501:
324:
825:
662:
870:
440:
42:
712:
29:
861:
disproving emerging theories that blamed the earthquake on the drainage of the many Duchy's swamps and their reclamation as fertile agricultural lands. One of the leading theories at the time was that earthquakes were caused by subterranean winds, excited by change in temperature. The winds should have escaped through the marshes, but drainage compromised the process so the winds grew in pressure and caused shocks.
903:(Remedies against earthquakes for building security), Ligorio presented design plans for a shock-proof building, the first known design with a scientific anti-seismic approach. Many of the empirical findings of Ligorio are consistent with contemporary anti-seismic practices: among them the correct dimensioning of main walls, use of better and stronger bricks as well as elastic structural joints and iron rods.
49:
206:
296:, Ferrara in the 16th century was a thriving city, a major hub for trade, business and liberal arts. World class music and painting schools, linked with Flemish artistic communities, were established in the late 15th and early 16th century, under the patronage of the House of Este. Musical instrument workshops, and especially the making of
282:). Small earthquakes are common, albeit not frequent, but rarely lead to considerable damage to the urban cityscape. Ferrara was the location for minor earthquakes in the four centuries before 1570, these events being recorded in the city archives with detailed descriptions of damage to buildings and depositions by witnesses.
460:
first day; one – the strongest – the day after. The first strong shock struck at 9.30 (local time) November 16, 1570, its epicenter just a few kilometers under the city centre. Six hundred pieces of stone masonry (mostly battlements, balconies and chimneys) are reported to have fallen, further damaging the flimsy stone and
939:
or moving their houses to nearby towns. Ferrara lost its capital city status and was demoted to a simple border city squeezed between Venice and the Papal States, never fully achieving economic recovery from the disaster. Without the Jews' businesses, crushed by costly reconstruction debts and losing
472:
Forty percent of the city buildings were damaged, including almost every public building. Some of them collapsed, and many churches sustained critical damage to pillars and main walls. Observers reported that the shallow bowl-shaped valley where
Ferrara lies seemed to rise into a kind of hump, before
732:
The Pope's rebuttal was a blunt political maneuver, meant to undermine
Alfonso's authority by exploiting the discontented minorities: it stated that since the city administration tolerated the presence of the assassins of Jesus Christ, then God was justifiably angry toward the whole city. Full blame
682:
The townspeople remained refugees for the following two years, due to the aftershocks. The resulting situation, in which societal rules were upset or fell in disuse, was perceived as awkward and unnatural by both peasants and well-to-do, leading to common psychological issues amongst the population.
464:
roofs. The following day the ground trembled again many times. At 8 pm a new powerful shock caused severe damage to walls and caused some buildings to sustain structural damage. Just four hours later, a new tremor caused new cracks and some collapse. At 3 am on
November 17 the ground shook
962:
The city's architecture still bears many marks from the earthquake. Iron braces and rods placed in the aftermath of the shocks to strengthen the damaged walls are still present, windows closed with stones and concrete to improve the stability of damaged facades are a common occurrence and there are
800:
to come back to the city. Return was mandatory for people living in the city for at least 15 years (that is, people with full citizenship rights), under penalty of seizing of their estates. Despite the order, only about two out of three came back to the city: among the people who left the city were
459:
were seen above the city on
November 15, 1570, the night before the first quake. Flames were reported to come out from the soil and raise into the air, probably small pockets of natural gas set free by cracks in the earth crust. The earthquake struck at dawn: three strong shocks hit the city in the
895:
Ultimately, Ligorio put the blame for the extensive damage on inappropriate techniques and bad materials used in building the city's edifices. The random mixing of stones, brick and sand in the main walls was strongly criticized, along with the rooftops built to push horizontally on the side walls
860:
The study group wrote six treatises in the following year: four of them were published and quickly became regarded as masterpieces among that part of natural philosophy dedicated to the study of earthquakes, their reputation lasting through the following two centuries. The essays were essential in
772:
Bothered by the
Capuchins' show, annoyed by the Pope's political maneuvers and worried about the loss of hope of the citizens, the Duke decided to display his strength by forcibly expelling the rabble-rousing friars from the city, abandoning any expectation of papal help and unilaterally taking in
891:
while at the same time proving that the Pope's claims were unfounded. He collected a long list of earthquakes of the past, compiling a time-line and showing how they were a common and natural occurrence in many parts of the known world. He kept a diary of the aftershock, writing in abundance of
728:
The Duke asked Pope Pius V for help, or at least a public blessing to the city: he receiving nothing but a firm reprimand for not having prosecuted enough the city's Jews, well deserving God's wrath toward the city. Alfonso II's answer was prompt, pointing out the evident natural cause of the
484:
Minor earthquakes had struck
Ferrara in the past (events were recorded in 1222, 1504, 1511 and 1561, some of them causing little damage, and a stronger event in 1346). The exceptional length of the seismic swarm, unprecedented at the time in Ferrara, led some to believe it was a supernatural
815:
Damage to buildings was so widespread – chronicles reports that all the public building and most of the houses needed work – that the forging of the much needed iron bars caused a shortage of metal in the whole province, depleting stockpiles and requiring massive imports from nearby cities.
