149:
790:. By April 1909, African Americans made up about 42% of the total firemen working for the railroad. The average pay for a white firemen was $ 1.75 per day, while African American firemen were paid $ 1.25 per day. Furthermore, the railroad allowed full seniority rights to the African American firemen, but denied them the opportunity to be promoted to the position of
823:
African
Americans. The Georgia Railroad was open about its policy of hiring African Americans for lower wages and attacked the union for attempting to remove African Americans from employment on railroads. Early on, the railroad attempted to attack Ball as an instigating outsider, highlighting the fact that he was
915:. On May 27, Ball, fearful of further Federal involvement in the strike, allowed for two mail trains to run between Augusta and Atlanta daily, which started the following day. That same day, Knapp joined Neill in Atlanta. On May 29, the strike was called off as the two parties entered into discussions.
896:
On May 23, following attacks on two engineers, the engineers of the
Georgia Railroad left their post. The following day, Neill announced he would be coming to Atlanta to work on a settlement between the two parties, though the union was quick to dismiss this as "outside interference". According to
888:
to meet with railroad officials and review the situation. Hart recommended that both sides seek arbitration, though initially there were disagreements between the railroad and union on how this should be done. The
Georgia Railroad turned down the offer to have the arbitration be done locally, most
809:
by the
Atlanta Terminal Company and replaced by African American workers at lower wages. Ball mistakenly believed that the general manager of Georgia Railroad was also a board member of the Atlanta Terminal Company, and as such believed the firings constituted a significant enough event to warrant
990:
would cite the strike in his arguments against Booker T. Washington. According to Harvey, the strike highlighted the issue of industrial training for
African Americans in the absence of political rights, as, according to Harrison, "any training which makes black men more efficient will bring them
923:
Following Knapp's arrival, the railroad and union came to an agreement that the ten white firemen whose firings had triggered the strike would be rehired, but the railroad rejected the union's proposal to fire all
African American firemen. Additionally, the railroad and the brotherhood agreed to
822:
On May 17, eighty firemen, all white members of the brotherhood, went on strike against the
Georgia Railroad. As part of the strikers' demands, they called for the ten white workers to be rehired by the Atlanta Terminal Company and for the railroad to cease its replacement of white workers with
943:
On June 26, the arbitrators released their decision, wherein they decided against the union on every major point. However, the arbitrators did rule that the railroad would be required to pay
African American and white firemen the same wage. Hardwick had been a dissenting vote on several of the
981:
The arbitration's decisions were popularly received by many in the
African American community, especially the ruling of equal pay for both whites and African Americans. While there were initially concerns that this ruling would result in whites being selected over African Americans, railroads
889:
likely due to mistrust of
Governor Smith, and the union rejected the proposal from Neill and Knapp to have Federal arbitration, calling the dispute "purely local". Meanwhile, mob activity increased as trains were now being detained in
830:
Attempting to break the strike, the railroad ran freight trains fired entirely by black workers, many of whom faced violence from mobs along the line. Shortly after the outbreak of the strike, Ball published an open letter in
986:'s ideas of racial progress through economic development. Washington personally thanked Herbert for the decision, which he said would have a far-reaching positive impact on the African American community. However,
944:
issues, and he opposed allowing the railroad to employ African Americans, but supported the requirement for equal pay. The decision, while unpopular among Ball and other union officials, was not appealed.
1589:
1584:
805:. In April, Eugene A. Ball, the union's vice president, visited Georgia and urged the railroad to change its policies. A critical development occurred on April 10, as ten white firemen had been
721:
1574:
962:, noted that the strike was "nothing less than a cowardly subterfuge … for the purpose of oppressing black working men because they are black." Furthermore, Benjamin Davis, editor of the
794:. The effect of this was that many of the African American workers accumulated more seniority than their white firemen counterparts, allowing them the choice of more profitable runs.
