: 1315: 172: 2156: 1908:. U.S. DOD, Dept of the Navy, Naval Sea Systems Command. 8 April 1970. MIL-STD-1660. Archived from 481: 468: 1205:

requires that both types "shall be stored outside or in a detached structure" unless protected by

105:) is a flat transport structure, which supports goods in a stable fashion while being lifted by a 2258: 2238: 2229: 2120: 1965: 1962:"18-2010 - Adoption of bark tolerance for imports defined in the wood packaging standard ISPM 15" 1718: 1226: 978: 566:. To avoid shipping air, pallets should also pack tightly inside intermodal containers and vans. 198: 133: 122: 114: 1802:

Pallets – Where Form Meets Function By Peter Hamner, Center for Unit Loan Design, Virginia Tech

2203: 1831: 1774: 1425: 382: 283: 118: 1835: 249:

The production of pallets accounts for 43% of hardwood and 15% of softwood usage in the U.S.

2253: 1821: 1813: 1710: 1468: 1376: 1350: 1327: 623:

inch (7.9 mm) thick each. Other dimensions of pallets have different weight capacities.

359: 302: 155: 1159:

wood packaging material regulations (before this time it was hardwood and more expensive).

2170: 1937: 1358: 473: 428: 181: 37: 1909: 1881: 1385: 1354: 1292: 1140: 396: 168: 2247: 1722: 1280: 1272: 1256: 676: 443:

do not need IPPC approval, and are considered to be exempt from ISPM 15 regulations.

367: 176: 164: 149: 82: 491:

There are six main types of plastic processes that are used to manufacture pallets:

89: 1391: 1388: – Material handling storage aid system designed to store materials on pallets 1343: 1335: 1148: 1012: 519: 141: 1561:"Investigation of New and Recovered Wood Shipping Platforms in the United States" 1559:

Gerber, Nathan; Horvath, Laszlo; Araman, Philip; Gething, Brad (7 January 2021).

1496:, patent reference 1,508,183, awarded 9 September 1924, accessed 21 January 2017 1370: 1239:

are closely related; they are usually large separate boxes shipped on pallets.

558:

Pallet users want pallets to pass easily through buildings, to stack and fit in

405: 145: 110: 1744: 1493: 1176:

as well as sixteen other standards related to pallet construction and testing.

488:

chips can be molded into the pallets to monitor locations and track inventory.

205:

requires the reuse of packaging items in preference to recycling and disposal.

2159:, published 26 August 2015 (re: second annual event), accessed 31 October 2019 2014: 1268: 1007: 562:, to be accessible to forklifts and pallet jacks and to function in automated 392: 190: 160: 66: 2045: 1875:"Pallets 101: Industry Overview and Wood, Plastic, Paper, and Metal Options" 1331: 1284: 1260: 1222: 563: 559: 185: 137: 129: 45: 1986: 1353:, wooden pallets are used to construct bonfires during celebrations of the 338: 241: 1849: 1247: 77: 2225: 1446:

Ancient Mesopotamian Materials and Industries: The Archeological Evidence

1397: 1236: 542: 420: 261: 253: 106: 1817: 152:

can be used to support and protect items shipped and stored on pallets.

85:

steel pallet. Galvanized steel pallets are fireproof and rust resistant.

53: 1535: 1339: 1156: 1152: 432: 424: 371: 363: 271: 1826: 710:

Europe, Asia; similar to 40" × 48". Same footprint as a EUR 3 pallet.

2234: 20: 2213:

ANSI MH1-2021 – Pallets, Slip Sheets, and Other Bases for Unit Loads

1714: 1279:

Craft publications have advised readers to use pallets to build a

1246: 1011: 535: 523: 450: 416: 345: 337: 240: 212: 88: 76: 60: 52: 44: 36: 1464:"Pallets: The single most important object in the global economy" 1987:"ISO/TC 51 – Pallets for unit load method of materials handling" 485: 460: 318:

The main processes that are used to manufacture wooden pallets:

266: 70: 2235:

ASTM D6253 Treatment and/or Marking of Wood Packaging Materials

766:

Europe; fits many doorways. Same footprint as a EUR 1 pallet.