636:
Despite the widespread damage, fatalities were quite limited. The initial shocks alerted the population, and gave them time to evacuate the damaged buildings. The majority of houses were of one or two story height, and received less severe damage than the grander palaces and churches.
652:
both place the estimate at 70. Other sources vary from 9 dead to over 100, with some other occurrences of estimates of the order of two hundred or five hundred, usually taken as unreliable. Florence's ambassador
Canigiani is known to have written home about 130 to 150 victims.
678:
The palaces of the notables and courtesans were damaged as well as the poorest mansions, and the whole city population had to seek shelter together in tents and refuges, despite their status or wealth. Contemporary account estimate eleven thousand people left the city.
783:
repaired in record time, to downplay his hardnesses with the other
Italian rulers and to begin to restore a sense of normality in the evacuees. Relationships with the Papacy remained strained, but Alfonso always managed to keep the Pope's demands and attacks at bay.
385:, he never took any action against the two thousand Jews living in the city walls, well knowing that the Hebrew community accounted for a strong share of the city cultural and economic success. His disregard of the Holy Seat's orders made him more than one enemy.
492:: only the 1346 event was similar in intensity, though minor urbanization led to less evident damage (but more victims), the other have been all marked as class VII or VI. Other seismic events would hit the city in 1695, 1787 (three shocks in ten days) and 1796.
792:
After
Castello Estense was made safe again, thanks to many iron rods and anchors, in March 1571 the Duke triumphantly relocated back to the city and the return to normality begun to look possible. Minor shocks kept coming, but the city was ready for rebuilding.
695:
near the city along with his closest advisor. This unusual improvisation was not well regarded by the Pope and was seen as demeaning by other rulers, but ultimately it proved to be a wise choice and a necessity in view of the duration of the aftershocks.
760:, in order to scare the populace and turn it against Alfonso. The friars took some decomposing corpses from the rubble, and brought them in procession claiming that God was going to sink the city to hell if the people refused to drive Alfonso away.
763:
The macabre show further contributed to the widespread sense of doom and distrust: people living in one of the most free and culturally lively cities of Italy suddenly was cast into a gloomy atmosphere of superstition and religious obscurantism.
500:
465:
harder than ever; many buildings, damaged by the previous shocks, gave way and caved in. Many churches' facades, often built as self-standing walls rising well over the effective architecture, collapsed, including at the
181:
The disaster destroyed half the city, permanently marked many of the buildings left standing, and directly contributed to – but was not the sole cause of – a long-term decline of the city lasting until the 19th century.
1254:
from the CFTI5 Catalogue of Strong
Earthquakes in Italy (461 BC – 1997) and Mediterranean Area (760 B.C. – 1500) Guidoboni E., Ferrari G., Mariotti D., Comastri A., Tarabusi G., Sgattoni G., Valensise G. (2018)
426:
Both the high taxation, and the soft stance with the Jews ultimately gained him hostility in the most die-hard Catholic part of the population, which supported an acquisition of the city and its lands by the
197:. It led to the establishment of an earthquake observatory which published to very high regard, and the drafting of some of the first-known building designs based on a scientific seismic-resistant approach.
674:
People were scared by the disaster and about a third of the populace left the city for good. City jails collapsed and prisoners escaped the rubble, leading to a crime spree in the city and countryside.
974:
Walls from historical buildings are often uneven and out of angle. This is sometimes said by locals to provoke the special Ferrara feeling to visitors, a veiled sense of dizziness and disorientation.
