1639 transit of Venus - Knowledge (XXG)

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the 24th from sunrise to nine o'clock, and from a little before ten until noon, and at one in the afternoon, being called away in the intervals by business of the highest importance which, for these ornamental pursuits, I could not with propriety neglect ... About fifteen minutes past three in the afternoon, when I was again at liberty to continue my labours, the clouds, as if by divine interposition, were entirely dispersed ... I then beheld a most agreeable spectacle, the object of my sanguine wishes, a spot of unusual magnitude and of a perfectly circular shape, which had already fully entered upon the Sun's disk on the left ... Not doubting that this was really the shadow of the planet, I immediately applied myself sedulously to observe it ... although Venus continued on the disk for several hours, she was not visible to me longer than half-an-hour, on account of so quickly setting ... The inclination was the only point upon which I failed to attain the utmost precision; for, owing to the rapid motion of the Sun, it was difficult to observe with certainty to a single degree ... But all the rest is sufficiently accurate, and as exact as I could desire.

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concord with nature than that the order of magnitude should be the same as the order of the spheres". When Horrocks's measurements of Venus, coupled with some erroneous measurements by Kepler and Gassendi, seemed to confirm this, Horrocks tentatively proposed a law which stated that all planets (with the exception of Mars) would be the same angular size when viewed from the Sun, this being 28 arc seconds. This meant that the assumption Kepler had made about the sizes of the planets held true, and led Horrocks to the false conclusion that the distance between each planet and the Sun was about 15,000 times its radius. Thus he estimated the average distance from the Earth to the Sun to be approximately 60 million miles (97 million km), suggesting that the Solar System was ten times larger than traditionally believed. His figure was much lower than the 93 million miles (150 million km) that the

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predicted, the Sun was below the horizon during the transit. According to modern calculations, observers in much of Italy and along the eastern Mediterranean should have been able to view the last stage of the transit, but no such observations were recorded. Kepler had predicted a near miss for a Venus transit in 1639 and, as the next full transit was not expected for another 121 years, Gassendi and the other astronomers concentrated their efforts in other areas.

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joy ... In a little while, the clouds again obscured the face of the Sun, so that he could observe nothing more than that Venus was certainly on the disc at the time." Afterwards, he made "so rapid a sketch" of Venus as it had passed across the Sun's disc, allowing Crabtree to estimate the angular size of Venus to be 1′ 3″, accurate to within 1 second of arc of its actual size; Horrocks's estimate of 1′ 12″ was less accurate.

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at about 3:00 P.M. on Sunday the 24th, but he began his observations the previous day fearing that he might miss the event if his calculations proved to be inaccurate. On the Sunday he began observing at sunrise, the weather was cloudy, but he first saw the tiny black shadow of Venus crossing the Sun at about 3:15 P.M., and observed for half an hour until sunset at 3:53 P.M.

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to the splendour of the scene), seemed to forebode great severity of weather. Mercury, whose conjunction with the Sun is invariably attended with storm and tempest, was especially to be feared. In this apprehension I coincide with the opinion of the astrologers, because it is confirmed by experience; but in other respects I cannot help despising their more puerile vanities.

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Cottage on Lower Broughton Road, which is thought to have been the home of Crabtree and his family at the time he was collaborating with Horrocks. The second transit of the pair occurred on 5 and 6 June 2012, and was marked by a celebration held in the church at Much Hoole, which was streamed live worldwide on the

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occurred as predicted by Horrocks, a commemorative street nameplate in memory of William Crabtree was unveiled at the junction of Lower Broughton Road and Priory Grove, which marks the northern boundary of Crabtree Croft. In December 2005, a commemorative plaque was unveiled a few yards away near Ivy

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At around midday on 23 November Horrocks darkened his room and focused the rays of sunlight coming through the window onto the paper where the image could be observed safely. At his location in Much Hoole (the latitude of which he determined to be 53° 35'), he calculated that the transit should begin

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and Kepler. He used his spare time to teach himself the more demanding mathematical astronomy and familiarise himself with the latest thinking. Horrocks read most of the astronomical treatises of his day, identified their weaknesses, and was suggesting new lines of research by the age of 17. In 1635,

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Horrocks writes: "I found that the shadow of Venus at the aforesaid hour, namely fifteen minutes past three, had entered the Sun's disk about 620 30', certainly between 600 and 650, from the top towards the right. This was the appearance in the dark apartment; therefore out of doors beneath the open

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I cannot help being displeased, that this valuable observation, purchasable with no money, elegantly described and prepared for the press, should have laid for two-and-twenty years, and that no-one should have been found to take charge of so fair an offspring at its father's death, to bring to light

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for his telescope, both of which would have been invaluable to Horrocks. Gascoigne showed them to Crabtree, who told Horrocks about them, and reported back to Gascoigne saying: "My friend Mr Horrox professeth, that little Touch I gave him, hath ravished his mind quite from itself, and left him in an

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Crabtree made his observations using a similar set-up but had insufficient time to make any measurements, as it was cloudy in Broughton, and thus he only saw the transit briefly. According to Horrocks: "Rapt in contemplation he stood for some time, scarcely trusting his own senses, through excess of

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In October 1639, Horrocks had calculated that transits of Venus occur not singly, but in pairs eight years apart, and realised that the second transit would occur in less than four weeks. He was convinced that a measurement could be made of the apparent diameter of the planet to within a fraction of

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Although Kepler's calculations indicated that the 1631 transit of Venus would best be visible from the American continent, he was not fully confident of his prediction, and advised that European astronomers should be prepared to observe the event. Gassendi and others in Europe watched for it but, as

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to the church to be named "The Horrocks Chapel". The chancel was completed by 1824, and the sanctuary by 1858. The vestry was extended in 1998–1999, and the first window in the north wall, originally installed in 1872, has stained glass roundels commemorating the transits of Venus of 1874 and 2004.