638:

Two-way pallets are designed to be lifted by the deckboards.

81:

48 in × 40 in (122 cm × 102 cm)

57:

A metal pallet with removable beams, in this case for firewood

1201:

Both wood and plastic pallets are possible fire hazards. The

282:

The price of wooden pallets reached a record high during the

585:

GMA pallets typically weigh 37 pounds (17 kg), and are

2226:

ASTM D 1185 Test Methods for Pallets and Related Structures

1586:"The Forgotten Shipping Pallet Stages a Pandemic-Era Rally" 132:, which allows handling and storage efficiencies. Goods in 1529:"Pallets – An efficient and safe way of material handling" 1737:"Asset-Tracking Technology Helps iGPS Rescue Its Pallets" 2171:"The Twelfth: Why are bonfires lit in Northern Ireland?" 2074:

Chemical & Engineering News, January 25, 2010, p. 18

2011:"National Wood Pallet and Container Association Mission" 1283:

obstacle called a manual pad, barricades during amateur

477:

contributed to an increase in usage of plastic pallets.

286:, due to increases in the prices of supplies and labor. 2095:"Ultimate Pallet Furniture Collection: 58 Unique Ideas" 1680:"Plastic Pallets Gain Ground In an Eco-Conscious World" 1381:

Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets

1090:

31.50 in × 23.62 in × 5.67 in

1075:

39.37 in × 47.24 in × 5.67 in

1060:

47.24 in × 39.37 in × 5.67 in

1043:

31.50 in × 47.24 in × 5.67 in

2135:"Pallet House / Schnetzer Andreas Claus + Pils Gregor" 1251:

Example of a bench constructed from repurposed pallets

399:. Pallets treated using this method bear the initials 1186:

In addition to the other standards it publishes, the

1073:

1,000 mm × 1,200 mm × 144 mm

1058:

1,200 mm × 1,000 mm × 144 mm

599:

inches (170 mm) tall. Their deck boards measure

1041:

