Pollinator - Knowledge (XXG)

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implications for agriculture and food. Severe yearly declines create concern that bee colony losses could reach a point from which the commercial pollination industry would not be able to adequately recover. The loss of native bees, which also play a key role in pollination of crops, is much less studied, but many native bee species are believed to be in decline. Scientists believe that bee losses are likely caused by a combination of stressors, including poor bee nutrition, loss of forage lands, parasites, pathogens, lack of genetic diversity, and exposure to pesticides.

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diversity has been seen to increase immunocompetence levels in honeybees (Apis mellifera) where diets that consisted of a wide variety of flowering species induced higher glucose oxidase activity, which honeybees' produce to sterilize their colony. More than 30% of global bee species depend on non-floral resources for nest building, protection, health, pest resistance, and alternative food sources. Non-floral resources include leaves, soil, plant resins and secretions, and are often provided by woody-vegetation.

1173:, which contains initiatives that support pollinator populations, the European Union has implemented the EU Biodiversity Strategy for 2030 which includes the EU Pollinators Initiative that sets long-term objectives to reverse pollinator decline in diversity and numbers by 2030. This initiative includes: (1) improving knowledge of pollinator decline, its causes and consequences; (2) tackling the causes of pollinator decline; and (3) raising awareness, engaging society-at-large and promoting collaboration. 50: 1214:

way in which plant-pollinator networks are organized minimizes competition between pollinators and may even lead to strong indirect facilitation between pollinators when conditions are harsh. This allows pollinator species to survive together under harsh conditions. But it also means that pollinator species collapse simultaneously when conditions pass a critical point. This simultaneous collapse occurs, because pollinator species depend on each other when surviving under difficult conditions.

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Park Service, native tallgrass prairie was widespread through North America and home to over 300 species of flowering plants. This habitat is crucial to wild pollinators and now only covers 4% of its original 170-million acre range. By restoring wild pollinators natural habitat and maintaining Earth's biodiversity, populations are assumed to increase. In recent times, environmental groups have put pressure on the

320: 252: 212:, amount of nectar, composition of nectar, etc. For example, birds visit red flowers with long, narrow tubes and much nectar, but are not as strongly attracted to wide flowers with little nectar and copious pollen, which are more attractive to beetles. When these characteristics are experimentally modified (altering colour, size, orientation), pollinator visitation may decline. 54: 52: 1106:

a significant loss of pollinators, including honey bees, native bees, birds, bats, and butterflies, from the environment. The problem is serious and requires immediate attention to ensure the sustainability of our food production systems, avoid additional economic impact on the agricultural sector, and protect the health of the environment.

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number of healthy worker bees and their colonies by monitoring honey bee health and the contributing factors. This includes educating beekeepers and research collaborations to jointly work on honey bee health. Founded in 2015 with a preliminary project in Chile, the program has expanded to Colombia, Argentina, and Costa Rica.

334:), and pollen grains. The bee collects the pollen by rubbing against the anthers. The pollen collects on the hind legs, in a structure referred to as a "pollen basket". As the bee flies from flower to flower, some of the pollen grains are transferred onto the stigma of other flowers. Nectar provides the energy for bee 1181:

The Healthy Hives Latin America 2020 (Salud Apícola 2020 Latinoamérica) program is a collaboration between the Bayer Bee Care Center and the Fraunhofer Chile Research Foundation, that works alongside local researchers at universities and beekeepers' associations. The program focuses on increasing the

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Pollinators contribute substantially to the economy of the United States and are vital to keeping fruits, nuts, and vegetables in our diets. Honey bee pollination alone adds more than $ 15 billion in value to agricultural crops each year in the United States. Over the past few decades, there has been

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Neonicotinoids (Neonics) are a class of synthetic insecticides that are the most widely applied pesticides today due to its water solubility and ability to treat a wide variety of pests. Neonics are highly environmentally persistent, and may contaminate terrestrial and aquatic habitats for as much as

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Declines in the health and population of pollinators pose what could be a significant threat to the integrity of biodiversity, to global food webs, and to human health. At least 80% of our world's crop species require pollination to set seed. A 2021 study estimated that without pollinators, fertility

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The structure of plant-pollinator networks may have large consequences for the way in which pollinator communities respond to increasingly harsh conditions. Mathematical models, examining the consequences of this network structure for the stability of pollinator communities suggest that the specific

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In May 2015, the Pollinator Health Task Force issued a "National Strategy to Promote the Health of Honey Bees and Other Pollinators". The national strategy outlined a comprehensive approach to tackling and reducing the impact of multiple stressors on pollinator health, including pests and pathogens,

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sank to the lowest recorded population level in 2013-14, and there is an imminent risk of failed migration. The continued loss of commercial honey bee colonies poses a threat to the economic stability of commercial beekeeping and pollination operations in the United States, which could have profound

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A 2022 study concludes that the decline of pollinator populations is responsible for 500,000 early human deaths per year by reducing the supply of healthy foods. A decline of pollinators has caused 3-5% loss of fruits, vegetables and nuts. Lower consumption of these healthy foods translates to 1% of

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in that they specialise in gathering pollen for feeding their larvae, carried internally and regurgitated into a mud chamber prior to oviposition. Also, males of many species of bees and wasps, though they do not gather pollen, rely on flowers as sources of energy (in the form of nectar) and also as

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Such a community-wide collapse, involving many pollinator species, can occur suddenly when increasingly harsh conditions pass a critical point and recovery from such a collapse might not be easy. The improvement in conditions needed for pollinators to recover, could be substantially larger than the

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A 2017 report done for the Center of Biological Diversity utilized data documented in the United States on native bee species and found that nearly 1 in 4 (347 species of 1,437 species) is imperiled and at increasing risk of extinction. More than half of the native bee species is in decline and 40%

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are important pollinators of flowering plants worldwide. Often hoverflies are considered to be the second most important pollinators after wild bees. Although hoverflies as a whole are generally considered to be nonselective pollinators, some species have more specialized relationships. The orchid

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The North American Pollinator Protection Campaign (NAPPC) aims to promote pollinator health across the North America and has organized annual conferences since 1997, creates task forces to implement specific objectives that includes public education and policy research, and is developing strategic

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Researchers are still trying to determine how to scientifically best restore and maintain the diverse pollinator habitats found around the world. Many studies conclude that restoration and conservation are key to maintaining biodiversity and pollinator populations. According to the Kansas National

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issued the São Paulo Declaration on Pollinators, recognizing the critical role that these species play in supporting and maintaining terrestrial productivity as well as the survival challenges they face due to anthropogenic change. Today pollinators are considered to be in a state of decline; some

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Wild pollinators often visit many plant species and plants are visited by many pollinator species. All these relations together form a network of interactions between plants and pollinators. Surprising similarities were found in the structure of networks consisting out of the interactions between

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The ‘Coalition of the Willing on Pollinators' (Promote Pollinators) was initiated in 2016 during the Convention on Biological Diversity's Conference of the Parties (CBD COP13) and is a growing alliance of countries and observers who support the notion that country-led politics can lead to policy

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Pollinators require a variety of resources. Most native bees in North America are solitary, ground-nesting species that collect a variety of natural resources including pollen, nectar, leaves, petals and resins to be used as sources of food, supplies for their larva, or nest linings. Floral diet

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Although non-bee pollinators have been seen to be less effective at depositing pollen than bee pollinators one study showed that non-bees made more visits than bees resulting in non-bees performing 38% of visits to crop flowers, outweighing the ineffectiveness of their ability to pollinate.

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In June 2016, the Task Force issued a "Pollinator Partnership Action Plan". That Plan provided examples of past, ongoing, and possible future collaborations between the federal government and non-federal institutions to support pollinator health under each of the national strategy's goals.

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The Pollinator Health Task Force simultaneously issued a "Pollinator Research Action Plan". The Plan outlined five main action areas, covered in ten subject-specific chapters. The action areas were: (1) Setting a Baseline; (2) Assessing Environmental Stressors; (3) Restoring Habitat; (4)

385:; all pollination of native plants in the Americas and Australia historically has been performed by various native bees. It has also been found that non-native plants may have positive effects on native bee pollinators while also influencing their foraging patterns and bee–plant networks. 1130:

Monarch Butterflies: Increase the Eastern population of the monarch butterfly to 225 million butterflies occupying an area of approximately 15 acres (6 hectares) in the overwintering grounds in Mexico, through domestic/international actions and public-private partnerships, by

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plans for conservation that looks to establish partnership between government entities. 11 pollinator-protection agreements have been signed between NAPCC and federal government agencies, responsible for more than 1.5 billion acres of land protections and management.

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Many insects other than bees accomplish pollination by visiting flowers for nectar or pollen, or commonly both. Many do so adventitiously, but the most important pollinators are specialists for at least parts of their life cycles for at least certain functions.