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Kepler had found that the distance between the planets increased in proportion to their distance from the Sun, and this led him to assume that the universe was created with a divine harmony, and that the size of the planets would increase in the same way. He had written in 1618, "Nothing is more in

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When the time of the observation approached, I retired to my apartment, and having closed the windows against the light, I directed my telescope, previously adjusted to a focus, through the aperture towards the Sun and received his rays at right angles upon the paper ... I watched carefully on

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The chance of a clouded atmosphere caused me much anxiety; for Jupiter and Mercury were in conjunction with the Sun almost at the same time as Venus. This remarkable assemblage of the planets (as if they were desirous of beholding, in common with ourselves, the wonders of the heavens, and of adding

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when it was seen as a dull black disk on the face of the Sun, compared to an accuracy of around one minute of arc when seen in its normal position as the bright morning star close to the Sun. He wrote to his younger brother and to Crabtree in Broughton, advising them to observe the event on Sunday,

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by observation and measurement. In 1639, Horrocks was the only astronomer to realise that a transit of Venus was imminent; others became aware of it only after the event when Horrocks's report of it was circulated. Although the friends both died within five years of making their observations, their

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by attaching his telescope to an "oblong stick, carrying a plane surface at right angles to itself on which to receive the Sun's image", and that he would draw a circle with numerical markings on a sheet of paper on which to project the image of the Sun. In the event, no such transit took place as

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According to Van Roode (2012), Horrocks actually wrote "ad sinistram" (to the left) rather than "ad dextram", as does a letter from Nicolaus Mercator to Samuel Hartlib, quoting directly from Horrocks's own writing. Hevelius thought Horrocks was in error and changed it to "ad dextram". John Wallis

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website. A celebration was also held at Crabtree's former home in Broughton when NASA broadcast a re-creation of the observation at Ivy Cottage, inspired by the Ford Madox Brown mural, to millions of viewers, and projected a live video stream of the transit from Hawaii onto the side of the house.

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from Latin, assumed that Horrocks's comment about "business of the highest importance which, for these ornamental pursuits, I could not with propriety neglect" must have referred to the duties of a curate, although it seems more probable they were his duties as tutor at the house, or perhaps his

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There is also a marble tablet commemorating Horrocks. The church clock, contributed by the parishioners as their commemoration of Horrocks, was installed in 1859; the sundial, installed in 1875, has a quotation from Horrocks ("Sine Sole Sileo") that translates as "Without the sun I am silent".

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Having in so short a life detected the long inequality in the mean motion of Jupiter and Saturn discovered the orbit of the moon to be an ellipse determined the motion of the lunar apse suggested the physical cause of its revolution and of Venus which was seen by himself and his friend William

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of Horrocks. Van Roode assumes from this that both Hevelius and Wallis must have been confused about the orientation of the projected image from a Galileian telescope – which is inverted top to bottom, but not left to right. Also. the three disks of Venus are evenly spaced whereas the

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After leaving Cambridge, Horrocks returned to his home in Lancashire and began collecting books and instruments in order to pursue his main interest, the study of astronomy. In the summer of 1639, he left home and moved about 18 miles (29 km) along the coast to the village of

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of Emmanuel College. It is not known whether Horrocks and Crabtree ever met in person but from 1636 they corresponded regularly, and, because of their shared interest in the work of Johannes Kepler, referred to themselves, along with William Gascoigne, as

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Memorial to Jeremiah Horrocks in St Michael's Church, Hoole. The Latin is taken from Horrocks's report of the 1639 transit and reads "Ecce gratissimum spectaculum et tot votorum materiem": "oh, most grateful spectacle, the realization of so many ardent

209:, and his mother Mary Aspinwall was from a notable Toxteth Park family. Several members of the Aspinwall family were also in the watchmaking trade, and it is said that a watchmaker uncle first interested Jeremiah in astronomy. Jeremiah joined 648:"business" was merely to attend the church. The notion of the impoverished curate gained popular traction and in 1874, after much lobbying, a memorial was mounted in Westminster Abbey opposite to that of Newton which reads: 1056: 1518: 438:

An image of the solar disk Hevelius added to his report, based on Horrocks's description of his observation. The image does not, however, give a true representation of what Horrocks would have seen.

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24 November (4 December New Style). To quote Horrocks: "The more accurate calculations of Rudolphi very much confirmed my expectations; and I rejoiced exceedingly in the prospect of seeing Venus".

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sky, according to the laws of optics, the contrary would be the case, and Venus would be below the centre of the Sun, distant 620 30' from the lower limb, or the nadir, as the Arabians term it."

325:. The son of John Crabtree, a Lancashire farmer of comfortable means, and Isabel Crabtree (née Pendleton), he was educated at a grammar school in Manchester – probably the forerunner of 277:

moved in an elliptical path around the Earth. He also wrote a treatise on Keplerian astronomy and began to explore mathematically the properties of the force that became known as

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and astronomer, Christopher Towneley, where they were consulted by Jeremy Shakerley, who wrote three books on astronomy in the mid-17th century. Others were destroyed in the

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of Emmanuel College, where he was a contemporary of Horrocks), together with some fragments of correspondence with Crabtree. Huygens knew the eminent Polish astronomer

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Mercury passed over the Sun well outside the limit for a transit, but the exercise proved to be an important dry-run for the later observation of the transit of Venus.

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Crabtree on Sunday the 24th of November (O.S.) 1639. This tablet facing the monument of Newton was raised after the lapse of more than two centuries. Dec. 9, 1874.

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Horrocks was concerned that the weather would be unfavourable for the transit as he believed the rare planetary conjunction would produce severe weather:

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when it was realised that such an elegant and important paper by an Englishman had been neglected in his own country for so long. The mathematician

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The coronation of King Charles II took place on 23 April 1661 (3 May, New Style), the day of a Mercury transit across the Sun. Dutch astronomer

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Thy return posterity shall witness; years must roll away, but then at length the splendid sight again shall greet our distant children's eyes.