800 mm × 1,200 mm × 144 mm

654:(ISO) sanctions six pallet dimensions, detailed in 370:. The standards for these pallets are specified in 41:The classic wooden pallet, with a glove for scale. 1088:800 mm × 600 mm × 144 mm 1643: 1641: 1639: 1255:Old and discarded wooden pallets can be used in 93:A truckload of used wooden pallets in California 1942:, para. 4.8.3, mil-std pallets are 4-way: 4.3.1 180:be improved. For instance, the distributors of 1991:International Organization for Standardization 1854:International Organization for Standardization 1592:. April 9, 2021 – via www.bloomberg.com. 652:International Organization for Standardization 167:, as it works well with modern packaging like 1147:The Australian standard pallet dates back to 8: 1534:. Bureau of Indian Standards. Archived from 658:, which was reviewed and confirmed in 2014: 1964:. Commonwealth of Australia. Archived from 1906:"Design Criteria for Ammunition Unit Loads" 415:Pallets made of non-wood materials such as 301:Carrier blocks are specialized pallets for 128:A pallet is the structural foundation of a 1604:"ISPM 15 WPM Clarification - Timber Creek" 136:are often placed on a pallet secured with 1825: 1379: – Machine used to turn over pallets 633:International Plant Protection Convention 455:Three different types of plastic pallets. 356:International Plant Protection Convention 1424:. CRC Press. pp. Section: 6.8.3.2. 1400: – Transport structure with support 1394: – Pallet for containing oil spills 1019: 780: 660: 350:IPPC marks on a pallet from Germany (DE) 342:IPPC marks on a pallet from Germany (DE) 1633:, 2008/753/EC, accessed 31 October 2019 1410: 963:ISO container, fits 36" standard doors 1933: 1922: 1192:ICS: 55.180.20 General purpose pallets 1188:European Committee for Standardization 1097:Weight of the safe load: 500 kg. 1063:ISO2. The pallet weight is 33 kg. 459:Plastic pallets are often made of new 2217:American National Standards Institute 1048:The pallet weight is 20 – 25 kg. 7: 2200:Encyclopedia of Packaging Technology 1767:Encyclopedia of Packaging Technology 1678:Grande, Joseph A. (September 2008). 1203:National Fire Protection Association 693:3.7% (20 pallets in 40 ft ISO) 1334:materials, a pallet maze, a pallet 1118:15.75 in × 11.81 in 1106:23.62 in × 15.75 in 939:Beverage, shingles, packaged paper 582:33 to 48 lb (15 to 22 kg) 1462:Vanderbilt, Tom (14 August 2012). 1080:Weight of a load of 1920 kg. 328:Chamfering (depends on the demand) 14: 1951:MIL-STD-1660, ibid., para. 4.8.3 1346:and organized by Upcycle Events. 1095:The pallet weight is 9.5 kg. 613:inches (83 mm) wide and are 575:Grocery Manufacturers Association 252:The cheapest pallets are made of 16:Flat structure to transport goods 1703:Packaging Technology and Science 1574:(2) (published 6 March 2020): 2. 1078:The pallet weight is 29 kg. 1065:Weight of a load: 1470 kg. 1050:Weight of a load: 2490 kg. 395:The wood must be fumigated with 2202:, John Wiley & Sons, 2009, 495:High pressure injection molding 1418:Richards, K. L. (2020-01-30). 