1579:
798:
751:
562:
100:
714:
314:
180:
849:, stopped Georgia Railroad trains and attacked the black firemen on board. The following days saw mob activity in other places through the state, including in
374:
207:
1594:
707:
693:
479:
237:
202:
175:
924:
allow a team of three mediators to resolve the remaining issues under the terms of the Erdman Act. The three men selected as arbitrators were
688:
683:
1564:
1540:
1511:
1482:
1410:
1381:
1352:
747:
130:
907:
was considering the use of Federal troops to address the situation, but ultimately decided against that, as he felt it would hurt the
655:
424:
271:
1474:
908:
833:
138:
1569:
1435:
1426:
527:
517:
861:
for militia protection, but Smith, who sympathized with the strikers, refused. Smith also feared that his political opponent
1526:
1497:
1468:
1396:
1338:
552:
419:
349:
334:
242:
1367:
1344:
797:
By early 1909, tensions began to rise among the white firemen of the Georgia Railroad, many of whom were members of the
592:
449:
439:
379:
369:
354:
885:
304:
754:(B of LF&E), resented the hiring of African American firemen by the railroad and accompanying policies regarding
557:
953:
547:
459:
399:
364:
329:
286:
154:
1503:
937:
806:
587:
464:
414:
359:
309:
1402:
1373:
429:
884:, another railroad strike. However, following the mob activity, on May 22 the governor sent John C. Hart, the
1532:
660:
454:
394:
389:
324:
319:
970:, called the strike an act of "coercion and violence" against African American workers. American historian
148:
912:
873:
779:
743:
630:
567:
444:
434:
409:
339:
967:
933:
522:
507:
404:
983:
975:
890:
572:
542:
537:
384:
46:
827:. Ball responded that he was both a Canadian and a white man who stood "for a white man's country".
958:
904:
602:
344:
982:
retained African American firemen at pre-strike levels. Many saw the decision as a vindication of
1455:
971:
925:
899:
850:
787:
640:
512:
502:
276:
192:
170:
1536:
1507:
1478:
1447:
1406:
1377:
1348:
929:
854:
791:
775:
612:
247:
1439:
869:
862:
846:
842:
838:
771:
645:
474:
111:
95:
987:
868:
With the governor unwilling to help, Georgia Railroad sent telegrams to Federal officials
607:
577:
214:
974:
said the strike was the most widely covered labor and race-related incident prior to the
940:(Hardwick and Herbert's pick). On June 21, the three mediators began to hear testimony.
881:
678:
597:
469:
1558:
858:
197:
50:
893:
and Georgia Railroad began to bring in white strikebreakers from outside the state.
1546:
1517:
1488:
1416:
1387:
1358:
811:
810:
further action. On May 13 and 14, Ball oversaw near unanimous voting in favor of a
783:
281:
259:
254:
782:
for some of their longer routes. They were hired at considerably lower wages than
802:
877:
837:
attacking Georgia Railroad's policies. Several days later, on May 19, mobs in
759:
635:
582:
484:
1451:
1424:
Matthews, John Michael (November 1974). "The Georgia "Race Strike" of 1909".
865:
would exploit any perceived intervention on the behalf of African Americans.
824:
762:, with the mediators deciding in favor of the railroad on all major issues.
755:
532:
187:
1528:
A Working People: A History of African American Workers Since Emancipation
991:
into keener competition with white men. … Their jobs will be taken away."
1459:
1369:
A Question of Manhood: The 19th Century: From Emancipation to Jim Crow
758:. The labor dispute ended in Federal mediation under the terms of the
750:
that lasted from May 17 to May 29. White firemen, organized under the
1443:
880:, which had been passed several years earlier as a response to the
650:
63:
Resentment from white firemen over the hiring of African Americans
1499:
Hubert Harrison: The Voice of Harlem Radicalism, 1883-1918
1291:
1289:
1287:
1262:
1260:
1211:
1209:
1196:
1194:
1181:
1179:
1166:
1164:
1120:
1118:
1116:
1061:
1059:
1022:
1020:
1018:
1016:
876:
asking them to serve as mediators under the terms of the
1139:
1137:
1135:
1133:
1088:
1086:
1590:
Rail transportation labor disputes in the United States
1366:
Jenkins, Earnestine; Hine, Darlene Clark, eds. (2001).