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were kept by Crabtree, who died in 1644, three years after Horrocks. Their other correspondent, William Gascoigne, died the same year in the

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later said he regarded Horrocks, Crabtree and Gascoigne as the founding fathers of British research astronomy and the intellectual heirs to

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with improved accuracy. He maintained an active correspondence, much of it now lost, with Horrocks, two other young astronomers –

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The Rev. Robert Brickel, Rector of St. Michael's Church, Hoole from 1848 to 1881, raised money by public subscription in Lancashire,

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During the 19th century there was a revival of interest in Horrocks's and Crabtree's achievement. Rev. A. B. Whatton, who translated

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Exstasie between Admiration and Amazement. I beseech you, Sir, slack not your Intentions for the Perfection of your begun Wonders."

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Crabtree's observations had convinced him that, despite their errors, Kepler's Rudolphine Tables were superior to the commonly used

978:. Proceedings of the 196th International Astronomical Union Symposia and Colloquia. Cambridge University Press. pp. 41–42. 1604: 1577: 1487: 1244: 597:

a treatise of such importance to astronomy and to preserve a work for our country's credit and for the advantage of mankind.

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is known to be today, but, despite being based on a false premise, was more accurate than any suggested up to that time.

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in 1666. The manuscripts were widely circulated from the late 1650s although they remained unpublished for many years.

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In memory of Jeremiah Horrocks, Curate of Hoole in Lancashire who died on 3rd of Jan, 1641 in or near his 22nd year.

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Ivy Cottage, Broughton: the house from which William Crabtree is thought to have made his observation of the transit

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On 29 September 1638, Horrocks wrote to Crabtree about a likely forthcoming transit of Mercury on 21 October 1638 (

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in 1631 and transits of Venus in 1631 and 1761. The Mercury transit occurred as predicted and was observed by

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The Royal Society assumed responsibility for publication of most of the remainder of Horrocks's work as

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predict the 1639 Venus transit, but that Kepler had only noticed the 1631 transit while preparing the

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This is the account given by most sources, but Kollerstrom (2004) says that the Rudolphine tables

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The transit of Venus: the brief, brilliant life of Jeremiah Horrocks, father of British astronomy

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attended the coronation, during which he heard about the Horrocks's manuscript, found in 1659 by

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observations were made at intervals of 20 and 10 minutes. In A.B. Whatton's translation of

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The recording of the transit is seen by many as the birth of modern astronomy in Britain.

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Romanticised Victorian painting of Jeremiah Horrocks observing the 1639 transit of Venus (

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William Crabtree (1610–1644) was a cloth merchant from Broughton Spout, a hamlet in the

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for that year and had not realised that the tables predicted a second transit for 1639.

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Clark, G. Napier (1916). "Sketch of the Life and Works of Rev. Jeremiah Horrox".

1337: 1170: 1097:'The Abbey Scientists' Hall, A.R. p12: London; Roger & Robert Nicholson; 1966 2670: 2002: 1926: 1876: 1826: 1816: 1766: 1761: 1690: 589: 546: 338: 259: 238: 2550: 2476: 2451: 2236: 2231: 1921: 1916: 1911: 1891: 1821: 1771: 1733: 1705: 1700: 1465: 1365: 1234: 831: 771: 394: 318: 251: 243: 206: 73: 65: 61: 42: 993: 197:

Jeremiah Horrocks (1618 – 3 January 1641) was born in Lower Lodge,

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notice to astronomers of the impending transits of Mercury and Venus, 1631

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also added the note "lege dextram" (read right) after "sinistram" in his

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of planets across the face of the Sun to be predicted and observed: the

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Plaque commemorating Crabtree's observation near his home in Broughton

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ground-breaking work was influential in establishing the size of the

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is a romanticised depiction of Crabtree's observation of the event.

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acknowledged Horrocks's work in relation to the Moon in Newton's

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For the full text of Horrocks's account of the observation see

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Extracted from course notes for Great Astronomers in History

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by Hevelius caused great consternation at the newly founded

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who had worked methodically to correct and improve Kepler's

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Transits of Venus: New Views of the Solar System and Galaxy

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but at that time a separate town. His father James was a

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Hughes, David (February 2005). "Horrocks's bogus law".

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By the 17th century, two developments allowed for the

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Horrocks produced several drafts of a Latin treatise

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Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada

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Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union

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http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-2830901016.html