1116:400 mm × 300 mm 1104:600 mm × 400 mm 245:Wooden pallet being dismantled 184:normally use pallets in their 1: 1421:The Engineering Design Primer 73:robots at a bakery in Germany 738:North America, Europe, Asia 279:together: staples or nails. 2221:Material Handling Institute 2169:Gordon, Ali (9 July 2021). 2093:Ion, Alex (February 2012). 1527:Singh, R. R. (2013-07-18). 1490:United States Patent Office 1121:one-eighth the size of EUR 1093:ISO0, half the size of EUR. 2275: 2157:PalletFest Upcycles Denver 1793:MIL-STD-1660, ibid., 4.8.3 1735:Swedberg, C (March 2012), 1373: – Packaging material 1306:The two Austrian students 1291:The acoustic guitar maker 1134:Australian standard pallet 1131: 1005: 827:Telecommunications, paint 325:Cutting wood plate / block 148:and shipped. In addition, 29: 18: 2083:Sigma Aldrich, MSDS, 2009 1300:Architecture for Humanity 217:Stacked pallets in Turkey 203:Waste Framework Directive 69:of bread with industrial 1318:created a home entitled 1109:quarter the size of EUR 25:Palette (disambiguation) 19:Not to be confused with 1743:: 49–60, archived from 1357:, the night before the 1308:Andreas Claus Schnetzer 1046:ISO1, same size as EUR. 1031:ISO pallet alternative 1028:Dimensions (L × W × H) 498:Structural foam molding 260:Slightly more complex, 32:Pallet (disambiguation) 1932:Cite journal requires 1647:Raballand, ibid., pg11 1342:course. The event was 1252: 1017: 456: 351: 343: 246: 218: 94: 86: 74: 58: 50: 42: 2123:on November 20, 2008. 1873:Clarke, John (2004). 1771:John Wiley & Sons 1682:. Plastics Technology 1658:"HSM MAGAZINE - Home" 1628:European Commission, 1507:"US Patent 2178646 A" 1448:(Eisenbrauns, 1999), 1250: 1015: 813:Grocery, many others 454: 441:corrugated fiberboard 437:oriented strand board 349: 341: 334:Nailing wooden pallet 244: 216: 173:intermodal containers 92: 80: 64: 56: 48: 40: 1316:University of Vienna 977:Military air cargo ( 682:Region most used in 30:For other uses, see 2155:Confluence Denver, 2035:MIL-STD-1660, ibid. 1818:10.2139/ssrn.665064 1765:Yam, K. L. (2009). 1494:Lift-Truck Platform 869:Chemical, beverage 504:Compression molding 482:life cycle analysis 393:Chemical fumigation 389:near the IPPC logo. 134:shipping containers 2239:ASTM International 2230:ASTM International 1253: 1227:463L Master Pallet 1018: 507:Rotational molding 457: 431:products, such as 352: 344: 322:Material selection 247: 219: 199:reusable packaging 123:recycled materials 95: 87: 75: 59: 51: 43: 2208:978-0-470-08704-6 1780:978-0-470-08704-6 1747:on March 17, 2012 1431:978-0-429-55993-8 1125: 1124: 999: 998: 855:Military, cement 799:Industries using 770: 769: 510:Profile extrusion 284:COVID-19 pandemic 2266: 2186: 2185: 2183: 2181: 2166: 2160: 2153: 2147: 2146: 2144: 2142: 2131: 2125: 2124: 2119:. Archived from 2113: 2107: 2106: 2104: 2102: 2090: 2084: 2081: 2075: 2072: 2066: 2063: 2057: 2056: 2054: 2052: 2042: 2036: 2033: 2027: 2026: 2024: 2022: 2013:. Archived from 2007: 2001: 2000: 