99:
22:
106:
134:
120:
148:
264:
is an area in the tropics to the west of
Colombia and Peru with candidate volcanoes and with little reporting at that time. This area had no European settlements at the time, and most of the reporting on its volcanic activity goes back only to the mid-19th century, apart from the occasional sighting
186:
The expectation that any eruptions of that magnitude should have been noticed at the time added to the mystery. Records from the time throughout the world were checked but nothing appeared viable until the summer of 2014, when PhD student Alvaro
Guevara-Murua and Caroline Williams of the
174:
found at the corresponding sulfate layer in ice cores indicate multiple eruptions around this time, including a probable
Antarctic source, an Alaskan source and Indonesian source. This led to the possibility that the massive 1809 sulfate spike was generated by a combination of
248:
veil spanning at least 2,600 kilometres (1,600 mi) into both northern and southern hemispheres. The only likely source for this would be a tropical volcano, most likely located in the southern hemisphere but not likely further than 20 degrees south latitude.
182:
The analysis of sulfur isotopes shows a complex time-evolving pattern, suggesting multiple eruptions that caused the 1809 sulfate layer and global cooling, consistent with the presence of different geochemical tephra populations during this period.
772:
David A. Yuen; Melissa A. Scruggs; Frank J. Spera; Yingcai Zheng; Hao Hu; Stephen R. McNutt; Glenn
Thompson; Kyle Mandli; Barry R. Keller; Songqiao Shawn Wei; Zhigang Peng; Zili Zhou; Francesco Mulargia; Yuichiro Tanioka (18 March 2022).
737:
Will
Hutchison; Andrea Burke; Patrick Sugden; Siwan Davies; Michael Sigl (2023). "Re-evaluating the source, style and impacts of the 1800–1835 eruption cluster with new ice core isotope and cryptotephra analyses".
775:"Under the Surface: Pressure-Induced Planetary-Scale Waves, Volcanic Lightning, and Gaseous Clouds Caused by the Submarine Eruption of Hunga Tonga-Hunga Ha'apai Volcano Provide an Excellent Research Opportunity"
308:
also had a major eruption around this time, with an approximate date of 1810 (with a 10-year margin of error), but it is located 22 degrees south and therefore slightly outside the preferred latitude range.
278:
206:
between 1805 and 1810 and in 1809 reported a "transparent cloud that obstructs the sun's brilliance" at Bogotá. It had first been observed by him on 11 December 1808 and was visible across
52:
is one or potentially multiple unidentified volcanic eruptions that resulted in a significant rise in stratospheric sulfur aerosols, leading to a period of global cooling analogous to the
241:. These reports led those involved to suggest that the window of the eruption was within seven days of 4 December 1808. Caldas' and Unanue's accounts indicated the existence of a
334:
87:
eruption, emerging evidence suggests that the rise in sulfate concentration and global cooling was likely caused by a series of eruptions, including some minor ones.
76:. This faced volcanologists with the problem that this period has no recorded eruptions of the needed magnitude to generate such a spike. Further research and
353:
Dai, Jihong; Mosley-Thompson, Ellen; Thompson, Lonnie G. (1991). "Ice core evidence for an explosive tropical volcanic eruption six years preceding
Tambora".
98:
161:
919:
909:
827:
759:
751:
498:"Observations of a stratospheric aerosol veil from a tropical volcanic eruption in December 1808: is this the Unknown ~ 1809 eruption?"
638:
Salzer, Matthew W.; Hughes, Malcolm K. (January 2007). "Bristlecone Pine Tree Rings and
Volcanic Eruptions Over the Last 5000 yr".
588:
64:
Until the 1990s, climatologists considered the known deterioration of the weather in the early 1810s as a normal phenomenon of the
274:
754:, Fire Mountains of the Islands, R Wally Johnson, ANU E Press, The Australian National University, Canberra ACT 0200, Australia,
929:
73:
41:
40:
seasonal variations: A large unknown eruption occurred somewhat before the year 1810. The peak after 1815 was caused by the
196:
497:
939:
924:
329:
270:
84:
393:
Plunkett, Gill; Sigl, Michael; McConnell, Joseph R.; Pilcher, Jonathan R.; Chellman, Nathan J. (1 February 2023).