1169:. University of Central Lancashire. Archived from 1005: 1003: 915:. University of Central Lancashire. Archived from 709:the first of a 21st-century pair of Venus transits 132:, which assumed elliptical, rather than circular, 258:to the children of the Stones family, prosperous 1133: 1131: 1118: 1116: 680:was commissioned to produce the murals known as 420:Crabtree watching the transit of Venus A.D. 1639 37:The first known observations and recording of a 1228: 1226: 1224: 1222: 941:O'Connor, J. J.; Robertson, E. F. (June 2004). 697: 463: 444: 273:Horrocks was the first to demonstrate that the 79:The friends, followers of the new astronomy of 1331: 1329: 1327: 1325: 1323: 1203:. astonomerswithoutborders.org. Archived from 1024: 1022: 1020: 1018: 832:"William Crabtree's Venus transit observation" 692:Crabtree watching the transit of Venus AD 1639 616:and Kepler. and began his three folio volume, 1598: 825: 823: 821: 819: 817: 815: 813: 811: 809: 8: 1429:"St Michael's Church, Hoole; Visitors Guide" 1190: 1188: 1140:"Horrocks and the Dawn of British Astronomy" 664:and Cambridge to fund the creation of a new 16:Earliest certainly recorded transit of Venus 2368: 2253: 1680: 1637: 1605: 1591: 1583: 1451: 1449: 1029:O'Connor, J. J.; Robertson, E. F. (2004). 965: 963: 1364: 1279: 1277: 1275: 902: 900: 898: 896: 894: 892: 890: 888: 886: 884: 860: 858: 856: 867:"The Transits of Venus of 1631 and 1639" 839:Proceedings IAU Colloquium No. 196, 2004 580:, published in 1662. The publication of 1414: 1266: 1085: 1073: 1009: 805: 726: 145:De raris mirisque Anni 1631 Phaenomenis 114:De raris mirisque Anni 1631 Phaenomenis 1464:. Salford City Council. Archived from 329:, which was then situated between the 151:(warning to astronomers) concerning a 1556:. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. 1195:Van Roode, Steven (25 January 2012). 972:"Venus transits – A French View" 936: 934: 56:then used in England); Horrocks from 7: 1494:. NASA. 6 June 2012. Archived from 1292:(1). The Royal Society: 1.14–1.16. 1236:Jeremiah Horrox: Venus in sole visa 1110:', Book 3, Proposition 35, Scholium 772:Jeremiah Horrox: Venus in sole visa 707:On 9 June 2004, the day after 496:By 1640, the Yorkshire astronomer, 242:he left Cambridge without formally 1488:"Sun Earth Day:Shadows of the Sun" 1239:. Springer-Verlag London Limited. 970:Debarbat, Suzanne (30 June 2005). 841:. International Astronomical Union 14: 603:Jeremiae Horroccii Opera Posthuma 48:and his friend and correspondent 41:were made in 1639 by the English 2881: 2872: 2871: 1571: 1458:"William Crabtree, Venus genius" 1306:10.1046/j.1468-4004.2003.46114.x 68:, and Crabtree from his home in 27:The Founder of English Astronomy 1233:Maunder, M.; Moore, P. (2000). 1197:"What did Horrocks really see?" 947:MacTutor History of Mathematics 1138:Kollerstrom, Nicholas (1998). 909:"History of Jeremiah Horrocks" 830:Kollerstrom, Nicholas (2004). 578:Mercurius in sole visus Gedani 254:. This was probably to become 139:In 1627, Kepler published his 1: 1456:Anonymous (28 January 2010). 618:Historia Coelestis Britannica 1201:The Transit of Venus Project 1057:"Horrox, Jeremiah (HRS632J)" 361:, Professor of astronomy at 2804:Artificial objects on Venus 2799:Geological mapping of Venus 1525:. MEN Media. Archived from 1517:Osuh, Chris (6 June 2012). 1142:. University College London 1061:A Cambridge Alumni Database 2939: 1286:Astronomy & Geophysics 1063:. University of Cambridge. 1037:. University of St Andrews 411:Observation of the transit 298: 190: 2867: 2854:Neith (hypothetical moon) 1620: 1366:10.1017/S1743921305001225 335:Chetham's School of Music 327:Manchester Grammar School 128:and the new astronomy of 60:, then in the village of 2582:Pioneer Venus Multiprobe 1932:List of coronae on Venus 690:. The painting entitled 566:Jesus College, Cambridge 165:Johannes Remus Quietanus 85:mathematical astronomers 2724:European Venus Explorer 2340:Venus-crosser asteroids 1552:Aughton, Peter (2004). 1523:Manchester Evening News 1336:Chapman, Allan (2004). 1298:2005A&G....46a..14H 869:. University of Utrecht 321:, which is now part of 219:University of Cambridge 149:admonitio ad astronomos 2584: / Pioneer 13 2578: / Pioneer 12 1427:Gleave, Prof. Barrie. 