1103:
1101:
1585:
Racially motivated violence against African Americans
952:
In an article published concurrently to the strike,
81:
69:
57:
41:
33:
23:
1470:Black Americans and Organized Labor: A New History
903:, which had been covering the incident, President
1575:African-American history of Georgia (U.S. state)
75:Equal pay for African American and white firemen
1340:Black Georgia in the Progressive Era, 1900-1920
799:Brotherhood of Locomotive Firemen and Enginemen
786:firemen, and their hiring increased during the
752:Brotherhood of Locomotive Firemen and Enginemen
101:Brotherhood of Locomotive Firemen and Enginemen
715:
8:
1307:
722:
708:
125:
20:
742:, was a labor strike that involved white
694:Mass racial violence in the United States
1295:
1266:
1251:
1239:
1227:
1215:
1200:
1185:
1170:
1155:
1124:
1092:
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1050:
1026:
1007:
1107:
1077:
1000:
137:
1580:Labor disputes in Georgia (U.S. state)
1143:
1038:
563:1912 racial conflict in Forsyth County
1319:
1278:
7:
966:and father of civil rights activist
1595:1900s strikes in the United States
857:. Georgia Railroad asked Governor
14:
689:Civil rights movement (1896–1954)
684:Civil rights movement (1865–1896)
315:Nevlin Porter and Johnson Spencer
1475:Louisiana State University Press
375:Frazier B. Baker and Julia Baker
147:
1436:Southern Historical Association
1427:The Journal of Southern History
736:Georgia Railroad strike of 1909
528:Wilmington insurrection of 1898
518:Spring Valley Race Riot of 1895
238:Expulsions of African Americans
24:Georgia Railroad strike of 1909
801:(B of LF&E), an all-white
1:
553:Springfield race riot of 1908
1565:1909 in Georgia (U.S. state)
1345:University of Illinois Press
593:Washington race riot of 1919
932:(the railroad's pick), and
886:Attorney General of Georgia
480:James Harvey and Joe Jordan
1611:
1496:Perry, Jeffrey B. (2009).
954:African American newspaper
155:1906 Atlanta race massacre
1525:Reich, Steven A. (2013).
1504:Columbia University Press
1395:Marshall, F. Ray (1967).
1343:(Illini books ed.).
938:David Crenshaw Barrow Jr.
588:Chicago race riot of 1919
86:
28:
1533:Rowman & Littlefield
1467:Moreno, Paul D. (2006).
1403:Harvard University Press
1374:Indiana University Press
834:The Atlanta Constitution
548:Atlanta Massacre of 1906
1308:Jenkins & Hine 2001
661:Back to Africa movement
208:Anti-miscegenation laws
94:White firemen from the
1570:1909 in rail transport
1337:Dittmer, John (1980).
913:Southern United States
874:Martin Augustine Knapp
631:Anti-lynching movement
568:1917 Chester race riot
558:Johnson–Jeffries riots
425:Laura and L. D. Nelson
968:Benjamin J. Davis Jr.
934:University of Georgia
523:Phoenix election riot
508:Rock Springs massacre
165:Historical background
16:American labor strike
984:Booker T. Washington
976:East St. Louis riots
948:Aftermath and legacy
928:(the union's pick),
818:Course of the strike
738:, also known as the
573:East St. Louis riots
543:Evansville race riot
538:Robert Charles riots
1242:, pp. 623–624.
1230:, pp. 622–623.
959:Atlanta Independent
905:William Howard Taft
740:Georgia race strike
636:Exodusters movement
603:Tulsa race massacre
497:Massacres and riots
29:Georgia race strike
1398:Labor in the South
972:Darlene Clark Hine
926:Thomas W. Hardwick
900:The New York Times
788:depression of 1907
770:In Fall 1902, the
641:Atlanta Compromise
513:Thibodaux massacre
503:Opelousas massacre
277:Indiana White Caps
248:Lynching postcards
193:Compromise of 1877
171:Reconstruction era
1542:978-1-4422-0333-4
1513:978-0-231-51122-3
1484:978-0-8071-3425-2
1412:978-0-674-50700-5
1383:978-0-253-21460-7
1354:978-0-252-00813-9
930:Hilary A. Herbert
792:railroad engineer
776:African Americans
732:
731:
613:Rosewood massacre
176:Voter suppression
139:Nadir of American
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1011:
1005:
911:'s image in the
909:Republican Party
870:Charles P. Neill
863:Thomas E. Watson
772:Georgia Railroad
748:Georgia Railroad
746:working for the
724:
717:
710:
646:Niagara Movement
450:Anthony Crawford
440:Jesse Washington
380:John Henry James
370:Stephen Williams
355:Ephraim Grizzard
350:People's Grocery
266:Vigilante groups
181:Disfranchisement
153:Violence in the
151:
126:
112:Georgia Railroad
96:Georgia Railroad
88:
87:
21:
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1372:. Vol. 2.