934:
301:, Philippines, in March. Neither of these occurred within the correct period for the visual observations.
282:
179:
and extra-tropical eruptions occurring in short succession rather than a single large volcanic eruption.
460:
324:
318:
188:
53:
699:
649:
600:
553:
512:
406:
362:
885:
640:
835:
796:
665:
450:
432:
294:
686:
Yalcin, Kaplan; Wake, Cameron P.; Kreutz, Karl J.; Germani, Mark S.; Whitlow, Sallie I. (2006).
234:
165:
Due to reports in Bogotá and Lima, the volcano is conjectured to be between
Indonesia and Tonga.
755:
717:
569:
493:
424:
786:
707:
657:
608:
561:
520:
414:
370:
305:
285:
of these areas report eruptions, but these could not be dated with any degree of certainty.
77:
589:"Ice Core Evidence for an Explosive Tropical Volcanic Eruption Six Years Preceding Tambora"
688:"Ice core evidence for a second volcanic eruption around 1809 in the Northern Hemisphere"
542:"Ice core evidence for an explosive tropical volcanic eruption 6 years preceding Tambora"
703:
653:
616:
604:
557:
516:
410:
366:
894:
857:
65:
37:
914:
903:
800:
455:
436:
253:
242:
211:
669:
419:
394:
298:
72:
ice cores, however, found a sulfate spike in early 1809, roughly half that of the
791:
774:
661:
21:
395:"The significance of volcanic ash in Greenland ice cores during the Common Era"
721:
573:
428:
191:
discovered an account of atmospheric events consistent with such an event by
80:
tree ring data pointed to the eruption being in 1808 rather than early 1809.
525:
257:
69:
33:
29:
203:
226:. He also reported that the weather had been unusually cold, with frosts.
782:
712:
687:
541:
207:
192:
176:
813:
245:
223:
25:
832:
Institut fĂĽr
Mineralogie und Lagerstättenlehre, RWTH Aachen University
612:
565:
374:
828:"History of Taal's Activity to 1911 as Described by Fr. Saderra Maso"
266:
171:
261:
20:
587:
Dai, Jihong; Mosley-Thompson, Ellen; Thompson, Lonnie G. (1991).
540:
Dai, Jihong; Mosley-Thompson, Ellen; Thompson, Lonnie G. (1991).
238:
230:
492:
Guevara-Murua, A.; Williams, C. A.; Hendy, E.J.; Rust, A.C.;
202:
Caldas served as
Director of the Astronomical Observatory of
740:
PAGES Volcanic Impacts on Climate and Society 5th Workshop
265:
by passing European explorers. The region includes the
752:
2. Volcano Sightings by European Navigators: 1528–1870
816:
Savo - Toghavitu Eruption. Retrieved 24 November 2015
335:
List of large volcanic eruptions of the 19th century
210:. The cloud might have been a "dry fog", which is a
451:"Mysterious Volcanic Eruption of 1808 Described"
8:
593:Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres
355:Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres
487:
485:
483:
481:
479:
477:
790:
711:
524:
418:
345:
293:In 1808, there were major eruptions in
16:Volcanic eruption in southwest Pacific
7:
814:http://www.volcanolive.com/savo.html
733:
731:
681:
679:
388:
386:
384:
170:Compilations of the geochemistry of
289:Known significant eruptions in 1808
281:in 2022. The oral histories of the
886:The Hunt for the Unknown Volcano,
83:Initially believed to be a single
14:
105:
146:
132:
118:
104:
97:
68:. A 1991 study of Antarctic and
546:Journal of Geophysical Research
420:10.1016/j.quascirev.2022.107936
321:, previously a mystery eruption
920:Events that forced the climate
133:
74:1815 eruption of Mount Tambora
1:
237:made similar observations in
119:
910:19th-century volcanic events
779:Earthquake Research Advances
762:(pbk.) 9781922144232 (eBook)
692:Geophysical Research Letters
273:6 eruptions, as well as the
147:
858:"1809: The missing volcano"
792:10.1016/j.eqrea.2022.100134
662:10.1016/j.yqres.2006.07.004
956:
399:Quaternary Science Reviews
330:1452/1453 mystery eruption
895:1809: The missing volcano
275:Hunga Tonga–Hunga Haʻapai
826:Knittel, Ulrich (1999).