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An estimated one out of every three bites of food comes to us through the work of animal pollinators. The quality of pollinator service has declined over time and this had led to concerns that pollination will be less resistant to extinction in the future.

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also pollinate some kinds of flowers, but for the most part they are parasites, consuming nectar and/or pollen without conveying useful amounts of pollen to a stigma. Other insect orders are rarely pollinators, and then typically only incidentally (e.g.,

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bee (one that vibrates its wing muscles while perched on the flower), such as a bumblebee. Sonicating bees are extremely efficient pollinators of tomatoes, and colonies of bumblebees are quickly replacing humans as the primary pollinators for

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issued a presidential memorandum entitled "Creating a Federal Strategy to Promote the Health of Honey Bees and Other Pollinators". The President's memorandum established a Pollinator Health Task Force, to be co-chaired by the

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corridor, which extends for 1,500 miles (2,400 km) from Texas to Minnesota. The area through which that highway travels provides spring and summer breeding habitats in the United States' key monarch migration corridor.

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Good pollination management seeks to have bees in a "building" state during the bloom period of the crop, thus requiring them to gather pollen, and making them more efficient pollinators. Thus, the management techniques of a

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Shi J, Luo YB, Bernhardt P, Ran JC, Liu ZJ, Zhou Q (January 2009). "Pollination by deceit in Paphiopedilum barbigerum (Orchidaceae): a staminode exploits the innate colour preferences of hoverflies (Syrphidae)".

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six years. Exposed honeybees' (Apis mellifera) have been seen to have lower reproductive output, reduction in nest building or failed to build nests, reduced foraging abilities, and weakened immunity.

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bees pollinate orchids, but these are male bees collecting floral scents rather than females gathering nectar or pollen. Female orchid bees act as pollinators, but of flowers other than orchids.

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charge. Both features help pollen grains adhere to their bodies, but they also have specialized pollen-carrying structures; in most bees, this takes the form of a structure known as the

4777: 424:. Pollination by certain moths may be important, however, or even crucial, for some wildflowers mutually adapted to specialist pollinators. Spectacular examples include orchids such as 200:

that reflect the type of pollinator being attracted. These are characteristics such as: overall flower size, the depth and width of the corolla, the color (including patterns called

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Bastolla U, Fortuna MA, Pascual-García A, Ferrera A, Luque B, Bascompte J (April 2009). "The architecture of mutualistic networks minimizes competition and increases biodiversity".

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Bastolla U, Fortuna MA, Pascual-García A, Ferrera A, Luque B, Bascompte J (April 2009). "The architecture of mutualistic networks minimizes competition and increases biodiversity".

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Hodges SA, Whittall JB, Fulton M, Yang JY (March 2002). "Genetics of floral traits influencing reproductive isolation between Aquilegia formosa and Aquilegia pubescens".

545:. Other species do decay rapidly after ripening, and offer the visiting insects large masses of food, as well as pollen and sometimes seed to carry off when they leave. 1033: 2658:

Kopec, K & Burd, L.A. (2017). "Pollinators in Peril: A systematic status review of North American and Hawaiian native bees." Center for Biological Diversity. See:

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Stewart AB, Dudash MR (1 January 2018). "Foraging strategies of generalist and specialist Old World nectar bats in response to temporally variable floral resources".

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Pollinator Habitat Acreage: Restore or enhance 7 million acres of land for pollinators over the next 5 years through Federal actions and public/private partnerships.

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have been shown to reproduce this way in the absence of currents. It is not yet known how important invertebrate pollinators might be for other species. Later,

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orchids that lack nectar and have a specific chemical attractant and reward (methyl eugenol, raspberry ketone or zingerone) present in their floral fragrances.

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plants and pollinators. This structure was found to be similar in very different ecosystems on different continents, consisting of entirely different species.

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can occur in vast numbers, moving between flowers and plant individuals, enabling some species to contribute to the pollination of tree-crops such as cacao,

3153: 366:, and honey bees are by far the most important commercial pollinating agents, but many other kinds of pollinators, from blue bottle flies, to bumblebees, 2871: 354:

providing pollination services are different from, and to some extent in tension with, those of a beekeeper who is trying to produce honey. Millions of

227:, are also pollinated by insects. In 2016, researchers showed evidence of pollination occurring underwater, which was previously thought not to happen. 2775: 3086: 672:

of species that specialise in eating pollen, nectar, or flowers themselves, may be important cross-pollinators of some plants such as members of the

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measures and innovative action to protect pollinators'. Their supporters are growing steadily, in which 30 countries currently participate.

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Tan K, Nishida R (2005). "Synomone or kairomone?-Bulbophyllum apertum flower releases raspberry ketone to attract Bactrocera fruit flies".

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would be reduced by 80% in half all wild plant species and one-third of all wild plant species would fail to produce any seeds at all.

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Other species of bees differ in various details of their behavior and pollen-gathering habits, and honey bees are not native to the

292:, and their relatives do not have a scopa, but the hind leg is modified into a structure called the corbicula (also known as the " 3729: 2659: 541:, for example, attract carrion flies that futilely lay their eggs on the flower, where their larvae promptly starve for lack of 4168: 4649: 2193: 3183: 2471: 4099: 1237: 589: 4818: 4405: 3920: 2202: 929:

flowers. Tomato blossoms are self-fertile, but (with the exception of potato-leaf varieties) have the pollen inside the

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species. Part of the adaptation takes the form of remarkably long probosces. This also applies to empidine dance flies (

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Honey Bees: Reduce honey bee colony losses during winter (overwintering mortality) to no more than 15% within 10 years.

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species provide other examples, being fertilised in elaborate ecological interactions with particular species of

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Larson BM, Kevan PG, Inouye DW (2001). "Flies and flowers: taxonomic diversity of anthophiles and pollinators".

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van Tussenbroek BI, Villamil N, Márquez-Guzmán J, Wong R, Monroy-Velázquez LV, Solis-Weiss V (September 2016).

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Lever JJ, van Nes EH, Scheffer M, Bascompte J (March 2014). "The sudden collapse of pollinator communities".

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Lever JJ, van Nes EH, Scheffer M, Bascompte J (March 2014). "The sudden collapse of pollinator communities".

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Rodger JG, Bennett JM, Razanajatovo M, Knight TM, van Kleunen M, Ashman TL, et al. (15 October 2021).

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Klein AM, Vaissière BE, Cane JH, Steffan-Dewenter I, Cunningham SA, Kremen C, et al. (February 2007).

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Rader R, Howlett BG, Cunningham SA, Westcott DA, Newstrom-Lloyd LE, Walker MK, et al. (October 2009).

4752: 4676: 1232: 426: 375: 371: 174: 2062:"Are empidine dance flies major flower visitors in alpine environments? A case study in the Alps, France" 4917: 1654:"Are native and non-native pollinator friendly plants equally valuable for native wild bee communities?" 1828:"Smells like aphids: orchid flowers mimic aphid alarm pheromones to attract hoverflies for pollination" 1636: 508: 2571:

Olesen JM, Valido A (April 2003). "Lizards as pollinators and seed dispersers: an island phenomenon".

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Rader R, Bartomeus I, Garibaldi LA, Garratt MP, Howlett BG, Winfree R, et al. (5 January 2016).

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Smith MR, Mueller ND, Springmann M, Sulser TB, Garibaldi LA, Gerber J, et al. (December 2022).

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are important pollinators of some tropical flowers, visiting to take nectar. Birds, particularly

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Insects are the major pollinators of most plants, and insect pollinators include all families of

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orchids, produce remarkably complex combinations of pheromonal attractants and physical mimicry

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https://www.biologicaldiversity.org/campaigns/native_pollinators/pdfs/Pollinators_in_Peril.pdf

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A strategy of great biological interest is that of sexual deception, where plants, generally

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species are typically the only other pollinators in alpine regions at timberline and beyond.

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with long beaks; they pollinate a number of deep-throated flowers. Humans may also carry out

4691: 4597: 4592: 4546: 4439: 4424: 4385: 4310: 4151: 4075: 3972: 3914: 3653: 3645: 3600: 3561: 3551: 3451: 3443: 3387: 3342: 3332: 2982: 2966: 2917: 2909: 2898:"Pollinator Deficits, Food Consumption, and Consequences for Human Health: A Modeling Study" 2842: 2826: 2741: 2700: 2684: 2628: 2588: 2545: 2494: 2416: 2408: 2351: 2302: 2245: 2138: 2130: 2081: 2073: 2042: 1983: 1932: 1893: 1847: 1839: 1800: 1760: 1752: 1689: 1673: 1607: 1599: 1473: 1455: 1414: 1356: 1327: 1319: 1227: 980: 938: 926: 906: 887: 828: 150: 32: 822: 4945: 4927: 4789: 4618: 4568: 4556: 4536: 4518: 4454: 4281: 4249: 4210: 4183: 4012: 4007: 3898: 3834: 3715: 3190: 3160: 3093: 2470:

Lavaut E, Guillemin ML, Colin S, Faure A, Coudret J, Destombe C, et al. (July 2022).