704: 658: 640: 632: 599: 539:Battle of Marston Moor 533:Some of the drafts of 530: 477: 458: 439: 431: 310: 117: 34: 2576:Pioneer Venus Orbiter 1897:Scalloped margin dome 1867:Quetzalpetlatl Corona 1580:at Wikimedia Commons 1578:1639 Transit of Venus 683:The Manchester Murals 650: 638: 631: 594: 527: 437: 418: 308: 111: 24: 2923:Astrological aspects 1492:Live webcast streams 688:Manchester Town Hall 551:Great Fire of London 355:Christopher Towneley 270:Estate, Bretherton. 221:on 5 July 1632 as a 157:Johann Baptist Cysat 1402:1916JRASC..10..523N 1357:2005tvnv.conf....3C 1031:"Jeremiah Horrocks" 943:"Jeremiah Horrocks" 676:In 1903 the artist 473:Venus in sole visa' 471:Jeremiah Horrocks, 452:Jeremiah Horrocks, 426: – one of the 231:classical languages 217:as a member of the 213:on 11 May 1632 and 83:, were self-taught 1955:Guinevere Planitia 1847:Nightingale Corona 1163:"Transit of Venus" 919:on 15 January 2008 785:Venus in sole visa 783:Horrocks wrote in 758:Venus in sole Visa 645:Venus in sole visa 641: 633: 582:Venus in Sole Visa 558:Christiaan Huygens 535:Venus in Sole Visa 531: 514:Venus in sole visa 500:, had developed a 454:Venus in sole visa 440: 432: 385:Transit of Mercury 317:of Broughton near 311: 153:transit of Mercury 147:which included an 118: 35: 2895: 2894: 2812: 2811: 2708:Venus Life Finder 2379:Sputnik programme 2358: 2357: 2245: 2244: 1742: 1741: 1576:Media related to 702: 701:Jeremiah Horrocks 574:Johannes Hevelius 543:English Civil War 498:William Gascoigne 491:Astronomical Unit 428:Manchester Murals 379:Lansberg's tables 374:(we Keplarians). 351:William Gascoigne 347:Rudolphine Tables 331:Collegiate Church 281:. Decades later, 193:Jeremiah Horrocks 187:Jeremiah Horrocks 141:Rudolphine Tables 98:William Gascoigne 89:Rudolphine tables 46:Jeremiah Horrocks 2930: 2913:Transit of Venus 2885: 2875: 2874: 2777:Inspiration Mars 2369: 2254: 2227:Surface features 1882:Sacajawea Patera 1681: 1668:Mapping of Venus 1638: 1625:Outline of Venus 1607: 1600: 1593: 1584: 1575: 1567: 1539: 1538: 1536: 1534: 1514: 1508: 1507: 1505: 1503: 1484: 1478: 1477: 1475: 1473: 1453: 1444: 1443: 1441: 1439: 1433:hoolevillage.com 1424: 1418: 1412: 1406: 1405: 1384: 1378: 1377: 1375: 1373: 1368: 1342: 1333: 1318: 1317: 1281: 1270: 1264: 1258: 1257: 1255: 1253: 1230: 1217: 1216: 1214: 1212: 1192: 1183: 1182: 1180: 1178: 1158: 1152: 1151: 1149: 1147: 1135: 1126: 1120: 1111: 1106:Newton, Isaac; ' 1104: 1098: 1095: 1089: 1083: 1077: 1071: 1065: 1064: 1053: 1047: 1046: 1044: 1042: 1026: 1013: 1007: 998: 997: 967: 958: 957: 955: 953: 938: 929: 928: 926: 924: 904: 879: 878: 876: 874: 862: 851: 850: 848: 846: 836: 827: 788: 781: 775: 768: 762: 748: 742: 731: 700: 678:Ford Madox Brown 562:John Worthington 475: 456: 424:Ford Madox Brown 333:and what is now 301:William Crabtree 295:William Crabtree 211:Emmanuel College 134:planetary orbits 50:William Crabtree 39:transit of Venus 2938: 2937: 2933: 2932: 2931: 2929: 2928: 2927: 2908:1639 in science 2898: 2897: 2896: 2891: 2863: 2808: 2787: 2764: 2758: 2712: 2676: 2651: 2622:Cassini–Huygens 2524:Mariner program 2354: 2326: 2278: 2241: 2205: 2022: 1978: 1969: 1945: 1936: 1752: 1750: 1738: 1724:Aphrodite Terra 1710: 1672: 1629: 1616: 1611: 1564: 1551: 1548: 1543: 1542: 1532: 1530: 1529:on 10 June 2012 1516: 1515: 1511: 1501: 1499: 1486: 1485: 1481: 1471: 1469: 1468:on 30 June 2012 1455: 1454: 1447: 1437: 1435: 1426: 1425: 1421: 1413: 1409: 1387: 1386:Translation by 1385: 1381: 1371: 1369: 1340: 1335: 1334: 1321: 1283: 1282: 1273: 1265: 1261: 1251: 1249: 1247: 1232: 1231: 1220: 1210: 1208: 1194: 1193: 1186: 1176: 1174: 1173:on 30 July 2012 1160: 1159: 1155: 1145: 1143: 1137: 1136: 1129: 1121: 1114: 1105: 1101: 1096: 1092: 1084: 1080: 1072: 1068: 1055: 1054: 1050: 1040: 1038: 1028: 1027: 1016: 1008: 1001: 986: 969: 968: 961: 951: 949: 940: 939: 932: 922: 920: 907:Marston, Paul. 906: 905: 882: 872: 870: 864: 863: 854: 844: 842: 834: 829: 828: 807: 802: 797: 792: 791: 782: 778: 769: 765: 749: 745: 732: 728: 723: 705: 626: 522: 486: 476: 470: 457: 451: 413: 387: 363:Gresham College 303: 297: 195: 189: 173:Pierre Gassendi 130:Johannes Kepler 106: 81:Johannes Kepler 54:Julian calendar 17: 12: 11: 5: 2936: 2934: 2926: 2925: 2920: 2915: 2910: 2900: 2899: 2893: 2892: 2890: 2889: 2879: 2868: 2865: 2864: 2862: 2861: 2856: 2851: 2846: 2841: 2836: 2831: 2826: 2820: 2818: 2814: 2813: 2810: 2809: 2807: 2806: 2801: 2795: 2793: 2789: 2788: 2786: 2785: 2780: 2774: 2768: 2766: 2760: 2759: 2757: 2756: 2751: 2746: 2741: 2736: 2731: 2726: 2720: 2718: 2714: 2713: 