197:Francisco José de Caldas
599:(D9): 17, 361–17, 366.
526:10.5194/cp-10-1707-2014
361:(D9): 17, 361–17, 366.
283:indigenous populations
279:had a VEI 5–6 eruption
45:
42:Mount Tambora eruption
930:Unexplained phenomena
461:University of Bristol
325:1458 mystery eruption
319:1257 Samalas eruption
297:, on 1–4 May, and in
189:University of Bristol
54:Year Without a Summer
50:1808 mystery eruption
24:
781:. Article in press.
713:10.1029/2006GL026013
619:on 27 September 2012
269:area, which has had
162:class=notpageimage|
36:, dated by counting
862:www.volcanocafe.org
704:2006GeoRL..3314706Y
654:2007QuRes..67...57S
641:Quaternary Research
605:1991JGR....9617361D
558:1991JGR....9617361D
517:2014CliPa..10.1707G
505:Climate of the Past
411:2023QSRv..30107936P
367:1991JGR....9617361D
252:The south-western
46:
940:Mystery eruptions
925:Plinian eruptions
890:Magazine May 2015
864:. 25 January 2016
760:978-1-922144-22-5
613:10.1029/91jd01634
566:10.1029/91JD01634
375:10.1029/91jd01634
229:To the south, in
91:Location and date
28:concentration in
947:
874:
873:
871:
869:
854:
848:
847:
845:
843:
834:. Archived from
823:
817:
811:
805:
804:
794:
769:
763:
749:
743:
735:
726:
725:
715:
683:
674:
673:
635:
629:
628:
626:
624:
615:. Archived from
584:
578:
577:
537:
531:
530:
528:
511:(5): 1707–1722.
502:
489:
472:
471:
469:
467:
447:
441:
440:
422:
390:
379:
378:
350:
295:Urzelina, Azores
150:
149:
136:
135:
122:
121:
108:
107:
101:
78:bristlecone pine
955:
954:
950:
949:
948:
946:
945:
944:
935:VEI-6 eruptions
900:
899:
882:
877:
867:
865:
856:
855:
851:
841:
839:
825:
824:
820:
812:
808:
771:
770:
766:
750:
746:
736:
729:
685:
684:
677:
637:
636:
632:
622:
620:
586:
585:
581:
539:
538:
534:
500:
491:
490:
475:
465:
463:
449:
448:
444:
392:
391:
382:
352:
351:
347:
343:
315:
291:
235:HipĂłlito Unanue
221:
217:
168:
167:
166:
164:
158:
157:
156:
155:
151:
143:
142:
141:
137:
129:
128:
127:
123:
115:
114:
113:
109:
93:
62:
17:
12:
11:
5:
953:
951:
943:
942:
937:
932:
927:
922:
917:
912:
902:
901:
898:
897:
892:
881:
880:External links
878:
876:
875:
849:
818:
806:
764:
744:
727:
698:(14): L14706.
675:
630:
579:
532:
473:
442:
380:
344:
342:
339:
338:
337:
332:
327:
322:
314:
311:
306:Putana volcano
290:
287:
219:
215:
160:
159:
153:
152:
145:
144:
139:
138:
131:
130:
125:
124:
117:
116:
111:
110:
103:
102:
96:
95:
94:
92:
89:
66:Little Ice Age
61:
58:
38:oxygen isotope
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
952:
941:
938:
936:
933:
931:
928:
926:
923:
921:
918:
916:
913:
911:
908:
907:
905:
896:
893:
891:
889:
884:
883:
879:
863:
859:
853:
850:
838:on 1 May 2018
837:
833:
829:
822:
819:
815:
810:
807:
802:
798:
793:
788:
784:
780:
776:
768:
765:
761:
757:
753:
748:
745:
741:
734:
732:
728:
723:
719:
714:
709:
705:
701:
697:
693:
689:
682:
680:
676:
671:
667:
663:
659:
655:
651:
647:
643:
642:
634:
631:
618:
614:
610:
606:
602:
598:
594:
590:
583:
580:
575:
571:
567:
563:
559:
555:
552:(D9): 17361.