1045: 844: 799: 705: 273: 224: 43: 2947:"The environmental risks of neonicotinoid pesticides: a review of the evidence post 2013" 2111:"Altitudinal, temporal and trophic partitioning of flower-visitors in Alpine communities" 3641: 3596: 3547: 3439: 3383: 3328: 2962: 2822: 2624: 2584: 2541: 2490: 2404: 2298: 2241: 2126: 2038: 1979: 1889: 1669: 1502: 1451: 1410: 1218:

improvement needed to return to conditions at which the pollinator community collapsed.

4839: 4804: 4757: 4739: 4703: 4459: 4286: 4264: 4230: 4205: 4188: 4178: 4173: 4055: 3873: 3858: 3812: 3807: 2987: 2922: 2897: 2847: 2806: 2705: 2672: 2421: 2388: 2356: 2339: 2143: 2110: 2086: 2061: 1852: 1827: 1765: 1740: 1694: 1653: 1612: 1587: 1478: 1435: 1332: 1299: 1082: 711: 630: 561: 532: 490:) that visit a wide range of flowering plants, some species of which can pollinate the 304:

food, to nurture their young, and transfer some among the flowers as they are working.

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vital to the maintenance of both wild and agricultural plant communities. In 1999 the

4960: 4875: 4623: 4541: 4513: 4476: 4444: 4380: 4300: 4200: 4002: 3985: 3908: 3888: 3829: 3824: 3772: 3500: 2761: 2514: 2324: 2267: 2226:"Floral Odors and the Interaction between Pollinating Ceratopogonid Midges and Cacao" 2224:

Arnold S, Forbes S, Hall D, Farman D, Bridgemohan P, Spinelli G, et al. (2019).

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or simply to keep a strain genetically pure. This can involve using a small brush or

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Prominent among Hymenoptera other than bees are predatory aculeate wasps (especially

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Many of the priority projects that the national strategy identified focused on the

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tubes that only permit access to flying pollinators, whether bird, bat, or insect.

725: 634: 594: 577: 277: 2340:"A phylogenetic study of pollinator conservatism among sexually deceptive orchids" 268:, which are plainly adapted to pollination. Bees typically are fuzzy and carry an 2472:"Pollinators of the sea: A discovery of animal-mediated fertilization in seaweed" 4686: 4671: 4666: 4602: 4464: 4244: 4215: 4114: 4109: 3957: 3797: 3792: 3777: 3493:

The discovered secret of nature in the construction and fertilization of flowers

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Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

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Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

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Understanding and Supporting Stakeholders; (5) Curating and Sharing Knowledge.

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Honey bees travel from flower to flower, collecting nectar (later converted to

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Animal that moves pollen from the male anther of a flower to the female stigma

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reduced habitat, lack of nutritional resources, and exposure to pesticides.

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also accomplish much pollination, especially of deep-throated flowers. Other

276:, which is on the hind legs of most bees, and/or the lower abdomen (e.g., of 4823: 4720: 4449: 4254: 4235: 4146: 4070: 3942: 3883: 3863: 3802: 3556: 3337: 2730:"Beyond flowers: including non-floral resources in bee conservation schemes" 2498: 1460: 988:

of global insect pollinators (primarily native bees) are highly threatened.

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Scott-Brown A, Arnold S, Kite G, Farrell I, Collins D, Stevenson P (2019).

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Das entdeckte Geheimnis der Natur im Bau und in der Befruchtung der Blumen

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in southwest China, also achieves pollination by deceit by exploiting the

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pollinating a plum tree. Bees are the most effective insect pollinators.

4050: 4045: 3962: 3952: 3658: 3456: 1436:"Non-bee insects are important contributors to global crop pollination" 1122:

The national strategy laid out federal actions to achieve three goals:

729: 673: 642: 542: 516: 421: 339: 301: 138: 59: 3649: 3447: 2872:"Global pollinator losses causing 500,000 early deaths a year – study" 2782:. New Zealand: University of Canterbury. 23 March 2012. Archived from 2549: 1677: 4503: 4395: 4349: 4315: 4269: 4259: 4220: 4158: 4139: 4134: 4129: 4124: 4119: 3738: 3011: 2913: 930: 922: 918: 895: 891: 879: 763: 759: 740: 700: 680:, that produce prodigious amounts of pollen. Others, for example the 669: 572: 565: 560:

of aphids to attract hover flies for pollination. Another plant, the

469: 297: 158: 154: 142: 141:. Vertebrates, mainly bats and birds, but also some non-bat mammals ( 95: 91: 87: 83: 3698: 2017:

Tan KH, Nishida R (June 2007). "Zingerone in the floral synomone of

3211: 1360: 4727: 4661: 4583: 4551: 4508: 4400: 4342: 4337: 4332: 4320: 4305: 4274: 4195: 3853: 3844: 3286: 3012:"Tallgrass Prairie National Preserve (U.S. National Park Service)" 1588:"Importance of pollinators in changing landscapes for world crops" 883: 839: 821: 811: 778: 751:

in the process. Examples are known from all continents apart from

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Lefebvre V, Fontaine C, Villemant C, Daugeron C (November 2014).

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Stökl J, Brodmann J, Dafni A, Ayasse M, Hansson BS (April 2011).

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territories for meeting fertile females that visit the flowers.

413: 281: 209: 110: 3711: 3261: 1562:"Bees of the sea: Tiny crustaceans pollinate underwater plants" 4498: 4060: 2109:

Lefebvre V, Villemant C, Fontaine C, Daugeron C (March 2018).

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Lefebvre V, Daugeron C, Villemant C, Fontaine C (July 2019).

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deal primarily with the United States and do not represent a

535:. The plants' ecological strategy varies; several species of 3530:

Bascompte J, Jordano P, Melián CJ, Olesen JM (August 2003).

3311:

Bascompte J, Jordano P, Melián CJ, Olesen JM (August 2003).

2446:"Like Bees of the Seas, These Crustaceans Pollinate Seaweed" 1109:

Pollinator losses have been severe. The number of migrating

793:) acting as pollinators in underwater environments. Beds of 789:

Experimental evidence has shown invertebrates (mostly small

2671:

Alaux C, Ducloz F, Crauser D, Le Conte Y (23 August 2010).

1923:

floral synomone lures fruit flies to perform pollination".

264:

The most recognized pollinators are the various species of

3532:"The nested assembly of plant-animal mutualistic networks" 3313:"The nested assembly of plant-animal mutualistic networks" 660:, a species found in North America, is known to pollinate 300:, a concentrated energy source, and pollen, which is high 161:

pollinate certain plants. Among the pollinating birds are

106:

in the flower by the male gametes from the pollen grains.

3707: 3682: 629:", in particular, is widely applied to the Masarinae, a 2338:

Mant JG, Schiestl FP, Peakall R, Weston PH (May 2002).

1041: 531:

are important for some species of plants whose flowers

1786: 1784: 810:

reproduce – the first known case of an animal helping

2344:

Evolution; International Journal of Organic Evolution

1312:

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series B

1099:

Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency

312:

bees such as honey bees need an abundant and steady

4884: 4848: 4738: 4611: 4527: 4423: 4373: 4098: 4028: 3971: 3933: 3907: 3843: 3763: 1641:. Washington D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. 656:, if they feed on nectar, may act as pollinators; 523:Carrion flies and flesh flies in families such as 2167:"Year of Pollination: Mosquitoes as Pollinators" 666:, commonly referred as the blunt-leaved orchid. 1652:Seitz N, vanEngelsdorp D, Leonhardt SD (2020). 1440:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 1124: 1103: 959:Pollinator population declines and conservation 937:. This can be done by wind, by humans, or by a 921:swab to move pollen, or to simply tap or shake 3421: 3419: 3417: 3723: 3182:Pollinator Health Task Force (22 June 2016). 1501:Stevenson DW, Norstog LJ, Fawcett PK (1998). 1030:The examples and perspective in this section 184:, a plant that is a source of pollen for the 8: 4829:International Association for Plant Taxonomy 3152:Pollinator Health Task Force (19 May 2015). 3085:Pollinator Health Task Force (19 May 2015). 2951:Environmental Science and Pollution Research 1635:Westbrook FE, Bergman PW, Wearne RA (1975). 898:have been recorded pollinating some plants. 342:. When bees are rearing large quantities of 3116: 3114: 3112: 3110: 3080: 3078: 3076: 3035:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list ( 2673:"Diet effects on honeybee immunocompetence" 633:of the Vespidae; they are remarkable among 3930: 3730: 3716: 3708: 1048:, or create a new section, as appropriate. 3657: 3565: 3555: 3455: 3346: 3336: 2986: 2921: 2846: 2728:Requier F, Leonhardt SD (February 2020). 2704: 2632: 2420: 2355: 2306: 2249: 2142: 2085: 1851: 1764: 1693: 1611: 1532:"The new underwater world of pollination" 1477: 1459: 1418: 1331: 1064:Learn how and when to remove this message 4773:International Code of Nomenclature (ICN) 2776:"Predicting the collapse of pollinators" 978:species, such as Franklin's bumble bee ( 758:Whole groups of plants, such as certain 747:to attempt to mate with them, conveying 468:are particularly adapted to pollinating 48: 31: 3694:Pollinator & Visitor Image Database 1724:. U.S. Forestry Service. Archived from 1254: 925:blossoms to release the pollen for the 575:are exclusive pollinators of some wild 98:of a flower. This helps to bring about 3133:from the original on 30 September 2015 3028: 2654: 2652: 2607:Baeckens S, Van Damme R (April 2020). 1205:List of crop plants pollinated by bees 1195:Structure of plant-pollinator networks 1000:all deaths, according to the authors. 568:yellow colour preference of syrphids. 3505:The Principles of Pollination Ecology 1919:Tan KH, Nishida R, Toong YC (2002). " 1388: 1386: 1285:The Principles of Pollination Ecology 219:It has recently been discovered that 7: 3184:"Pollinator Partnership Action Plan" 3121:EP News Wire Reports (19 May 2015). 1555: 1553: 1526: 1524: 2027:Biochemical Systematics and Ecology 901:Humans can be pollinators, as many 2945:Wood TJ, Goulson D (7 June 2017). 2357:10.1111/j.0014-3820.2002.tb01402.x 975:Convention on Biological Diversity 773:species produce flowers on sticky 14: 4778:ICN for Cultivated Plants (ICNCP) 3154:"Pollinator Research Action Plan" 2902:Environmental Health Perspectives 2573:Trends in Ecology & Evolution 2025:fruit flies during pollination". 1505:. In Owens SJ, Rudall PJ (eds.). 280:bees), made up of thick, plumose 180:A pollinator is different from a 4941: 4940: 1898:10.1111/j.1438-8677.2008.00120.x 1832:Proceedings. Biological Sciences 1592:Proceedings. Biological Sciences 1420:10.1111/j.1365-2664.2009.01700.x 1021: 2870:Carrington D (9 January 2023). 1503:"Pollination Biology Of Cycads" 1079:Environmental Protection Agency 950:Floral and non-floral resources 905:have discovered that they must 709:L. (Malvaceae) and elderflower 2734:Journal of Insect Conservation 1: 3056:Office of the Press Secretary 2593:10.1016/S0169-5347(03)00004-1 1638:Pollination and the Honey Bee 1238:Pollinator-mediated selection 4819:History of plant systematics 4406:Thorns, spines, and prickles 3287:"Home | Promote Pollinators" 2203:United States Forest Service 1509:. Kew: Royal Botanic Gardens 1298:Fulton M, Hodges SA (1999). 1088:On June 20, 2014, President 430:, dependent on a particular 3525:. New York: Academic Press. 3516:. New York: Pergamon Press. 3507:. New York: Pergamon Press. 2230:Journal of Chemical Ecology 2198:: The Pollinating Mosquito" 1968:Journal of Chemical Ecology 1925:Journal of Chemical Ecology 1044:, discuss the issue on the 849:Curi Cancha Wildlife Refuge 684:, specialise on flowers of 260:sp. bee pollinating flowers 4998: 4635:Alternation of generations 3495:] (in German). Berlin. 2746:10.1007/s10841-019-00206-1 2308:10.1007/s00425-019-03176-5 2251:10.1007/s10886-019-01118-9 2135:10.1038/s41598-018-23210-y 1399:Journal of Applied Ecology 1300:"Floral isolation between 1198: 969:Pollinators provide a key 962: 374:are cultured and sold for 239: 20: 4936: 4785:Cultivated plant taxonomy 4748:Biological classification 3745: 3503:, van der Pijl L (1979). 3050:Obama PB (20 June 2014). 2971:10.1007/s11356-017-9240-x 2634:10.1016/j.cub.2020.03.029 2047:10.1016/j.bse.2007.01.013 1988:10.1007/s10886-005-2023-8 1283:, van der Pijl L (1979). 1101:. The memorandum stated: 1085:, a type of insecticide. 476:plants with narrow, deep 204:that are visible only in 4645:Evolutionary development 3699:Resources on Pollinators 1095:Secretary of Agriculture 137:); and many families of 82:is an animal that moves 4296:Hypanthium (Floral cup) 3557:10.1073/pnas.1633576100 3338:10.1073/pnas.1633576100 2499:10.1126/science.abo6661 2444:Roth A (28 July 2022). 2021:(Orchidaceae) attracts 1937:10.1023/A:1016277500007 1722:Celebrating Butterflies 1718:"Butterfly Pollination" 1461:10.1073/pnas.1517092112 1349:The American Naturalist 803:was discovered to help 399:Australian painted lady 4911:by author abbreviation 4835:Plant taxonomy systems 4753:Botanical nomenclature 3683:Pollinator Partnership 3291:promotepollinators.org 2831:10.1126/sciadv.abd3524 2689:10.1098/rsbl.2009.0986 2078:10.1098/rsbl.2014.0742 1844:10.1098/rspb.2010.1770 1757:10.1098/rsbl.2019.0230 1604:10.1098/rspb.2006.3721 1324:10.1098/rspb.1999.0915 1233:Pollinator Partnership 1137: 1116: 852: 837: 826:Tropical flowers like 602: 554:Epipactis veratrifolia 520: 427:Angraecum sesquipedale 402: 362:out as pollinators by 338:; pollen provides the 327: 261: 175:artificial pollination 75: 46: 4918:Botanical expeditions 2780:News - Communications 2609:"The island syndrome" 2393:Nature Communications 1793:Canadian Entomologist 1658:Ecology and Evolution 1267:What is a pollinator? 