2711: 2710: 2705: 2700: 2695: 2690: 2684: 2682: 2678: 2677: 2675: 2674: 2667: 2659: 2657: 2653: 2652: 2650: 2649: 2644: 2637: 2630: 2625: 2618: 2611: 2604: 2603: 2602: 2597: 2587: 2586: 2585: 2579: 2568: 2567: 2566: 2556: 2555: 2554: 2547: 2540: 2533: 2521: 2520: 2519: 2514: 2509: 2504: 2499: 2494: 2489: 2484: 2479: 2474: 2469: 2464: 2459: 2454: 2449: 2444: 2439: 2434: 2429: 2424: 2419: 2414: 2409: 2404: 2399: 2388: 2387: 2386: 2375: 2373: 2366: 2360: 2359: 2356: 2355: 2353: 2352: 2347: 2342: 2336: 2334: 2328: 2327: 2325: 2324: 2319: 2314: 2309: 2304: 2299: 2294: 2288: 2286: 2280: 2279: 2277: 2276: 2271: 2266: 2260: 2258: 2251: 2247: 2246: 2243: 2242: 2240: 2239: 2234: 2229: 2224: 2219: 2213: 2211: 2207: 2206: 2204: 2203: 2198: 2193: 2188: 2183: 2178: 2173: 2168: 2163: 2158: 2153: 2148: 2143: 2138: 2133: 2128: 2123: 2118: 2113: 2108: 2106:Goeppert-Mayer 2103: 2098: 2093: 2088: 2083: 2078: 2073: 2068: 2063: 2058: 2053: 2048: 2043: 2038: 2032: 2030: 2024: 2023: 2021: 2020: 2015: 2010: 2005: 2000: 1995: 1993:Artemis Chasma 1990: 1988:Aikhulu Chasma 1984: 1982: 1971: 1970: 1968: 1967: 1965:Sedna Planitia 1962: 1960:Lakshmi Planum 1957: 1951: 1949: 1938: 1937: 1935: 1934: 1929: 1924: 1919: 1914: 1909: 1904: 1902:Siddons Patera 1899: 1894: 1889: 1884: 1879: 1874: 1869: 1864: 1862:Pavlova Corona 1859: 1854: 1849: 1844: 1842:Maxwell Montes 1839: 1834: 1829: 1824: 1819: 1814: 1809: 1804: 1799: 1794: 1792:Ciuacoatl Mons 1789: 1784: 1779: 1777:Artemis Corona 1774: 1769: 1764: 1758: 1756: 1744: 1743: 1740: 1739: 1737: 1736: 1731: 1726: 1720: 1718: 1712: 1711: 1709: 1708: 1703: 1698: 1693: 1687: 1685: 1678: 1674: 1673: 1671: 1670: 1665: 1660: 1655: 1650: 1644: 1642: 1635: 1631: 1630: 1628: 1627: 1621: 1618: 1617: 1612: 1610: 1609: 1602: 1595: 1587: 1569: 1568: 1562: 1547: 1544: 1541: 1540: 1509: 1498:on 5 June 2012 1479: 1445: 1419: 1417:, pp. 1–2 1407: 1379: 1319: 1271: 1259: 1245: 1218: 1207:on 6 June 2012 1184: 1153: 1127: 1112: 1099: 1090: 1078: 1066: 1048: 1014: 999: 984: 959: 930: 880: 852: 804: 803: 801: 798: 796: 793: 790: 789: 776: 763: 753:Opera Posthuma 743: 725: 724: 722: 719: 696: 625: 624:Commemorations 622: 610:John Flamsteed 521: 518: 485: 482: 468: 449: 412: 409: 386: 383: 299:Main article: 296: 293: 201:– now part of 191:Main article: 188: 185: 105: 102: 15: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 2935: 2924: 2921: 2919: 2916: 2914: 2911: 2909: 2906: 2905: 2903: 2888: 2884: 2880: 2878: 2870: 2869: 2866: 2860: 2857: 2855: 2852: 2850: 2847: 2845: 2842: 2840: 2837: 2835: 2832: 2830: 2827: 2825: 2822: 2821: 2819: 2815: 2805: 2802: 2800: 2797: 2796: 2794: 2790: 2784: 2781: 2778: 2775: 2773: 2770: 2769: 2767: 2761: 2755: 2752: 2750: 2747: 2745: 2742: 2740: 2737: 2735: 2732: 2730: 2727: 2725: 2722: 2721: 2719: 2715: 2709: 2706: 2704: 2701: 2699: 2696: 2694: 2691: 2689: 2686: 2685: 2683: 2679: 2673: 2672: 2668: 2666: 2665: 2661: 2660: 2658: 2654: 2648: 2647:Venus Express 2645: 2643: 2642: 2638: 2636: 2635: 2631: 2629: 2626: 2624: 2623: 2619: 2617: 2616: 2612: 2610: 2609: 2605: 2601: 2598: 2596: 2593: 2592: 2591: 2588: 2583: 2580: 2577: 2574: 2573: 2572: 2571:Pioneer Venus 2569: 2565: 2562: 2561: 2560: 2557: 2553: 2552: 2548: 2546: 2545: 2541: 2539: 2538: 2534: 2532: 2531: 2527: 2526: 2525: 2522: 2518: 2515: 2513: 2510: 2508: 2505: 2503: 2500: 2498: 2495: 2493: 2490: 2488: 2485: 2483: 2480: 2478: 2475: 2473: 2470: 2468: 2465: 2463: 2460: 2458: 2455: 2453: 2450: 2448: 2445: 2443: 2440: 2438: 2435: 2433: 2430: 2428: 2425: 2423: 2420: 2418: 2415: 2413: 2410: 2408: 2405: 2403: 2400: 2398: 2395: 2394: 2392: 2389: 2385: 2382: 2381: 2380: 2377: 2376: 2374: 2370: 2367: 2365: 2361: 2351: 2348: 2346: 2345:Venus trojans 2343: 2341: 2338: 2337: 2335: 2333: 2329: 2323: 2320: 2318: 2315: 2313: 2310: 2308: 2305: 2303: 2300: 2298: 2295: 2293: 2290: 2289: 2287: 2285: 2281: 2275: 2272: 2270: 2267: 2265: 2262: 2261: 2259: 2255: 2252: 2248: 2238: 2235: 2233: 2230: 2228: 2225: 2223: 2220: 2218: 2215: 2214: 2212: 2208: 2202: 2199: 2197: 2194: 2192: 2189: 2187: 2184: 2182: 2179: 2177: 2174: 2172: 2169: 2167: 2164: 2162: 2159: 2157: 2154: 2152: 2149: 2147: 2144: 2142: 2141:Maria Celeste 2139: 2137: 2134: 2132: 2129: 2127: 2124: 2122: 2119: 2117: 2114: 2112: 2109: 2107: 2104: 2102: 2099: 2097: 2094: 2092: 2089: 2087: 2084: 2082: 2079: 2077: 2074: 2072: 2069: 2067: 2064: 2062: 2059: 2057: 2054: 2052: 2049: 2047: 2044: 2042: 