1998: 1997: 1983: 1977: 1976: 1974: 1973: 1958: 1952: 1949: 1943: 1941: 1935: 1930: 1928: 1920: 1918: 1917: 1902: 1896: 1895: 1893: 1892: 1886: 1880:. Archived from 1879: 1870: 1864: 1863: 1861: 1860: 1846: 1840: 1839: 1829: 1809: 1803: 1800: 1794: 1791: 1785: 1784: 1762: 1756: 1755: 1754: 1752: 1732: 1726: 1725: 1698: 1692: 1691: 1689: 1687: 1675: 1669: 1668: 1666: 1664: 1654: 1648: 1645: 1634: 1626: 1620: 1619: 1617: 1615: 1606:. Archived from 1600: 1594: 1593: 1582: 1576: 1575: 1565: 1556: 1550: 1549: 1547: 1546: 1540: 1533: 1524: 1518: 1517: 1515: 1513: 1503: 1497: 1487: 1481: 1480: 1478: 1476: 1459: 1453: 1442: 1436: 1435: 1415: 1382: 1377:Pallet inverters 1351:Northern Ireland 1328:Denver, Colorado 1323:income housing. 1243:Alternative uses 1163:Standards bodies 1020: 962: 961: 957: 911:Drums, chemical 781: 661: 622: 621: 617: 612: 611: 607: 604: 598: 597: 593: 590: 360:invasive species 169:corrugated boxes 156:Containerization 2274: 2273: 2269: 2268: 2267: 2265: 2264: 2263: 2244: 2243: 2195: 2193:Further reading 2190: 2189: 2179: 2177: 2168: 2167: 2163: 2154: 2150: 2140: 2138: 2133: 2132: 2128: 2117:"Pallet Guitar" 2115: 2114: 2110: 2100: 2098: 2092: 2091: 2087: 2082: 2078: 2073: 2069: 2064: 2060: 2050: 2048: 2044: 2043: 2039: 2034: 2030: 2020: 2018: 2009: 2008: 2004: 1995: 1993: 1985: 1984: 1980: 1971: 1969: 1960: 1959: 1955: 1950: 1946: 1931: 1921: 1915: 1913: 1904: 1903: 1899: 1890: 1888: 1884: 1877: 1872: 1871: 1867: 1858: 1856: 1848: 1847: 1843: 1811: 1810: 1806: 1801: 1797: 1792: 1788: 1781: 1764: 1763: 1759: 1750: 1748: 1734: 1733: 1729: 1715:10.1002/pts.643 1700: 1699: 1695: 1685: 1683: 1677: 1676: 1672: 1662: 1660: 1656: 1655: 1651: 1646: 1637: 1627: 1623: 1613: 1611: 1610:on 3 March 2016 1602: 1601: 1597: 1584: 1583: 1579: 1563: 1558: 1557: 1553: 1544: 1542: 1538: 1531: 1526: 1525: 1521: 1511: 1509: 1505: 1504: 1500: 1488: 1484: 1474: 1472: 1461: 1460: 1456: 1443: 1439: 1432: 1417: 1416: 1412: 1407: 1380: 1367: 1359:Twelfth of July 1245: 1219: 1207:fire sprinklers 1199: 1165: 1136: 1130: 1117: 1105: 1096: 1094: 1089: 1079: 1074: 1064: 1059: 1049: 1047: 1042: 1037: 1024: 1010: 1004: 959: 955: 954: 846:1,219 × 1,016 795: 790: 785: 775: 670: 665: 648: 619: 615: 614: 609: 605: 602: 600: 595: 591: 588: 586: 552: 533: 517: 449: 429:engineered wood 303:lumber carriers 239: 234: 211: 182:costume jewelry 101:(also called a 35: 28: 17: 12: 11: 5: 2272: 2270: 2262: 2261: 2256: 2246: 2245: 2242: 2241: 2232: 2223: 2210: 2194: 2191: 2188: 2187: 2161: 2148: 2137:. 7 April 2010 2126: 2108: 2085: 2076: 2067: 2058: 2037: 2028: 2002: 1978: 1953: 1944: 1934:|journal= 1897: 1865: 1841: 1804: 1795: 1786: 1779: 1757: 1727: 1693: 1670: 1649: 1635: 1621: 1595: 1577: 1551: 1519: 1498: 1482: 1454: 1437: 1430: 1409: 1408: 1406: 1403: 1402: 1401: 1395: 1389: 1386:Pallet racking 1383: 1374: 1366: 1363: 1355:Eleventh Night 1293:Taylor Guitars 1244: 1241: 1218: 1215: 1198: 1195: 1164: 1161: 1141:RACE container 1132:Main article: 1129: 1126: 1123: 1122: 1119: 