913:, whether because of 847:with pollen on bill, 843: 825: 592: 511: 396: 389:Butterflies and moths 322: 296:"). Most bees gather 254: 198:pollination syndromes 113:and most families of 57: 35: 4650:Evolutionary history 4640:Double fertilization 4492:Cellular respiration 3690:Project Regeneration 3512:Percival MS (1965). 3262:"Salud Apicola 2020" 3189:. Washington, D.C.: 3159:. Washington, D.C.: 3092:. Washington, D.C.: 3058:. Washington, D.C.: 2019:Bulbophyllum baileyi 1507:Reproductive Biology 1201:Pollination syndrome 1042:improve this section 663:Platanthera obtusata 501:) as effectively as 231:Types of pollinators 39:Eristalinus taeniops 3869:Non-vascular plants 3642:2014EcolL..17..350L 3605:10.1038/nature07950 3597:2009Natur.458.1018B 3548:2003PNAS..100.9383B 3523:Pollination Biology 3440:2014EcolL..17..350L 3392:10.1038/nature07950 3384:2009Natur.458.1018B 3329:2003PNAS..100.9383B 3241:European Commission 2963:2017ESPR...2417285W 2957:(21): 17285–17325. 2823:2021SciA....7.3524R 2786:on 24 November 2012 2625:2020CBio...30.R338B 2585:2003TEcoE..18..177O 2542:2018Biotr..50...98S 2491:2022Sci...377..528L 2413:10.1038/ncomms12980 2405:2016NatCo...712980V 2299:2019Plant.250..367S 2242:2019JCEco..45..869A 2127:2018NatSR...8.4706L 2039:2007BioSE..35..334T 1980:2005JCEco..31..497K 1921:Bulbophyllum cheiri 1890:2009PlBio..11...17S 1838:(1709): 1216–1222. 1805:10.4039/ent133439-4 1670:2020EcoEv..1012838S 1664:(23): 12838–12850. 1452:2016PNAS..113..146R 1411:2009JApEc..46.1080R 1355:(Suppl 3): S51–60. 1318:(1435): 2247–2252. 1287:. Oxford: Pergamon. 1171:European Green Deal 1111:Monarch butterflies 785:Other invertebrates 599:Scolia chrysotricha 497:Geranium sylvaticum 376:managed pollination 121:; many families of 72:Lonicera gracilipes 4374:Surface structures 4169:Flower development 3703:National Academies 3266:Salud Apicola 2020 2450:The New York Times 2115:Scientific Reports 1269:. 3 February 2021. 965:Pollinator decline 915:pollinator decline 853: 838: 603: 573:dacine fruit flies 533:exude a fetid odor 521: 403: 383:Western Hemisphere 368:orchard mason bees 358:of honey bees are 328: 262: 76: 47: 27:Pollinator (album) 4954: 4953: 4593:Herbaceous plants 4419: 4418: 3650:10.1111/ele.12236 3591:(7241): 1018–20. 3448:10.1111/ele.12236 3378:(7241): 1018–20. 2550:10.1111/btp.12492 2485:(6605): 528–530. 1678:10.1002/ece3.6826 1598:(1608): 303–313. 1302:Aquilegia formosa 1074: 1073: 1066: 971:ecosystem service 739:that induce male 492:woodland geranium 401:feeding on nectar 196:Plants fall into 64:Andrena lonicerae 55: 21:For the album by 4989: 4944: 4943: 4923:Individual trees 4598:Secondary growth 4569:Succulent plants 4557:Prostrate shrubs 4440:Apical dominance 4425:Plant physiology 4386:Epicuticular wax 3931: 3924: 3915:Plant morphology 3732: 3725: 3718: 3709: 3671: 3661: 3624: 3579: 3569: 3559: 3526: 3517: 3508: 3496: 3470: 3469: 3459: 3423: 3412: 3411: 3367: 3361: 3360: 3350: 3340: 3308: 3302: 3301: 3299: 3297: 3283: 3277: 3276: 3274: 3272: 3258: 3252: 3251: 3249: 3247: 3233: 3227: 3226: 3224: 3222: 3208: 3202: 3201: 3199: 3197: 3188: 3179: 3173: 3172: 3170: 3168: 3158: 3149: 3143: 3142: 3140: 3138: 3118: 3105: 3104: 3102: 3100: 3091: 3082: 3071: 3070: 3068: 3066: 3047: 3041: 3040: 3034: 3026: 3024: 3022: 3010:City MA, Us K6. 3007: 3001: 3000: 2990: 2942: 2936: 2935: 2925: 2914:10.1289/EHP10947 2893: 2887: 2886: 2884: 2882: 2867: 2861: 2860: 2850: 2817:(42): eabd3524. 2811:Science Advances 2802: 2796: 2795: 2793: 2791: 2772: 2766: 2765: 2725: 2719: 2718: 2708: 2668: 2662: 2656: 2647: 2646: 2636: 2619:(8): R338–R339. 2604: 2598: 2596: 2568: 2562: 2561: 2525: 2519: 2518: 2476: 2467: 2461: 2460: 2458: 2456: 2441: 2435: 2434: 2424: 2384: 2378: 2377: 2359: 2335: 2329: 2328: 2310: 2278: 2272: 2271: 2253: 2221: 2215: 2214: 2212: 2210: 2192:Statman-Weil Z. 2189: 2183: 2182: 2180: 2178: 2163: 2157: 2156: 2146: 2106: 2100: 2099: 2089: 2072:(11): 20140742. 2057: 2051: 2050: 2014: 2008: 2007: 1963: 1957: 1956: 1931:(6): 1161–1172. 1916: 1910: 1909: 1872: 1866: 1865: 1855: 1823: 1817: 1816: 1788: 1779: 1778: 1768: 1736: 1730: 1729: 1728:on 23 July 2011. 1714: 1708: 1707: 1697: 1649: 1643: 1642: 1632: 1626: 1625: 1615: 1583: 1577: 1576: 1574: 1572: 1557: 1548: 1547: 1545: 1543: 1538:. 5 October 2016 1528: 1519: 1518: 1516: 1514: 1498: 1492: 1491: 1481: 1463: 1431: 1425: 1424: 1422: 1405:(5): 1080–1087. 1390: 1381: 1380: 1344: 1338: 1337: 1335: 1295: 1289: 1288: 1277: 1271: 1270: 1259: 1228:Self-pollination 1069: 1062: 1058: 1055: 1049: 1025: 1024: 1017: 981:Bombus franklini 927:self-pollinating 829:Tacca chantrieri 715:L. (Adoxaceae). 372:leaf cutter bees 225:flowering plants 223:, which are not 66:) pollinating a 56: 42:) pollinating a 4997: 4996: 4992: 4991: 4990: 4988: 4987: 4986: 4957: 4956: 4955: 4950: 4932: 4901:Botanical terms 4894: 4880: 4844: 4790:Citrus taxonomy 4768:Author citation 4734: 4628: 4607: 4529: 4523: 4519:Turgor pressure 4427: 4415: 4369: 4184:Floral symmetry 4102: 4094: 4024: 4013:Vascular bundle 4008:Vascular tissue 3967: 3927: 3918: 3917: 3903: 3874:Vascular plants 3839: 3835:Plant pathology 3759: 3741: 3736: 3679: 3674: 3630:Ecology Letters 3627: 3582: 3529: 3521:Real L (1983). 3520: 3511: 3499: 3483: 3479: 3474: 3473: 3428:Ecology Letters 3425: 3424: 3415: 3369: 3368: 3364: 3310: 3309: 3305: 3295: 3293: 3285: 3284: 3280: 3270: 3268: 3260: 3259: 3255: 3245: 3243: 3235: 3234: 3230: 3220: 3218: 3210: 3209: 3205: 3195: 3193: 3191:The White House 3186: 3181: 3180: 3176: 3166: 3164: 3161:The White House 3156: 3151: 3150: 3146: 3136: 3134: 3120: 3119: 3108: 3098: 3096: 3094:The White House 3089: 3084: 3083: 3074: 3064: 3062: 3060:The White House 3049: 3048: 3044: 3027: 3020: 3018: 3009: 3008: 3004: 2944: 2943: 2939: 2895: 2894: 2890: 2880: 2878: 2869: 2868: 2864: 2804: 2803: 2799: 2789: 2787: 2774: 2773: 2769: 2727: 2726: 2722: 2677:Biology Letters 2670: 2669: 2665: 2657: 2650: 2613:Current Biology 2606: 2605: 2601: 2570: 2569: 2565: 2527: 2526: 2522: 2474: 2469: 2468: 2464: 2454: 2452: 2443: 2442: 2438: 2386: 2385: 2381: 2337: 2336: 2332: 2280: 2279: 2275: 2236:(10): 869–878. 