699:
Ferrara's fate appeared sealed to the ambassadors visiting the refugee Duke: in correspondence between the embassies and the nobles, the region is sometimes called "di Val di Po dov'era Ferrara" (
625:
Just one month after the earthquake, on December 15, 1570, a new powerful shock hit the city: this time the battered Palazzo Tassoni, S.Andrea church and S.Agostino church were not spared.
812:
Maremonti. According to Guarini, works on S.Rocco, S.Silvestro, S.Stefano, S.Cristoforo, S.Francesco and the rebuilding of S.Paolo begun shortly after, the latter being completed in 1575.
558:(the Bishop's Palace) was destroyed, and had to be rebuilt. Minor damage was inflicted on the Cardinal Palace, Palazzo del Paradiso, Palazzo Tassoni and Duke Alfonso's personal palace.
245:, some of which have been detected from anomalous drainage patterns. These blind thrust faults are roughly west-northwest–east-southeast-trending, parallel to the mountain front, and
691:
Duke Alfonso II d'Este and his family barely escaped the collapse of a tower of Castello Estense. The lord fled the city by coach, and set up a temporary court in the fields of the
374:, confirming the reputation of Ferrara as a haven for artists and freethinkers. The emerging of the city as a cultural powerhouse came at the cost of a sharp increase in taxes.
943:
In 1598, Alfonso died without legitimate heirs, and the city was formally annexed to the Papal States by means of questionable claims of vacancy. The annexation of Ferrara and
323:
744:: in the account, he credited the earthquake to a visit from God himself, suggesting it was a supernatural event but not implying any punishment toward the city or its Jews.
578:'s. The Santa Maria degli Angeli church, still under constructions, was so severely damaged that further work was abandoned. Other than the facade, the Duomo lost the
1284:
824:
892:
detail about their intensity and the damage they kept doing to the city, dramatically improving knowledge of shocks dynamics and consequences of an earthquake.
776:
He walked in procession through the debris, followed by his most trustworthy men, to show off to the populace his control on the city, its laws and its people.
358:, a beloved ruler and a devoted liberal art patron, but careless and a big spender as an administrator. Alfonso was the main sponsor of many artists including
1054:
1062:
1382:
1183:
1564:
1559:
1600:
1233:
347:
1554:
841:, philosophers and many "experts in various accidents" to inquire into the causes of the disaster, appointing as their leader the renowned
249:
shallowly towards the south-southwest. The 1570 earthquake has been linked to movement on the outermost and northernmost of these thrusts.
1085:"Plio-Quaternary tectonic evolution of the Northern Apennines thrust fronts (Bologna-Ferrara section, Italy): seismotectonic implications"
602:
collapsed to the ground, as did the top portion of the other three major towers of the town: Palazzo della Ragione's, the Porta S. Pietro
392:'s many diplomatic and legal challenges to the city independence, thanks to cunning politics and a strong friendship with the powerful
1277:
924:. While the Duke was away, the Pope executed a thorough purge of the Jews from the Papal States, including Ferrara. The only allowed
1523:
683:
Along with the fear of aftershocks, people developed a sense of impending doom, precariousness and a general mistrust in humanity.
41:
661:
582:
chapel and part of a side wing: the heavy iron chain above the main altar fell to the ground, along with the columns' fine marble
1549:
874:
381:
from the persistent prosecutions promoted by the Roman Catholic Church. Despite Alfonso II's formal status as a vassal of the
1337:
1128:
988:
753:
575:
371:
175:
796:
Immediately Duke Alfonso ordered a census of the remaining population, and on August 14, 1571, issued a decree ordering the
104:
896:(instead of providing a vertical load). Approximation in leveling of walls and ceilings led to uneven discharge of forces.
1595:
1270:
1427:
1293:
983:
805:
311:) had been built in the previous century: it is commonly considered one of the major examples of urban planning in the
1620:
477:, a huge sum at the time. The event was a surprise to many scholars, since according to the then mainstream theory of
229:
by the loading of the Apennine thrust sheets, overlies and mainly conceals the active front of the Northern Apennines
1544:
539:
1605:
1518:
1483:
1473:
1417:
1407:
1357:
869:
547:
543:
1488:
1387:
1347:
935:
After the earthquake, many nobles and well-off merchants left the city, managing their business in their country
649:
363:
857:
workshop), effectively founding the first seismological observatory and think tank on earthquakes in the world.