2039: 2037: 2034: 2033: 2031: 2029: 2025: 2019: 2016: 2014: 2011: 2009: 2008:Devana Chasma 2006: 2004: 2001: 1999: 1998:Baltis Vallis 1996: 1994: 1991: 1989: 1986: 1985: 1983: 1981: 1976: 1972: 1966: 1963: 1961: 1958: 1956: 1953: 1952: 1950: 1948: 1943: 1939: 1933: 1930: 1928: 1925: 1923: 1920: 1918: 1915: 1913: 1910: 1908: 1905: 1903: 1900: 1898: 1895: 1893: 1890: 1888: 1885: 1883: 1880: 1878: 1875: 1873: 1870: 1868: 1865: 1863: 1860: 1858: 1855: 1853: 1852:Onatah Corona 1850: 1848: 1845: 1843: 1840: 1838: 1835: 1833: 1832:Jaszai Patera 1830: 1828: 1825: 1823: 1820: 1818: 1815: 1813: 1812:Heng-o Corona 1810: 1808: 1805: 1803: 1800: 1798: 1795: 1793: 1790: 1788: 1785: 1783: 1782:Baʽhet Corona 1780: 1778: 1775: 1773: 1770: 1768: 1765: 1763: 1760: 1759: 1757: 1755: 1749: 1745: 1735: 1732: 1730: 1727: 1725: 1722: 1721: 1719: 1717: 1713: 1707: 1704: 1702: 1699: 1697: 1696:Asteria Regio 1694: 1692: 1689: 1688: 1686: 1682: 1679: 1675: 1669: 1666: 1664: 1661: 1659: 1656: 1654: 1651: 1649: 1646: 1645: 1643: 1639: 1636: 1632: 1626: 1623: 1622: 1619: 1615: 1608: 1603: 1601: 1596: 1594: 1589: 1588: 1585: 1581: 1579: 1574: 1565: 1563:0-297-84721-X 1559: 1555: 1550: 1549: 1545: 1528: 1524: 1520: 1513: 1510: 1497: 1493: 1489: 1483: 1480: 1467: 1463: 1462:Local History 1459: 1452: 1450: 1446: 1434: 1430: 1423: 1420: 1416: 1411: 1408: 1403: 1399: 1395: 1391: 1383: 1380: 1367: 1362: 1358: 1354: 1350: 1346: 1339: 1332: 1330: 1328: 1326: 1324: 1320: 1315: 1311: 1307: 1303: 1299: 1295: 1291: 1287: 1280: 1278: 1276: 1272: 1269:, p. 112 1268: 1263: 1260: 1248: 1242: 1238: 1237: 1229: 1227: 1225: 1223: 1219: 1206: 1202: 1198: 1191: 1189: 1185: 1172: 1168: 1164: 1157: 1154: 1141: 1134: 1132: 1128: 1125: 1119: 1117: 1113: 1109: 1103: 1100: 1094: 1091: 1088:, p. 105 1087: 1082: 1079: 1075: 1070: 1067: 1062: 1058: 1052: 1049: 1036: 1032: 1025: 1023: 1021: 1019: 1015: 1012:, p. 115 1011: 1006: 1004: 1000: 995: 991: 987: 985:9780521849074 981: 977: 973: 966: 964: 960: 948: 944: 937: 935: 931: 918: 914: 910: 903: 901: 899: 897: 895: 893: 891: 889: 887: 885: 881: 868: 861: 859: 857: 853: 840: 833: 826: 824: 822: 820: 818: 816: 814: 812: 810: 806: 799: 794: 786: 780: 777: 773: 767: 764: 759: 754: 747: 744: 740: 736: 730: 727: 720: 718: 715: 710: 703: 695: 693: 689: 685: 684: 679: 674: 671: 667: 663: 657: 653: 649: 646: 637: 630: 623: 621: 619: 615: 611: 606: 604: 598: 593: 591: 587: 586:Royal Society 583: 579: 575: 571: 567: 563: 559: 554: 552: 548: 544: 540: 536: 526: 519: 517: 515: 510: 507: 503: 499: 494: 492: 483: 481: 474: 467: 462: 455: 448: 443: 436: 429: 425: 421: 417: 410: 408: 405: 404:second of arc 399: 396: 392: 384: 382: 380: 375: 373: 368: 365:, London and 364: 360: 359:Samuel Foster 356: 352: 348: 344: 340: 336: 332: 328: 324: 320: 316: 307: 302: 294: 292: 290: 289: 284: 280: 276: 271: 269: 266:, within the 265: 262:who lived at 261: 257: 253: 247: 245: 240: 236: 232: 228: 224: 220: 216: 212: 208: 204: 200: 194: 186: 184: 180: 178: 174: 170: 166: 162: 158: 154: 150: 146: 142: 137: 135: 131: 127: 123: 115: 110: 103: 101: 99: 95: 90: 86: 82: 77: 75: 71: 67: 63: 59: 55: 51: 47: 44: 40: 32: 28: 23: 19: 2783:Terraforming 2772:Colonization 2754:Shukrayaan-1 2669: 2662: 2639: 2632: 2620: 2613: 2606: 2590:Vega program 2559:Zond program 2549: 2542: 2535: 2528: 2422:Venera 1964A 2291: 2018:Ganis Chasma 2013:Diana Chasma 1887:Sachs Patera 1872:Pancake dome 1802:Fotla Corona 1787:Boala Corona 1729:Ishtar Terra 1570: 1553: 1546:Bibliography 1531:. Retrieved 1527:the original 1522: 1512: 1500:. Retrieved 1496:the original 1491: 1482: 1470:. Retrieved 1466:the original 1461: 1436:. Retrieved 1432: 1422: 1415:Aughton 2004 1410: 1393: 1389: 1382: 1370:. Retrieved 1348: 1344: 1289: 1285: 1267:Aughton 2004 1262: 1250:. Retrieved 1235: 1209:. Retrieved 1205:the original 1200: 1175:. Retrieved 1171:the original 1166: 1156: 1144:. Retrieved 1102: 1093: 1086:Aughton 2004 1081: 1076:, p. 64 1074:Aughton 2004 1069: 1060: 1051: 1039:. Retrieved 1034: 1010:Aughton 2004 975: 950:. Retrieved 946: 921:. Retrieved 917:the original 912: 871:. Retrieved 843:. Retrieved 838: 784: 779: 766: 757: 752: 746: 734: 729: 706: 698: 691: 681: 675: 659: 654: 651: 644: 642: 617: 607: 605:in 1672–73. 