1114: 1111: 1110: 1107: 1102: 1099: 1098: 1091: 1086: 1082: 1081: 1076: 1071: 1067: 1066: 1061: 1056: 1052: 1051: 1044: 1039: 1033: 1032: 1029: 1026: 1006:Main article: 1003: 1000: 997: 996: 993: 990: 987: 983: 982: 975: 972: 969: 968:2,240 × 2,740 965: 964: 951: 948: 945: 941: 940: 937: 934: 931: 927: 926: 923: 920: 917: 913: 912: 909: 906: 903: 902:1,118 × 1,118 899: 898: 895: 892: 889: 888:1,219 × 1,143 885: 884: 881: 878: 875: 874:1,016 × 1,016 871: 870: 867: 864: 861: 860:1,219 × 1,067 857: 856: 853: 850: 847: 843: 842: 839: 836: 833: 829: 828: 825: 822: 819: 815: 814: 811: 808: 805: 804:1,016 × 1,219 801: 800: 797: 792: 787: 774: 771: 768: 767: 764: 761: 760:31.50 × 47.24 758: 754: 753: 750: 747: 746:43.30 × 43.30 744: 743:1,100 × 1,100 740: 739: 736: 733: 732:42.00 × 42.00 730: 729:1,067 × 1,067 726: 725: 722: 719: 716: 715:1,165 × 1,165 712: 711: 708: 705: 704:39.37 × 47.24 702: 701:1,000 × 1,200 698: 697: 696:North America 694: 691: 690:40.00 × 48.00 688: 687:1,016 × 1,219 684: 683: 680: 674:Wasted floor, 672: 667: 647: 644: 625: 624: 583: 551: 548: 532: 529: 516: 513: 512: 511: 508: 505: 502: 499: 496: 448: 445: 410: 409: 397:methyl bromide 390: 383:Heat treatment 368:plant diseases 336: 335: 332: 329: 326: 323: 238: 235: 233: 230: 210: 207: 150:pallet collars 119:jacking device 15: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 2271: 2260: 2257: 2255: 2252: 2251: 2249: 2240: 2236: 2233: 2231: 2227: 2224: 2222: 2218: 2214: 2211: 2209: 2205: 2201: 2197: 2196: 2192: 2176: 2172: 2165: 2162: 2158: 2152: 2149: 2136: 2130: 2127: 2122: 2118: 2112: 2109: 2096: 2089: 2086: 2080: 2077: 2071: 2068: 2062: 2059: 2047: 2041: 2038: 2032: 2029: 2017:on 7 May 2004 2016: 2012: 2006: 2003: 1992: 1988: 1982: 1979: 1968:on 2010-06-27 1967: 1963: 1957: 1954: 1948: 1945: 1939: 1926: 1912:on 2007-11-24 1911: 1907: 1901: 1898: 1887:on 2009-11-22 1883: 1876: 1869: 1866: 1855: 1851: 1845: 1842: 1837: 1833: 1828: 1823: 1819: 1815: 1808: 1805: 1799: 1796: 1790: 1787: 1782: 1776: 1772: 1768: 1761: 1758: 1746: 1742: 1738: 1731: 1728: 1724: 1720: 1716: 1712: 1708: 1704: 1697: 1694: 1681: 1674: 1671: 1659: 1653: 1650: 1644: 1642: 1640: 1636: 1632: 1625: 1622: 1609: 1605: 1599: 1596: 1591: 1590:Bloomberg.com 1587: 1581: 1578: 1573: 1569: 1562: 1555: 1552: 1541:on 2014-02-02 1537: 1530: 1523: 1520: 1508: 1502: 1499: 1495: 1491: 1486: 1483: 1471: 1470: 1465: 1458: 1455: 1451: 1447: 1441: 1438: 1433: 1427: 1423: 1422: 1414: 1411: 1404: 1399: 1396: 1393: 1390: 1387: 1384: 1378: 1375: 1372: 1369: 1368: 1364: 1362: 1360: 1356: 1352: 1347: 1345: 1341: 1337: 1333: 1329: 1324: 1321: 1317: 1313: 1309: 1304: 1301: 1296: 1294: 1289: 1286: 1282: 1281:skateboarding 1277: 1274: 1273:propiconazole 1270: 1264: 1262: 1258: 1257:pallet crafts 1249: 1242: 1240: 1238: 1234: 1230: 1228: 1224: 1216: 1214: 1210: 1208: 1204: 1196: 1194: 1193: 1189: 1184: 1180: 1177: 1175: 1169: 1162: 1160: 1158: 1154: 1150: 1145: 1142: 1135: 1127: 1120: 1115: 1113: 1112: 1108: 1103: 1101: 1100: 1092: 1087: 