801:
many of the wealthiest and a good portion of the court nobles – further diminishing the prestige of Alfonso II.
555:
1615:
1503:
1463:
1453:
1448:
1367:
1362:
1307:
1084:
489:
1012:
1574:
1539:
1513:
1493:
1478:
1468:
1458:
1432:
1402:
1397:
1392:
1352:
1322:
940:
its thriving cultural circle, the city became a minor trade and agricultural hub up until the 19th century.
504:
234:
89:
1009:"CFTI4Med, Catalogue of Strong Earthquakes in Italy (461 B.C.-1997) and Mediterranean Area (760 B.C.-1500)"
598:, a common kind of architecture in the Italian city skyline in the renaissance, were damaged. The Castle's
415:
Alfonso was not new to compromises: to smooth his frequent brushes with the Pope, he was usually attending
1610:
1569:
1508:
1498:
1422:
1412:
1377:
1372:
1332:
1317:
1312:
854:
809:
692:
611:
583:
574:, S.Domenico, and Santa Maria della Consolazione churches were severely damaged or destroyed, as was the
570:
and S. Giovanni Battista churches collapsed, many paintings with them. Facades of S.Francesco, S.Andrea,
887:
was a scientist and a devout catholic: he needed to carefully weigh his words to avoid a clash with the
420:
1187:
971:
were damaged or destroyed, and were rebuilt in the following decade in a changed style and materials.
641:
393:
378:
327:
230:
444:
423:, giving substantial sums to charity, arranging religious parades for saints and building convents.
1327:
607:
571:
233:, across which there is about 1 mm per year of active shortening at present. Information from
1007:
Guidoboni, Emanuela; Ferrari G.; Mariotti D.; Comastri A.; Tarabusi G. & Valensise G. (2007).
614:
of the Duomo, of S.Silvestro, S.Agostino, S.Giorgio and S.Bartolo churches were severely damaged.
210:
968:
733:
was to be put on Alfonso's part, not on the Jews, for failing to expel them from the city walls.
567:
478:
367:
397:
1229:
921:
737:
645:
456:
439:
331:
315:, the biggest and most architecturally advanced town expansion project in Europe at the time.
304:
186:
171:
continued for four years, with over 2,000 in the period from November 1570 to February 1571.
951:
780:
551:
535:
518:
514:
622:
The seismic wave kept going for four years, but the worst was over after about six months.
288:
Despite continuous – and often victorious – wars against the age's superpowers, the nearby
1184:"Danni sismici in località elencate nella Banca Ipermediale delle Vetrate Italiane (BIVI)"
510:
431:. Those rebel fringes were instrumental in the political struggle following the disaster.
401:
335:
226:
194:
963:
traces of the stubs once sustaining collapsed balconies and porches. Chimneys, decorated
703:). Florence's ambassadors were especially skeptical about the chances of city recovery.
917:
711:
416:
359:
271:
263:
246:
242:
222:
28:
1251:
1186:. Istituto per la conservazione e la valorizzazione dei beni culturali. Archived from
473:
coming back to its original profile. Damage to the city were assessed in over 300,000
1589:
884:
878:
846:
579:
474:
1008:
285:
At the time of the 1570 event, it was a medium-sized city, with 32,000 inhabitants.
850:
293:
238:
409:
355:
312:
964:
954:
who was the direct candidate to the succession, but was ultimately completed.
599:
279:
168:
119:
106:
944:
828:
Del terremoto, dialogo del signor Lucio Maggio gentil'huomo bolognese (1571)
804:
At first rebuilding works begun on the Duomo and on S.Michele, S.Romano and
628:
On the following January 12, 1571 a new shock damaged Palazzo Montecuccoli.
428:
382:
351:
275:
267:
218:
190:
715:
Announcement in a 1570 German woodcut broadside of Ferrara earthquake and
1083:
Toscani, G.; Burrato P.; Di Bucci D.; Seno S & Valensise, G. (2008).