2223: 2222: 2218: 2208: 2206: 2191: 2190: 2186: 2176: 2174: 2165: 2164: 2160: 2108: 2107: 2103: 2066:Biology Letters 2059: 2058: 2054: 2016: 2015: 2011: 1965: 1964: 1960: 1918: 1917: 1913: 1874: 1873: 1869: 1825: 1824: 1820: 1790: 1789: 1782: 1751:(7): 20190230. 1745:Biology Letters 1738: 1737: 1733: 1716: 1715: 1711: 1651: 1650: 1646: 1634: 1633: 1629: 1585: 1584: 1580: 1570: 1568: 1559: 1558: 1551: 1541: 1539: 1530: 1529: 1522: 1512: 1510: 1500: 1499: 1495: 1433: 1432: 1428: 1392: 1391: 1384: 1346: 1345: 1341: 1297: 1296: 1292: 1279: 1278: 1274: 1261: 1260: 1256: 1251: 1224: 1207: 1199:Main articles: 1197: 1188: 1179: 1169:Along with the 1167: 1158: 1108: 1107: 1070: 1059: 1053: 1050: 1039: 1026: 1022: 1015: 1006: 1004:Pesticide usage 967: 961: 952: 845:Green violetear 820: 800:Idotea balthica 787: 777:or with sticky 706:Theobroma cacao 587: 454: 436:Morgan's sphinx 391: 249: 244: 238: 233: 194: 49: 44:common hawkweed 36:A syrphid fly ( 30: 17: 12: 11: 5: 4995: 4993: 4985: 4984: 4982:Insect ecology 4979: 4974: 4969: 4959: 4958: 4952: 4951: 4949: 4948: 4937: 4934: 4933: 4931: 4930: 4925: 4920: 4915: 4914: 4913: 4903: 4897: 4895: 4893: 4892: 4891:Related topics 4889: 4885: 4882: 4881: 4879: 4878: 4873: 4868: 4863: 4858: 4852: 4850: 4846: 4845: 4843: 4842: 4840:Taxonomic rank 4837: 4832: 4826: 4821: 4816: 4815: 4814: 4813: 4812: 4807: 4802: 4792: 4782: 4781: 4780: 4775: 4770: 4765: 4760: 4758:Botanical name 4750: 4744: 4742: 4740:Plant taxonomy 4736: 4735: 4733: 4732: 4731: 4730: 4725: 4724: 4723: 4716:Megasporangium 4713: 4712: 4711: 4704:Microsporangia 4696: 4695: 4694: 4689: 4684: 4679: 4669: 4664: 4659: 4658: 4657: 4647: 4642: 4637: 4631: 4629: 4627: 4626: 4621: 4615: 4609: 4608: 4606: 4605: 4600: 4595: 4590: 4589: 4588: 4587: 4586: 4576: 4571: 4566: 4565: 4564: 4559: 4549: 4544: 4542:Cushion plants 4533: 4531: 4525: 4524: 4522: 4521: 4516: 4511: 4506: 4501: 4496: 4495: 4494: 4489: 4479: 4477:Plant hormones 4474: 4469: 4468: 4467: 4460:Photosynthesis 4457: 4452: 4447: 4442: 4437: 4431: 4429: 4421: 4420: 4417: 4416: 4414: 4413: 4408: 4403: 4398: 4393: 4388: 4383: 4377: 4375: 4371: 4370: 4368: 4367: 4362: 4357: 4352: 4347: 4346: 4345: 4340: 4335: 4325: 4324: 4323: 4318: 4313: 4308: 4298: 4293: 4292: 4291: 4290: 4289: 4284: 4279: 4278: 4277: 4272: 4252: 4247: 4242: 4241: 4240: 4239: 4238: 4233: 4223: 4218: 4213: 4208: 4203: 4193: 4192: 4191: 4186: 4181: 4179:Floral formula 4176: 4174:Floral diagram 4171: 4166: 4156: 4155: 4154: 4149: 4144: 4143: 4142: 4137: 4127: 4117: 4112: 4106: 4104: 4103:(incl. Flower) 4096: 4095: 4093: 4092: 4091: 4090: 4085: 4080: 4079: 4078: 4073: 4063: 4053: 4048: 4043: 4038: 4032: 4030: 4026: 4025: 4023: 4022: 4017: 4016: 4015: 4005: 4003:Storage organs 4000: 3995: 3994: 3993: 3983: 3977: 3975: 3969: 3968: 3966: 3965: 3960: 3955: 3950: 3945: 3939: 3937: 3928: 3926: 3925: 3911: 3905: 3904: 3902: 3901: 3896: 3891: 3889:Spermatophytes 3886: 3881: 3876: 3871: 3866: 3861: 3859:Archaeplastida 3856: 3850: 3848: 3841: 3840: 3838: 3837: 3832: 3827: 3822: 3821: 3820: 3813:Phytogeography 3810: 3808:Phytochemistry 3805: 3800: 3795: 3790: 3785: 3780: 3775: 3769: 3767: 3765:Subdisciplines 3761: 3760: 3758: 3757: 3752: 3746: 3743: 3742: 3737: 3735: 3734: 3727: 3720: 3712: 3706: 3705: 3696: 3691: 3685: 3678: 3677:External links 3675: 3673: 3672: 3625: 3580: 3542:(16): 9383–7. 3527: 3518: 3514:Floral Biology 3509: 3497: 3480: 3478: 3475: 3472: 3471: 3413: 3362: 3323:(16): 9383–7. 3303: 3278: 3253: 3228: 3216:Pollinator.org 3203: 3174: 3163:. pp. 1–3 3144: 3106: 3072: 3042: 3002: 2937: 2908:(12): 127003. 2888: 2862: 2797: 2767: 2720: 2683:(4): 562–565. 2663: 2648: 2599: 2579:(4): 177–181. 2563: 2520: 2462: 2436: 2379: 2330: 2293:(1): 367–379. 2273: 2216: 2196:Aedes communis 2184: 2171:awkward botany 2158: 2101: 2052: 2033:(6): 334–341. 2009: 1974:(3): 497–507. 1958: 1911: 1867: 1818: 1799:(4): 439–465. 1780: 1731: 1709: 1644: 1627: 1578: 1549: 1520: 1493: 1446:(1): 146–151. 1426: 1382: 1361:10.1086/338372 1339: 1290: 1272: 1253: 1252: 1250: 1247: 1246: 1245: 1240: 1235: 1230: 1223: 1220: 1196: 1193: 1187: 1184: 1178: 1175: 1166: 1163: 1157: 1154: 1136: 1135: 1132: 1128: 1083:neonicotinoids 1072: 1071: 1036:of the subject 1034:worldwide view 1029: 1027: 1020: 1014: 1011: 1005: 1002: 963:Main article: 960: 957: 951: 948: 907:hand pollinate 819: 816: 786: 783: 712:Sambucus nigra 658:Aedes communis 635:solitary wasps 586: 583: 562:slipper orchid 453: 450: 390: 387: 248: 245: 240:Main article: 237: 234: 232: 229: 193: 190: 115:aculeate wasps 94:to the female 86:from the male 15: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4994: 4983: 4980: 4978: 4975: 4973: 4970: 4968: 4965: 4964: 4962: 4947: 4939: 4938: 4935: 4929: 4926: 4924: 4921: 4919: 4916: 4912: 4909: 4908: 4907: 4904: 4902: 4899: 4898: 4896: 4890: 4887: 4886: 4883: 4877: 4876:Phytochemical 4874: 4872: 4869: 4867: 4864: 4862: 4859: 4857: 4854: 4853: 4851: 4847: 4841: 4838: 4836: 4833: 4830: 4827: 4825: 4822: 4820: 4817: 4811: 4808: 4806: 4803: 4801: 4798: 4797: 4796: 4793: 4791: 4788: 4787: 4786: 4783: 4779: 4776: 4774: 4771: 4769: 4766: 4764: 4761: 4759: 4756: 4755: 4754: 4751: 4749: 4746: 4745: 4743: 4741: 4737: 4729: 4726: 4722: 4719: 4718: 4717: 4714: 4710: 4707: 4706: 4705: 4702: 4701: 4700: 4697: 4693: 4690: 4688: 4685: 4683: 4680: 4678: 4675: 4674: 4673: 4670: 4668: 4665: 4663: 4660: 4656: 4653: 4652: 4651: 4648: 4646: 4643: 4641: 4638: 4636: 4633: 4632: 4630: 4625: 4622: 4620: 4617: 4616: 4614: 4610: 4604: 4601: 4599: 4596: 4594: 4591: 4585: 4582: 4581: 4580: 4577: 4575: 4572: 4570: 4567: 4563: 4560: 4558: 4555: 4554: 4553: 4550: 4548: 4545: 4543: 4540: 4539: 4538: 4535: 4534: 4532: 4526: 4520: 4517: 4515: 4514:Transpiration 4512: 4510: 4507: 4505: 4502: 4500: 4497: 4493: 4490: 4488: 4485: 4484: 4483: 4480: 4478: 4475: 4473: 4470: 4466: 4463: 4462: 4461: 4458: 4456: 4453: 4451: 4448: 4446: 4443: 4441: 4438: 4436: 4433: 4432: 4430: 4426: 4422: 4412: 4409: 4407: 4404: 4402: 4399: 4397: 4394: 4392: 4389: 4387: 4384: 4382: 4379: 4378: 4376: 4372: 4366: 4363: 4361: 4358: 4356: 4353: 4351: 4348: 4344: 4341: 4339: 4336: 4334: 4331: 4330: 4329: 4326: 4322: 4319: 4317: 4314: 4312: 4309: 4307: 4304: 4303: 4302: 4301:Inflorescence 4299: 4297: 4294: 4288: 4285: 4283: 4280: 4276: 4273: 4271: 4268: 4267: 4266: 4263: 4262: 4261: 4258: 4257: 4256: 4253: 4251: 4248: 4246: 4243: 4237: 4234: 4232: 4229: 4228: 4227: 4224: 4222: 4219: 4217: 4214: 4212: 4209: 