551:
547:
543:
536:
533:
527:
522:
518:
514:
510:
506:
499:
495:
494:Cashman, K.V.
488:
486:
484:
482:
480:
478:
474:
462:
458:
457:
456:Science Daily
452:
446:
443:
438:
434:
430:
426:
421:
416:
412:
408:
404:
400:
396:
389:
387:
385:
381:
376:
372:
368:
364:
360:
356:
349:
346:
340:
336:
333:
331:
328:
326:
323:
320:
317:
316:
312:
310:
307:
302:
300:
296:
288:
286:
284:
280:
276:
272:
268:
263:
259:
255:
254:Pacific Ocean
250:
247:
244:
243:stratospheric
240:
236:
232:
227:
225:
213:
212:sulfuric acid
209:
205:
200:
198:
194:
190:
184:
180:
178:
173:
163:
100:
90:
88:
86:
81:
79:
75:
71:
67:
59:
57:
55:
51:
43:
39:
35:
31:
27:
23:
19:
887:
866:. Retrieved
861:
852:
842:26 September
840:. Retrieved
836:the original
831:
821:
809:
778:
767:
747:
739:
695:
691:
648:(1): 57–68.
645:
639:
633:
621:. Retrieved
617:the original
596:
592:
582:
549:
545:
535:
508:
504:
466:26 September
464:. Retrieved
454:
445:
402:
398:
358:
354:
348:
304:The Chilean
303:
299:Taal Volcano
292:
251:
233:, physician
228:
201:
185:
181:
169:
82:
63:
49:
47:
18:
623:16 December
277:area which
904:Categories
405:: 107936.
341:References
195:scientist
60:Background
56:in 1816.
801:247550313
722:0094-8276
574:0148-0227
437:181849906
429:0277-3791
258:Indonesia
193:Colombian
112:Indonesia
70:Greenland
34:Greenland
30:ice cores
888:Discover
868:24 April
783:Elsevier
670:14654597
496:(2014).
313:See also
256:between
208:Colombia
177:tropical
700:Bibcode
650:Bibcode
601:Bibcode
554:Bibcode
513:Bibcode
407:Bibcode
363:Bibcode
246:aerosol
224:aerosol
172:tephras
26:Sulfate
799:
758:
720:
668:
572:
435:
427:
267:Rabaul
204:Bogotá
140:Bogotá
797:S2CID
666:S2CID
501:(PDF)
433:S2CID
262:Tonga
126:Tonga
85:VEI-6
32:from
915:1808
870:2018
844:2015
756:ISBN
718:ISSN
625:2014
570:ISSN
468:2015
425:ISSN
260:and
239:Lima
231:Peru
154:Lima
48:The
787:doi
708:doi
658:doi
609:doi
562:doi
521:doi
415:doi
403:301
371:doi
271:VEI
906::
860:.
830:.
795:.
785:.
777:.
730:^
716:.
706:.
696:33
694:.
690:.
678:^
664:.
656:.
646:67
644:.
607:.
597:96
595:.
591:.
568:.
560:.
550:96
548:.
544:.
519:.
509:10
507:.
503:.
476:^
459:.
453:.
431:.
423:.
413:.
401:.
397:.
383:^
369:.
359:96
357:.
222:)
218:SO
214:(H
199:.
872:.
846:.
803:.
789::
742:.
724:.
710::
702::
672:.
660::
652::
627:.
611::
603::
576:.
564::
556::
529:.
523::
515::
470:.
439:.
417::
409::
377:.
373::
365::
220:4
216:2
44:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