602: 600: 595: 581: 577: 555: 534: 532: 513: 511: 495: 487: 478: 472: 464: 459: 453: 445: 441: 419: 400: 388: 376: 371: 357: – and 312: 286: 283:Isaac Newton 272: 260:haberdashers 248: 215:matriculated 199:Toxteth Park 196: 181: 148: 144: 138: 119: 113: 94:Solar System 78: 36: 26: 18: 2671:BepiColombo 2364:Exploration 2217:Geodynamics 2201:Yablochkina 2003:Dali Chasma 1927:Zisa Corona 1877:Renpet Mons 1827:Irnini Mons 1817:Iaso Tholus 1767:Akna Montes 1762:Abeona Mons 1691:Alpha Regio 1658:Dune fields 1396:: 523–535. 1161:Anonymous. 1035:Biographies 865:Anonymous. 590:John Wallis 564:(Master of 547:antiquarian 372:nos Keplari 339:mathematics 239:Tycho Brahe 233:, a little 43:astronomers 2918:Astrometry 2902:Categories 2859:Phosphorus 2834:In fiction 2829:In culture 2551:Mariner 10 2477:Kosmos 482 2452:Kosmos 167 2412:Sputnik 21 2407:Sputnik 20 2402:Sputnik 19 2237:Venusquake 2232:Venus snow 2161:Merit Ptah 2096:De Lalande 1922:Ushas Mons 1917:Theia Mons 1912:Skadi Mons 1892:Sapas Mons 1822:Idunn Mons 1772:Anala Mons 1734:Lada Terra 1706:Ovda Regio 1701:Beta Regio 1653:Atmosphere 1246:1852336218 795:References 506:micrometer 395:helioscope 319:Manchester 264:Carr House 252:Much Hoole 244:graduating 207:watchmaker 104:Background 74:Manchester 66:Lancashire 62:Much Hoole 58:Carr House 31:Eyre Crowe 2849:Mythology 2824:Cytherean 2634:MESSENGER 2544:Mariner 5 2537:Mariner 2 2530:Mariner 1 2517:Venera 16 2512:Venera 15 2507:Venera 14 2502:Venera 13 2497:Venera 12 2492:Venera 11 2487:Venera 10 2442:Kosmos 96 2427:Kosmos 27 2417:Kosmos 21 2384:Sputnik 7 2332:Asteroids 2250:Astronomy 2166:Mona Lisa 2111:Golubkina 2101:Dickinson 2081:Cleopatra 1857:Ozza Mons 1837:Maat Mons 1807:Gula Mons 1797:Fand Mons 1754:volcanoes 1748:Mountains 1648:Arachnoid 1634:Geography 1314:121134542 1108:Principia 994:1743-9221 739:ephemeris 670:sanctuary 529:desires". 391:Old Style 343:astronomy 288:Principia 268:Bank Hall 203:Liverpool 161:Innsbruck 126:telescope 112:Kepler's 70:Broughton 2877:Category 2839:Hesperus 2763:Proposed 2717:Proposed 2703:Venera-D 2693:EnVision 2664:Akatsuki 2608:Magellan 2482:Venera 9 2472:Venera 8 2467:Venera 7 2462:Venera 6 2457:Venera 5 2447:Venera 4 2437:Venera 3 2432:Venera 2 2397:Venera 1 2393:program 2284:Transits 2196:Wheatley 2186:Stefania 2131:Isabella 2126:Guilbert 2091:Danilova 1947:plateaus 1907:Sif Mons 1663:Features 469:— 450:— 315:township 235:geometry 227:the arts 169:Rouffach 122:transits 2817:Related 2779:(flyby) 2698:VERITAS 2688:DAVINCI 2681:Planned 2656:Current 2641:Shin'en 2615:Galileo 2264:Aspects 2257:General 2222:Geology 2171:Nanichi 2156:Meitner 2121:Gregory 2061:Aurelia 2056:Ariadne 2028:Craters 1980:valleys 1975:Canyons 1677:Regions 1641:General 1533:13 June 1398:Bibcode 1353:Bibcode 1294:Bibcode 1167:History 666:chancel 614:Galileo 570:alumnus 502:reticle 484:Results 367:alumnus 323:Salford 279:gravity 72:, near 33:, 1891) 2887:Portal 2765:crewed 2739:VISAGE 2628:IKAROS 2600:Vega 2 2595:Vega 1 2564:Zond 1 2391:Venera 2350:Zoozve 2274:Phases 2146:Mariko 2136:Jeanne 2116:Grimke 2086:Cunitz 2071:Barton 2051:Alcott 2046:Agnesi 2041:Adivar 2036:Addams 1942:Plains 1716:Terrae 1560: 1502:6 June 1472:21 May 1438:18 May 1372:18 May 1312: 1252:14 May 1243: 1211:11 May 1177:14 May 1146:11 May 1041:11 May 992: 982: 952:10 May 923:10 May 873:14 May 845:10 May 662:Oxford 520:Legacy 504:and a 2792:Other 2269:Orbit 2210:Other 2191:Wanda 2176:Riley 2066:Balch 1684:Regio 1614:Venus 1351:: 3. 1341:(PDF) 1310:S2CID 835:(PDF) 800:Notes 721:Notes 256:tutor 223:sizar 177:Paris 2844:Life 2744:VICI 2734:VISE 2729:VAMP 2372:Past 2322:2012 2317:2004 2312:1882 2307:1874 2302:1769 2297:1761 2292:1639 2181:Ruth 2151:Mead 2076:Buck 1558:ISBN 1535:2012 1504:2012 1474:2012 1440:2012 1374:2012 1254:2012 1241:ISBN 1213:2012 1179:2012 1148:2012 1043:2012 990:ISSN 980:ISBN 954:2012 925:2012 875:2012 847:2012 714:NASA 686:for 668:and 568:and 353:and 341:and 275:Moon 171:and 2749:VOX 1977:and 1944:and 1751:and 1361:doi 1349:196 1302:doi 735:did 422:by 175:in 167:in 159:in 29:by 2904:: 1521:. 1490:. 1460:. 1448:^ 1431:. 1394:10 1392:. 1359:. 1347:. 1343:. 1322:^ 1308:. 1300:. 1290:46 1288:. 1274:^ 1221:^ 1199:. 1187:^ 1165:. 1130:^ 1115:^ 1059:. 1033:. 1017:^ 1002:^ 988:. 974:. 962:^ 945:. 933:^ 911:. 883:^ 855:^ 837:. 808:^ 402:a 291:. 229:, 163:, 136:. 76:. 64:, 1606:e 1599:t 1592:v 1566:. 1537:. 1506:. 1476:. 1442:. 1404:. 1400:: 1376:. 1363:: 1355:: 1316:. 1304:: 1296:: 1256:. 1215:. 1181:. 1150:. 1045:. 996:. 956:. 927:. 877:. 849:. 774:.

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