1084: 1083: 1077: 1072: 1069: 1068: 1062: 1057: 1054: 1053: 1045: 1040: 1035: 1034: 1030: 1027: 1022: 1021: 1014: 1009: 1001: 994: 991: 988: 985: 984: 980: 976: 973: 970: 967: 966: 952: 949: 946: 943: 942: 938: 935: 932: 929: 928: 924: 921: 918: 915: 914: 910: 907: 904: 901: 900: 896: 893: 890: 887: 886: 882: 879: 876: 873: 872: 868: 865: 862: 859: 858: 854: 851: 848: 845: 844: 840: 837: 834: 831: 830: 826: 823: 820: 818:1,067 ×1,067 817: 816: 812: 809: 806: 803: 802: 798: 793: 788: 783: 782: 779: 773:North America 772: 765: 762: 759: 756: 755: 751: 748: 745: 742: 741: 737: 734: 731: 728: 727: 723: 720: 717: 714: 713: 709: 706: 703: 700: 699: 695: 692: 689: 686: 685: 681: 679: 678: 677:ISO container 673: 668: 663: 662: 659: 657: 653: 645: 643: 639: 636: 634: 629: 584: 580: 579: 578: 576: 571: 567: 565: 561: 556: 549: 547: 544: 540: 537: 530: 528: 525: 521: 520:Paper pallets 514: 509: 506: 503: 501:Thermoforming 500: 497: 494: 493: 492: 489: 487: 483: 478: 475: 470: 466: 462: 453: 446: 444: 442: 438: 434: 430: 426: 422: 418: 413: 407: 402: 398: 394: 391: 388: 384: 381: 380: 379: 375: 373: 369: 365: 361: 357: 348: 340: 333: 330: 327: 324: 321: 320: 319: 316: 312: 308: 305: 304: 299: 295: 291: 287: 285: 280: 276: 274: 273: 268: 263: 258: 255: 250: 243: 236: 231: 229: 225: 222: 215: 208: 206: 204: 200: 194: 192: 187: 183: 178: 177:United States 174: 170: 166: 165:wooden barrel 162: 157: 153: 151: 147: 143: 139: 135: 131: 126: 124: 120: 116: 112: 108: 104: 100: 91: 84: 79: 72: 68: 63: 55: 47: 39: 33: 26: 22: 2199: 2198:Yam, K. L., 2178:. Retrieved 2174: 2164: 2151: 2139:. Retrieved 2129: 2121:the original 2111: 2099:. Retrieved 2088: 2079: 2070: 2061: 2049:. Retrieved 2040: 2031: 2019:. Retrieved 2015:the original 2005: 1994:. Retrieved 1981: 1970:. Retrieved 1966:the original 1956: 1947: 1925:cite journal 1914:. Retrieved 1910:the original 1900: 1889:. Retrieved 1882:the original 1868: 1857:. Retrieved 1844: 1807: 1798: 1789: 1766: 1760: 1749:, retrieved 1745:the original 1741:RFID Journal 1740: 1730: 1709:(2): 67–83, 1706: 1702: 1696: 1684:. Retrieved 1673: 1661:. Retrieved 1652: 1624: 1612:. Retrieved 1608:the original 1598: 1589: 1580: 1571: 1568:BioResources 1567: 1554: 1543:. Retrieved 1536:the original 1522: 1510:. Retrieved 1501: 1485: 1473:. Retrieved 1467: 1457: 1445: 1440: 1420: 1413: 1392:Spill pallet 1348: 1336:amphitheater 1325: 1320:Pallet house 1319: 1311: 1307: 1305: 1297: 1290: 1278: 1265: 1259:and various 1254: 1235: 1231: 1220: 1211: 1200: 1191: 1185: 1181: 1178: 1173: 1170: 1166: 1149:World War II 1146: 1137: 1025:pallet type 986:1,219 × 508 944:889 × 1,156 930:1,219 × 914 832:1219 × 1219 776: 757:800 × 1,200 718:45.9 × 45.9 675: 655: 649: 640: 637: 630: 626: 572: 568: 557: 553: 541: 534: 518: 490: 479: 463:or recycled 458: 414: 411: 400: 386: 376: 353: 317: 313: 309: 306: 300: 296: 292: 288: 281: 277: 270: 259: 251: 248: 226: 223: 220: 195: 154: 142:stretch wrap 127: 115:front loader 102: 98: 96: 2219:(ANSI), at 2180:30 November 2141:1 