4207: 4204: 4202: 4199: 4198: 4197: 4194: 4190: 4187: 4185: 4182: 4180: 4177: 4175: 4172: 4170: 4167: 4165: 4162: 4161: 4160: 4157: 4153: 4150: 4148: 4145: 4141: 4138: 4136: 4133: 4132: 4131: 4128: 4126: 4123: 4122: 4121: 4118: 4116: 4113: 4111: 4108: 4107: 4105: 4101: 4097: 4089: 4086: 4084: 4081: 4077: 4074: 4072: 4069: 4068: 4067: 4064: 4062: 4059: 4058: 4057: 4054: 4052: 4049: 4047: 4044: 4042: 4039: 4037: 4034: 4033: 4031: 4027: 4021: 4018: 4014: 4011: 4010: 4009: 4006: 4004: 4001: 3999: 3996: 3992: 3989: 3988: 3987: 3986:Ground tissue 3984: 3982: 3979: 3978: 3976: 3974: 3970: 3964: 3961: 3959: 3956: 3954: 3951: 3949: 3946: 3944: 3941: 3940: 3938: 3936: 3932: 3929: 3922: 3916: 3913: 3912: 3910: 3909:Plant anatomy 3906: 3900: 3897: 3895: 3892: 3890: 3887: 3885: 3882: 3880: 3877: 3875: 3872: 3870: 3867: 3865: 3862: 3860: 3857: 3855: 3852: 3851: 3849: 3846: 3842: 3836: 3833: 3831: 3830:Plant ecology 3828: 3826: 3825:Plant anatomy 3823: 3819: 3816: 3815: 3814: 3811: 3809: 3806: 3804: 3801: 3799: 3796: 3794: 3791: 3789: 3786: 3784: 3781: 3779: 3776: 3774: 3773:Archaeobotany 3771: 3770: 3768: 3766: 3762: 3756: 3753: 3751: 3748: 3747: 3744: 3740: 3733: 3728: 3726: 3721: 3719: 3714: 3713: 3710: 3704: 3700: 3697: 3695: 3692: 3689: 3686: 3684: 3681: 3680: 3676: 3669: 3665: 3660: 3655: 3651: 3647: 3643: 3639: 3635: 3631: 3626: 3622: 3618: 3614: 3610: 3606: 3602: 3598: 3594: 3590: 3586: 3581: 3577: 3573: 3568: 3563: 3558: 3553: 3549: 3545: 3541: 3537: 3533: 3528: 3524: 3519: 3515: 3510: 3506: 3502: 3498: 3494: 3490: 3486: 3482: 3481: 3476: 3467: 3463: 3458: 3453: 3449: 3445: 3441: 3437: 3433: 3429: 3422: 3420: 3418: 3414: 3409: 3405: 3401: 3397: 3393: 3389: 3385: 3381: 3377: 3373: 3366: 3363: 3358: 3354: 3349: 3344: 3339: 3334: 3330: 3326: 3322: 3318: 3314: 3307: 3304: 3292: 3288: 3282: 3279: 3267: 3263: 3257: 3254: 3242: 3238: 3237:"Pollinators" 3232: 3229: 3217: 3213: 3207: 3204: 3192: 3185: 3178: 3175: 3162: 3155: 3148: 3145: 3132: 3128: 3124: 3117: 3115: 3113: 3111: 3107: 3095: 3088: 3081: 3079: 3077: 3073: 3061: 3057: 3053: 3046: 3043: 3038: 3032: 3017: 3013: 3006: 3003: 2998: 2994: 2989: 2984: 2980: 2976: 2972: 2968: 2964: 2960: 2956: 2952: 2948: 2941: 2938: 2933: 2929: 2924: 2919: 2915: 2911: 2907: 2903: 2899: 2892: 2889: 2877: 2873: 2866: 2863: 2858: 2854: 2849: 2844: 2840: 2836: 2832: 2828: 2824: 2820: 2816: 2812: 2808: 2801: 2798: 2785: 2781: 2777: 2771: 2768: 2763: 2759: 2755: 2751: 2747: 2743: 2739: 2735: 2731: 2724: 2721: 2716: 2712: 2707: 2702: 2698: 2694: 2690: 2686: 2682: 2678: 2674: 2667: 2664: 2661: 2655: 2653: 2649: 2644: 2640: 2635: 2630: 2626: 2622: 2618: 2614: 2610: 2603: 2600: 2594: 2590: 2586: 2582: 2578: 2574: 2567: 2564: 2559: 2555: 2551: 2547: 2543: 2539: 2536:(1): 98–105. 2535: 2531: 2524: 2521: 2516: 2512: 2508: 2504: 2500: 2496: 2492: 2488: 2484: 2480: 2473: 2466: 2463: 2451: 2447: 2440: 2437: 2432: 2428: 2423: 2418: 2414: 2410: 2406: 2402: 2398: 2394: 2390: 2383: 2380: 2375: 2371: 2367: 2363: 2358: 2353: 2350:(5): 888–98. 2349: 2345: 2341: 2334: 2331: 2326: 2322: 2318: 2314: 2309: 2304: 2300: 2296: 2292: 2288: 2284: 2277: 2274: 2269: 2265: 2261: 2257: 2252: 2247: 2243: 2239: 2235: 2231: 2227: 2220: 2217: 2205: 2204: 2199: 2197: 2188: 2185: 2173:. 8 July 2015 2172: 2168: 2162: 2159: 2154: 2150: 2145: 2140: 2136: 2132: 2128: 2124: 2120: 2116: 2112: 2105: 2102: 2097: 2093: 2088: 2083: 2079: 2075: 2071: 2067: 2063: 2056: 2053: 2048: 2044: 2040: 2036: 2032: 2028: 2024: 2020: 2013: 2010: 2005: 2001: 1997: 1993: 1989: 1985: 1981: 1977: 1973: 1969: 1962: 1959: 1954: 1950: 1946: 1942: 1938: 1934: 1930: 1926: 1922: 1915: 1912: 1907: 1903: 1899: 1895: 1891: 1887: 1883: 1879: 1878:Plant Biology 1871: 1868: 1863: 1859: 1854: 1849: 1845: 1841: 1837: 1833: 1829: 1822: 1819: 1814: 1810: 1806: 1802: 1798: 1794: 1787: 1785: 1781: 1776: 1772: 1767: 1762: 1758: 1754: 1750: 1746: 1742: 1735: 1732: 1727: 1723: 1719: 1713: 1710: 1705: 1701: 1696: 1691: 1687: 1683: 1679: 1675: 1671: 1667: 1663: 1659: 1655: 1648: 1645: 1640: 1639: 1631: 1628: 1623: 1619: 1614: 1609: 1605: 1601: 1597: 1593: 1589: 1582: 1579: 1567: 1566:New Scientist 1563: 1556: 1554: 1550: 1537: 1533: 1527: 1525: 1521: 1508: 1504: 1497: 1494: 1489: 1485: 1480: 1475: 1471: 1467: 1462: 1457: 1453: 1449: 1445: 1441: 1437: 1430: 1427: 1421: 1416: 1412: 1408: 1404: 1400: 1396: 1389: 1387: 1383: 1378: 1374: 1370: 1366: 1362: 1358: 1354: 1350: 1343: 1340: 1334: 1329: 1325: 1321: 1317: 1313: 1309: 1307: 1303: 1294: 1291: 1286: 1282: 1276: 1273: 1268: 1264: 1258: 1255: 1248: 1244: 1241: 1239: 1236: 1234: 1231: 1229: 1226: 1225: 1221: 1219: 1215: 1211: 1206: 1202: 1194: 1192: 1185: 1183: 1177:South America 1176: 1174: 1172: 1164: 1162: 1156:North America 1155: 1153: 1149: 1145: 1142: 1133: 1129: 1126: 1125: 1123: 1120: 1115: 1112: 1102: 1100: 1096: 1091: 1086: 1084: 1080: 1068: 1065: 1057: 1047: 1043: 1037: 1035: 1028: 1019: 1018: 1012: 1010: 1003: 1001: 997: 993: 989: 985: 983: 982: 976: 972: 966: 958: 956: 949: 947: 945: 940: 936: 932: 928: 924: 920: 916: 912: 908: 904: 899: 897: 893: 889: 885: 881: 877: 873: 869: 865: 861: 857: 850: 846: 842: 835: 831: 830: 824: 817: 815: 813: 809: 807: 802: 801: 796: 792: 784: 782: 780: 776: 772: 771: 766: 765: 761: 756: 754: 750: 746: 742: 738: 733: 731: 727: 723: 718: 714: 713: 708: 707: 702: 698: 693: 691: 687: 683: 679: 675: 671: 667: 665: 664: 659: 655: 650: 648: 644: 639: 636: 632: 628: 625:). The term " 624: 620: 616: 612: 607: 600: 596: 591: 585:Other insects 584: 582: 580: 579: 574: 569: 567: 563: 559: 556:mimics alarm 555: 550: 546: 544: 540: 539: 534: 530: 529:Sarcophagidae 526: 525:Calliphoridae 518: 514: 510: 506: 504: 500: 498: 493: 489: 485: 484: 479: 478:corolla tubes 475: 471: 467: 466:Nemestrinidae 463: 459: 451: 449: 447: 443: 442: 437: 433: 429: 428: 423: 419: 415: 411: 407: 400: 395: 388: 386: 384: 379: 377: 373: 369: 365: 361: 357: 353: 347: 345: 341: 337: 333: 325: 321: 317: 316:to multiply. 315: 314:pollen source 311: 307: 303: 299: 295: 294:pollen basket 291: 287: 283: 279: 275: 271: 270:electrostatic 267: 259: 258: 253: 246: 243: 235: 230: 228: 226: 222: 217: 213: 211: 207: 203: 202:nectar guides 199: 191: 189: 187: 183: 178: 176: 172: 168: 164: 160: 156: 152: 148: 144: 140: 136: 132: 128: 127:lepidopterans 124: 120: 116: 112: 107: 105: 101: 100:fertilization 97: 93: 89: 85: 81: 73: 69: 65: 61: 45: 41: 40: 34: 28: 24: 19: 4871:Horticulture 4861:Floriculture 4763:Correct name 4681: 4613:Reproduction 4603:Woody plants 4528:Plant growth 4487:Gas Exchange 4472:Phytomelanin 4350:Plant embryo 4100:Reproductive 3948:Phragmoplast 3636:(3): 350–9. 