716:
538:, seat of the Duke, received major damage and became unfit for use. The
205:
1262:
838:
757:
164:
143:
948:
929:
925:
842:
603:
405:
389:
388:
Even if he were walking on a thin line, Alfonso managed to avoid the
339:
289:
167:
on November 16 and 17, 1570. After the initial shocks, a sequence of
1055:"Terremoti a Ferrara e nel suo territorio: un rischio sottovalutato"
542:(town hall) partially collapsed, as did the enclosure walls of both
740:
wrote a short essay on the earthquake in the following days, named
936:
888:
868:
823:
710:
660:
595:
523:
499:
481:, earthquakes were not meant to strike in winter or on flat land.
466:
438:
322:
204:
193:, and one of the oldest occurrences of the event known outside of
139:
947:
was disputed by many contemporaries, including the weak Duke of
729:
disaster and discharging any allegation about blaming the Jews.
297:
1266:
461:
237:
demonstrates that the area is underlain by a series of active
488:
The earthquake's intensity has been assessed as VIII on the
300:, were a pride of the city and were considered preeminent.
916:
Late in 1571, Alfonso II was called to fight against the
752:
Along with the Pope's stern letter, emissaries from the
396:. It is to be remembered that Alfonso II was the son of
901:
Rimedi contra terremoti per la sicurezza degli edifici
185:
The earthquake caused the first documented episode of
665:
Ferrara destroyed by 1570 earthquake, by H. J. Helden
1532:
1441:
1300:
586:. San Paolo church had to be rebuilt from scratch.
419:and acting as a good Catholic in public, receiving
149:
135:
98:
84:
76:
61:
1226:Libro, o Trattato de' diversi terremoti, vol 28
48:
773:his hands the control of the city rebuilding.
174:The same area was struck, centuries later, by
1278:
319:Political, economical and religious situation
8:
21:
1048:
1046:
1044:
1042:
1040:
1038:
1036:
1034:
1032:
1030:
788:Return into the city and rebuilding efforts
1285:
1271:
1263:
20:
412:himself under the eyes of the Catholics.
1063:Fondazione Cassa di Risparmio di Ferrara
837:Alfonso called on his court scholars in
377:The city was a safe refuge for Jews and
1178:
1176:
1174:
1172:
1170:
1168:
1166:
1122:
1120:
1118:
1116:
1114:
1112:
1110:
1108:
999:
932:. Pope Pius V died the following year.
864:
779:The Duke made every effort to have the
707:Political struggle about the rebuilding
1164:
1162:
1160:
1158:
1156:
1154:
1152:
1150:
1148:
1146:
1092:Bollettino Società Geologica Italiana
7:
640:Reliable sources, such as historian
274:geologically quite stable since the
1252:Page on the 1570 Ferrara earthquake
701:Po Valley, where Ferrara once stood
566:Damage to churches was widespread.
1211:Terremoti del Territorio Ferrarese
1015:from the original on July 22, 2011
899:In the last part of his treatise,
348:Alfonso II d'Este, Duke of Ferrara
14:
865:Ligorio's work on building safety
225:formed by the downflexing of the
47:
40:
27:
875:earthquake-resistant structures
452:Precursor events and main shock
1129:"L'altra faccia della Padania"
989:List of historical earthquakes
303:A new part of the city, named
1:
928:were established in Rome and
644:, estimate 40 victims, while
513:shows 1570 earthquake to St.
346:In 1570 the city was held by
1601:Metropolitan City of Bologna
1209:Guidoboni, Emanuela (1987).
984:List of earthquakes in Italy
531:Palaces and public buildings
833:Founding of the observatory
756:were sent to the town from
163:struck the Italian city of
1637:
1565:January 2017 Central Italy
1560:October 2016 Central Italy
1059:Ferrara, voci di una città
820:The earthquake observatory
522:(Municipal pinacotheca of
262:Ferrara is located on the
1555:August 2016 Central Italy
650:Giovanni Battista Guarini
496:Initial damage evaluation
364:Giovanni Battista Guarini
178:of comparable intensity.
35:
26:
767:
670:The poor and the wealthy
490:Mercalli intensity scale
176:another major earthquake
1383:1694 Irpinia–Basilicata
1224:Ligorio, Pirro (2006).
505:Giovanni Battista Tinti
235:hydrocarbon exploration
161:1570 Ferrara earthquake
22:1570 Ferrara earthquake
1524:1997 Umbria and Marche
881:
855:San Pietro in Vaticano
829:
808:churches, overseen by
748:Scaring the population
723:
720:
666:
527:
448:
408:and guilty of housing
343:
214:
1053:Guidoboni, Emanuela.