September 2051:1 September 2021:1 September 1663:1 September 1614:1 September 1371:Molded pulp 1344:crowdfunded 1312:Gregor Pils 979:463L system 897:Automotive 791:(W × L) in 786:(W × L) mm 671:(W × L) in 666:(W × L) mm 631:Heavy duty 406:ozone layer 354:Due to the 146:shrink wrap 111:pallet jack 2248:Categories 1996:2019-01-31 1972:2010-06-25 1916:2008-01-01 1891:2019-01-31 1859:2019-01-31 1827:10986/8837 1751:15 October 1545:2014-01-22 1512:20 January 1405:References 1269:pyrethrins 1237:Bulk boxes 1016:EuroPallet 1008:EUR-pallet 947:35 × 45.5 916:914 × 914 794:Production 789:Dimensions 784:Dimensions 724:Australia 669:Dimensions 664:Dimensions 564:warehouses 550:Dimensions 191:europallet 186:warehouses 161:wooden box 83:galvanized 67:palletizer 65:Automated 2259:Packaging 2215:, by the 2097:. Decoist 1723:110349416 1631:substance 1475:16 August 1326:In 2014, 1314:from the 1285:paintball 1261:furniture 1223:air cargo 1128:Australia 953:Military 925:Beverage 232:Materials 138:strapping 130:unit load 2175:BBC News 1398:Stillage 1365:See also 1332:upcycled 1263:pieces. 1217:Variants 992:Unknown 989:48 × 20 974:Unknown 971:88 ×108 950:Unknown 933:48 × 36 919:36 × 36 905:44 × 44 891:48 × 45 877:40 × 40 863:48 × 42 849:48 × 40 835:48 × 48 821:42 × 42 807:40 × 48 577:(GMA). 543:Aluminum 421:aluminum 331:Notching 262:hardwood 254:softwood 163:and the 107:forklift 2254:Pallets 2065:NFPA 13 1450:page 32 1340:parkour 1197:Hazards 1157:ISPM 15 1153:dunnage 995:Retail 958:⁄ 618:⁄ 608:⁄ 594:⁄ 474:dollies 447:Plastic 433:plywood 425:plastic 372:ISPM 15 364:insects 272:E. coli 209:History 2206: 2101:19 May 2046:"Home" 1836:665064 1834: 1777: 1721: 1686:8 June 1428: 1085:EUR 6 1070:EUR 3 1055:EUR 2 1038:EUR 1 1002:Europe 883:Dairy 841:Drums 763:15.2% 735:11.5% 99:pallet 21:Palate 1885:(PDF) 1878:(PDF) 1719:S2CID 1564:(PDF) 1539:(PDF) 1532:(PDF) 1469:Slate 796:rank 752:Asia 721:8.1% 707:6.7% 560:racks 536:Steel 531:Steel 524:Paper 515:Paper 469:creep 439:, or 427:, or 417:steel 2204:ISBN 2182:2023 2143:2016 2103:2014 2053:2016 2023:2016 1938:help 1832:SSRN 1775:ISBN 1753:2012 1688:2014 1665:2016 1616:2016 1514:2015 1477:2012 1426:ISBN 1310:and 1271:and 1023:EURO 749:14% 650:The 486:RFID 461:HDPE 366:and 267:Wood 237:Wood 171:and 117:, a 113:, a 109:, a 103:skid 71:KUKA 1822:hdl 1814:doi 1711:doi 1349:In 1036:EUR 936:10 646:ISO 465:PET 362:of 144:or 23:or 2250:: 2237:, 2228:, 2173:. 1989:. 1929:: 1927:}} 1923:{{ 1852:. 1830:. 1820:. 1773:. 1769:. 1739:, 1717:, 1707:17 1705:, 1638:^ 1588:. 1572:15 1570:. 1566:. 1492:, 1466:. 1209:. 981:) 922:9 908:8 894:7 880:6 866:5 852:4 838:3 824:2 810:1 620:16 435:, 423:, 419:, 401:MB 387:HT 374:. 140:, 125:. 97:A 2184:. 2145:. 2105:. 2055:. 2025:. 1999:. 1975:. 1940:) 1936:( 1919:. 1894:. 1862:. 1838:. 1824:: 1816:: 1783:. 1713:: 1690:. 1667:. 1618:. 1548:. 1516:. 1479:. 1452:. 1434:. 960:2 956:1 616:5 610:4 606:1 603:+ 601:3 596:2 592:1 589:+ 587:6 408:. 34:. 27:.

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.

Index