3633: 3629: 3588: 3584: 3539: 3535: 3522: 3513: 3504: 3492: 3488: 3477:Bibliography 3434:(3): 350–9. 3431: 3427: 3375: 3371: 3365: 3320: 3316: 3306: 3294:. Retrieved 3290: 3281: 3269:. Retrieved 3265: 3256: 3244:. Retrieved 3240: 3231: 3219:. Retrieved 3215: 3206: 3194:. Retrieved 3177: 3165:. Retrieved 3147: 3135:. Retrieved 3126: 3097:. Retrieved 3063:. Retrieved 3055: 3045: 3019:. Retrieved 3015: 3005: 2954: 2950: 2940: 2905: 2901: 2891: 2879:. Retrieved 2876:the Guardian 2875: 2865: 2814: 2810: 2800: 2788:. Retrieved 2784:the original 2779: 2770: 2737: 2733: 2723: 2680: 2676: 2666: 2616: 2612: 2602: 2576: 2572: 2566: 2533: 2529: 2523: 2482: 2478: 2465: 2453:. Retrieved 2449: 2439: 2399:(1): 12980. 2396: 2392: 2382: 2347: 2343: 2333: 2290: 2286: 2276: 2233: 2229: 2219: 2207:. Retrieved 2201: 2195: 2187: 2175:. Retrieved 2170: 2161: 2118: 2114: 2104: 2069: 2065: 2055: 2030: 2026: 2022: 2018: 2012: 1971: 1967: 1961: 1928: 1924: 1920: 1914: 1884:(1): 17–28. 1881: 1877: 1870: 1835: 1831: 1821: 1796: 1792: 1748: 1744: 1734: 1726:the original 1721: 1712: 1661: 1657: 1647: 1637: 1630: 1595: 1591: 1581: 1569:. Retrieved 1565: 1540:. Retrieved 1536:Conservation 1535: 1511:. Retrieved 1506: 1496: 1443: 1439: 1429: 1402: 1398: 1352: 1348: 1342: 1315: 1311: 1306:A. pubescens 1305: 1301: 1293: 1284: 1275: 1266: 1263:"Pollinator" 1257: 1243:Polli:Nation 1216: 1212: 1208: 1189: 1180: 1168: 1159: 1150: 1146: 1138: 1121: 1117: 1104: 1090:Barack Obama 1087: 1075: 1060: 1051: 1031: 1007: 998: 994: 990: 986: 979: 968: 953: 900: 860:hummingbirds 854: 851:, Costa Rica 836:-pollinated. 827: 804: 798: 788: 768: 762: 757: 734: 726:Anthocoridae 710: 704: 694: 668: 661: 657: 651: 640: 627:pollen wasps 608: 604: 598: 595:Scoliid wasp 578:Bulbophyllum 576: 570: 553: 547: 536: 522: 496: 481: 455: 439: 425: 404: 380: 348: 329: 263: 255: 218: 214: 208:light), the 195: 179: 163:hummingbirds 108: 79: 77: 71: 63: 37: 18: 4967:Pollination 4687:Pollen tube 4682:Pollinators 4672:Pollination 4667:Germination 4482:Respiration 4465:Chlorophyll 4311:Pedicellate 4245:Gametophyte 4164:Aestivation 4115:Antheridium 4110:Archegonium 3958:Plasmodesma 3935:Plant cells 3798:Paleobotany 3793:Ethnobotany 3778:Astrobotany 3688:Pollinators 3659:10261/91808 3485:Sprengel CK 3457:10261/91808 3296:21 February 3271:22 February 3246:20 February 3021:22 February 3016:www.nps.gov 2740:(1): 5–16. 2121:(1): 4706. 872:vertebrates 864:honeyeaters 818:Vertebrates 814:reproduce. 791:crustaceans 699:and flower- 652:Some adult 611:Crabronidae 483:Lapeirousia 460:, and some 446:yucca moths 410:butterflies 406:Lepidoptera 257:Lipotriches 242:Entomophily 206:ultraviolet 186:pollination 167:honeyeaters 157:) and some 131:butterflies 68:honeysuckle 4977:Beekeeping 4961:Categories 4709:Microspore 4699:Sporangium 4677:Artificial 4365:Sporophyte 4360:Sporophyll 4355:Receptacle 4250:Gynandrium 4120:Androecium 4029:Vegetative 3899:Angiosperm 3894:Gymnosperm 3788:Dendrology 3127:EPNewswire 3065:5 February 2530:Biotropica 2023:Bactrocera 1571:18 October 1560:Benson E. 1542:18 October 1513:9 December 1249:References 946:tomatoes. 944:greenhouse 939:sonicating 911:vegetables 874:, such as 806:Gracilaria 753:Antarctica 686:Asteraceae 654:mosquitoes 623:Pompilidae 601:) foraging 571:Some male 558:pheromones 549:Hoverflies 480:, such as 418:food crops 364:beekeepers 360:contracted 306:Euglossine 290:bumblebees 286:Honey bees 278:megachilid 192:Background 182:pollenizer 80:pollinator 60:mining bee 4972:Symbiosis 4906:Botanists 4824:Herbarium 4721:Megaspore 4619:Evolution 4562:Subshrubs 4530:and habit 4455:Nutrition 4450:Cellulose 4445:Bulk flow 4428:Materials 4391:Epidermis 4255:Gynoecium 4236:Endosperm 4231:Dispersal 4147:Staminode 4083:Sessility 4071:Cataphyll 3991:Mesophyll 3943:Cell wall 3884:Lycophyte 3864:Bryophyte 3818:Geobotany 3803:Phycology 3701:from the 3221:5 January 3196:5 January 3167:5 January 3137:5 January 2979:0944-1344 2881:9 January 2839:2375-2548 2762:254600870 2754:1366-638X 2697:1744-9561 2515:251159505 2455:21 August 2325:253886497 2268:208086796 1686:2045-7758 1470:0027-8424 1046:talk page 903:gardeners 876:kinkajous 775:peduncles 722:Hemiptera 690:Aizoaceae 678:Zamiaceae 647:bumblebee 631:subfamily 615:Sphecidae 515:fly on a 488:Empidinae 462:Tabanidae 458:bee flies 432:hawk moth 352:beekeeper 336:nutrition 324:Honey bee 188:process. 4946:Category 4866:Forestry 4856:Agronomy 4849:Practice 4800:Cultivar 4795:Cultigen 4655:timeline 4547:Rosettes 4435:Aleurone 4411:Trichome 4328:Perianth 4140:Filament 3998:Meristem 3921:glossary 3783:Bryology 3668:24386999 3613:19396144 3576:12881488 3487:(1793). 3466:24386999 3400:19396144 3357:12881488 3131:Archived 3031:cite web 2997:28593544 2932:36515549 2857:34644118 2715:20089536 2643:32315628 2558:90515964 2507:35901149 2431:27680661 2374:42724740 2366:12093025 2317:31069523 2260:31741191 2153:29549294 2096:25376804 2004:39173699 1996:15898497 1953:36621985 1945:12184394 1906:19121110 1862:20943694 1813:55767580 1775:31362609 1704:33304497 1622:17164193 1488:26621730 1369:18707369 1222:See also 1097:and the 1054:May 2019 1040:You may 1013:Strategy 868:sunbirds 808:gracilis 795:seagrass 749:pollinia 724:such as 682:Hopliini 619:Vespidae 552:species 538:Stapelia 310:Eusocial 171:sunbirds 4624:Ecology 4381:Cuticle 4211:Capsule 4201:Anatomy 4152:Tapetum 4076:Petiole 4051:Rhizome 4046:Rhizoid 3973:Tissues 3963:Vacuole 3953:Plastid 3755:Outline 3750:History 3638:Bibcode 3621:4395634 3593:Bibcode 3544:Bibcode 3501:Fægri K 3436:Bibcode 3408:4395634 3380:Bibcode 3325:Bibcode 3212:"NAPPC" 2988:5533829 2959:Bibcode 2923:9749483 2848:8514087 2819:Bibcode 2790:2 April 2706:2936196 2621:Bibcode 2581:Bibcode 2538:Bibcode 2487:Bibcode 2479:Science 2422:5056424 2401:Bibcode 2295:Bibcode 2238:Bibcode 2209:28 July 2177:28 July 2144:5856740 2123:Bibcode 2087:4261866 2035:Bibcode 1976:Bibcode 1886:Bibcode 1853:3049078 1766:6684995 1695:7713930 1666:Bibcode 1613:1702377 1479:4711867 1448:Bibcode 1407:Bibcode 1377:3399289 1333:1690454 1281:Fægri K 1081:to ban 909:garden 896:lizards 892:rodents 888:possums 880:monkeys 779:corolla 730:Miridae 695:Minute 674:Araceae 670:Beetles 643:Diptera 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