872:
827:
714:
664:
540:Palazzo della Ragione
503:
442:
326:
208:
1596:Earthquakes in Italy
1294:Earthquakes in Italy
912:Loss of independence
736:Jewish city scholar
693:San Benedetto garden
548:Loggia dei Callegari
544:Loggia dei Banchieri
394:Charles IX of France
231:fold and thrust belt
1550:2012 Northern Italy
1228:. Rome: Guidoboni.
806:Santa Maria in Vado
768:The Duke's reaction
572:Santa Maria in Vado
116: /
23:
16:Earthquake in Italy
1621:History of Ferrara
1338:1456 Central Italy
1131:. La Repubblica.it
882:
830:
721:
667:
550:, in front of the
528:
479:natural philosophy
449:
368:Luzzasco Luzzaschi
344:
215:
1606:1570s earthquakes
1583:
1582:
1428:1883 Casamicciola
1235:978-88-8016-746-4
922:Battle of Lepanto
738:Azariah dei Rossi
724:The Pope's stance
687:The country court
646:Azariah dei Rossi
556:Palazzo Vescovile
457:Earthquake lights
332:Girolamo da Carpi
328:Alfonso II d'Este
309:Erculean Addition
305:Addizione Erculea
187:soil liquefaction
157:
156:
120:44.817°N 11.633°E
65:November 17, 1570
1628:
1287:
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1273:
1264:
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1221:
1215:
1214:
1206:
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1199:
1197:
1195:
1190:on July 22, 2011
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1080:
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1024:
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1020:
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958:Permanent damage
849:(a successor of
781:Castello Estense
642:Cesare Nubilonio
536:Castello Estense
519:John the Baptist
515:John the Apostle
400:, member of the
372:Cesare Cremonini
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50:
44:
31:
24:
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1631:
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1629:
1627:
1626:
1625:
1616:1570 in science
1586:
1585:
1584:
1579:
1528:
1519:1990 Carlentini
1484:1930 Senigallia
1474:1920 Garfagnana
1437:
1418:1857 Basilicata
1296:
1291:
1248:
1243:
1236:
1223:
1222:
1218:
1213:. AIEP editore.
1208:
1207:
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1016:
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907:Following years
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853:as head of the
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709:
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659:
657:City evacuation
634:
620:
592:
564:
533:
511:Francis Solanus
498:
454:
437:
402:House of Valois
398:Renée of France
336:Museo del Prado
321:
260:
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195:paleoseismology
124:
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77:Local time
68:
66:
62:Local date
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17:
12:
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1413:1805 Molise
1378:1693 Sicily
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1328:1343 Naples
1318:1169 Sicily
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965:battlements
610:tower. The
410:John Calvin
404:, declared
356:Pope Pius V
313:Renaissance
169:aftershocks
123: /
1590:Categories
1308:62 Pompeii
1301:Historical
1257:in Italian
995:References
845:architect
843:Neapolitan
742:Kol Elohim
600:bell tower
150:Casualties
111:11°37′59″E
108:44°49′01″N
69:1570-11-17
945:Comacchio
798:Ferraresi
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429:Holy Seat
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278:age (7-5
276:Messinian
268:Po Valley
191:Po Valley
99:Epicenter
85:Magnitude
1194:July 21,
1135:July 21,
1097:July 22,
1068:July 21,
1019:July 22,
1013:Archived
978:See also
969:terraces
926:ghettoes
810:Cardinal
717:Florence
612:Steeples
584:capitals
562:Churches
517:and St.
443:Book by
379:converts
292:and the
258:The city
219:Po Plain
839:physics
758:Bologna
719:burning
632:Victims
406:heretic
264:Emilian
253:Ferrara
209:Map of
201:Geology
189:in the
165:Ferrara
144:Ferrara
67: (
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937:villas
930:Ancona
604:donjon
596:towers
590:Towers
447:(1570)
417:masses
390:Papacy
352:vassal
340:Madrid
290:Venice
213:(1570)
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889:Curia
594:Many
524:Cento
475:scudi
467:Duomo
330:, by
298:lutes
270:, an
243:folds
227:crust
140:Italy
80:03:00
1230:ISBN
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1021:2011
967:and
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552:Dome
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