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988:Hubert Harrison
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820:
768:
728:
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674:
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656:Great Migration
626:
618:
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608:Perry race riot
578:Elaine massacre
498:
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305:Andrew Richards
300:
292:
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228:
220:
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215:Convict leasing
166:
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53:
37:May 17–29, 1909
17:
12:
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1322:, p. 129.
1312:
1310:, p. 160.
1300:
1298:, p. 628.
1283:
1281:, p. 179.
1271:
1269:, p. 625.
1256:
1254:, p. 624.
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1232:
1220:
1218:, p. 622.
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1203:, p. 621.
1190:
1188:, p. 620.
1175:
1173:, p. 619.
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1158:, p. 618.
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1146:, p. 100.
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1127:, p. 617.
1112:
1097:
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1068:, p. 616.
1055:
1053:, p. 613.
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1031:
1029:, p. 615.
1012:
1010:, p. 614.
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882:Pullman Strike
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679:Black genocide
675:
673:Related topics
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598:Ocoee massacre
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470:John Hartfield
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460:Jim McIlherron
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400:Marie Thompson
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365:Samuel J. Bush
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335:Joe Vermillion
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1296:Matthews 1974
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1125:Matthews 1974
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1110:, p. 34.
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1098:
1095:, p. 59.
1094:
1093:Marshall 1967
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1080:, p. 33.
1079:
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1066:Matthews 1974
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1051:Matthews 1974
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1041:, p. 99.
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859:M. Hoke Smith
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1547:Google Books
1545:– via
1527:
1518:Google Books
1516:– via
1498:
1489:Google Books
1487:– via
1469:
1431:
1425:
1417:Google Books
1415:– via
1397:
1388:Google Books
1386:– via
1368:
1359:Google Books
1357:– via
1339:
1330:Bibliography
1315:
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1235:
1223:
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1108:Dittmer 1980
1078:Dittmer 1980
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812:labor strike
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445:Newberry Six
430:King Johnson
405:Watkinsville
282:Ku Klux Klan
272:Black Legion
260:Whitecapping
255:Sundown town
18:
1438:: 613–630.
1144:Moreno 2006
1039:Moreno 2006
964:Independent
936:chancellor
891:Union Point
803:labor union
475:1920 Duluth
455:Ell Persons
395:David Wyatt
390:George Ward
325:Amos Miller
320:Eliza Woods
203:Segregation
70:Resulted in
1559:Categories
1320:Perry 2009
1279:Reich 2013
995:References
878:Erdman Act
766:Background
760:Erdman Act
583:Red Summer
485:Joe Pullen
435:John Evans
410:Ed Johnson
340:Jim Taylor
287:Red Shirts
1452:0022-4642
978:of 1917.
919:Mediation
851:Covington
756:seniority
625:Reactions
533:Pana riot
299:Lynchings
243:Lynchings
227:Practices
188:Redeemers
58:Caused by
855:Lithonia
825:Canadian
385:Sam Hose
131:a series
129:Part of
42:Location
1460:2206357
847:Augusta
843:Thomson
839:Dearing
780:firemen
744:firemen
345:Joe Coe
82:Parties
47:Georgia
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133:on the
1456:JSTOR
1434:(4).
807:fired
784:white
651:NAACP
1537:ISBN
1508:ISBN
1479:ISBN
1448:ISSN
1407:ISBN
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723:e
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709:v
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