US–UK Mutual Defence Agreement

691: 934:

of military reactors. The treaty called for the exchange of "classified information concerning atomic weapons when, after consultation with the other Party, the communicating Party determines that the communication of such information is necessary to improve the recipient's atomic weapon design, development and fabrication capability". The US would communicate information about atomic weapons that were similar to UK atomic weapons. For the immediate future, that would exclude information about thermonuclear weapons. Confidential intelligence matters are also covered by the agreement. The UK government has not published those sections "because of the necessity for great confidentiality and because of the use that such information would be to other would-be nuclear states. In other words, it might well assist proliferation".

286: 46: 1372: 117: 910: 433:, went to Washington, DC, to confer with Truman about future co-operation in nuclear weapons and nuclear power. A Memorandum of Intention was signed on 16 November 1945 that made Canada a full partner and replaced the Quebec Agreement's requirement for "mutual consent" before using nuclear weapons to one for "prior consultation". There was to be "full and effective co-operation in the field of atomic energy", but British hopes were soon disappointed since it was only "in the field of basic scientific research". 1065:; Pennant, the boosted device which had been detonated in the Grapple Z test on 22 August; Flagpole, the two-stage device scheduled for 2 September; Burgee, scheduled for 23 September; and the three-stage Halliard 3. The Americans were impressed with the British designs, particularly with Halliard 1, the heavier version of Halliard 3. Cook, therefore, changed the Grapple Z programme to fire Halliard 1 instead of Halliard 3. Macmillan noted in his diary with satisfaction: 4166: 130: 580: 481:, an agreement that was signed on 7 January 1948 and officially terminated all previous agreements, including the Quebec Agreement. It removed the British right of consultation on the use of nuclear weapons; allowed for limited sharing of technical information between the United States, Britain and Canada and continued the Combined Policy Committee and the Combined Development Trust although the latter was renamed the 4154: 604:. There were technical and legal issues that had to be overcome before American bombs could be carried in British aircraft. The Americans would have to disclose their weights and dimensions, and their delivery would require data concerning their ballistics. Further down the track would also be issues of custody, security and targeting. The release of such information was restricted by the McMahon Act. 1168: 4178: 1301:. HEU was then flown back to the UK in RAF aircraft. In 1994, with the Portsmouth plant about to close, the treaty was amended with the US requirement to "provide" uranium enrichment services changed to one to "arrange" them. By March 2002, the UK had a stockpile of 21.86 tonnes of HEU, about 80 years' supply for the Royal Navy's nuclear-powered submarines. 889:

and could not be turned over to allies except in wartime. The sale of nuclear reactors for submarines and nuclear fuel for them and other military reactors was permitted. Only the UK qualified as a nation that had made substantial progress. The bill passed Congress on 30 June 1958 and was signed into law by Eisenhower on 2 July 1958.

726:, on 4 October 1957, came as a tremendous shock to the American public, which had trusted that American technological superiority ensured their invulnerability. Suddenly, there was now incontrovertible proof that in at least some areas, the Soviet Union was actually ahead. In the widespread calls for action in response to the 1419:

disarmament and continues to be at the forefront of international efforts to control proliferation, and to make progress towards multilateral nuclear disarmament. The UK-USA Mutual Defence Agreement is, and will continue to be, in full compliance with our obligations under the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty.

1314:

deuterium monitors, extinguishing plutonium fires, high-speed cameras, mechanical safing, liquid and solid explosive shock initiation, environmental sensing switches, neutron sources, tritium reservoirs, telemetry, hydrodynamic and shock relations for problems with spherical and cylindrical symmetry,

838:

was concerned that a special relationship with Britain might complicate US relationships with its other allies. Strauss, in particular, felt that a proposal to give hydrogen bomb secrets to the British would likely not get past the JCAE, and counselled drafting amendments that were sufficiently vague

888:

on 19 June but not without changes that now limited exchanges of nuclear weapons data to nations that had made substantial progress in the field. The same restriction applied to the actual transfer of non-nuclear components of nuclear weapons. American nuclear weapons were to remain under US custody

933:

Article 2 of the treaty covered joint development of defence plans; the mutual training of personnel in the use and defence against nuclear weapons; the sharing of intelligence and evaluation of enemy capabilities; the development of nuclear delivery systems and the research, development and design

1390:

The treaty was amended on 7 May 1959, 27 September 1968, 16 October 1969, 22 June 1974, 5 December 1979, 5 June 1984, 23 May 1994 and 14 June 2004. Most amendments merely extended the treaty for another five or ten years; others added definitions and made minor changes. As of 2020, the most recent

615:

technology to Britain, which saved the British government millions of pounds in research and development costs. It precipitated a row with the JCAE over whether that was permitted under the Atomic Energy Act of 1954 and whether Britain met the security standards set by the 1955 agreement. With the

1313:

one-point safety, computer codes, metallurgy and fabrication technology for beryllium, uranium and plutonium, corrosion of uranium in the presence of water and water vapour, underground effects tests, outer-space testing, clandestine testing, the technology of lithium compounds, high explosives,

488:

In 1949, the Americans offered to make atomic bombs in the US available for Britain to use if the British agreed to curtail their atomic bomb programme. That would have given Britain nuclear weapons much sooner than its own target date of late 1952. Only the bomb components required by war plans

929:

with the objective of improving each party's "atomic weapon design, development, and fabrication capability". While the US has nuclear co-operation agreements with other countries, including France and some NATO countries, none of them is similar in scope to the US–UK Mutual Defence Agreement.

213:

proved mutually beneficial, both militarily and economically. Britain soon became dependent on the United States for its nuclear weapons since it agreed to limit their nuclear program with the agreement of shared technology. The treaty allowed American nuclear weapons to be supplied to Britain

1354:

The balance of advantage in the exchanges was necessarily in Britain's favour but they were not entirely one-sided. In some areas, notably electronics and high explosives, the British were equal or perhaps even superior, and in many areas they had valuable ideas to contribute, as the American

1187:

Under the agreement 5.37 tonnes of UK-produced plutonium was sent to the US in exchange for 6.7 kg of tritium and 7.5 tonnes of HEU between 1960 and 1979. A further 470 kg of plutonium was swapped between the US and the UK for reasons that remain classified. Some of the UK-produced

1418:

We are committed to the goal of a world without nuclear weapons and firmly believe that the best way to achieve this is through gradual disarmament negotiated through a step-by-step approach within the framework of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. The UK has a strong record on nuclear

830:

missiles. That could save millions of pounds and avoid domestic political complications if Britain had to persist with nuclear testing during an international moratorium. While the British knew what they wanted, there was no consensus among the Americans as to what they wanted to provide.

821:

For their part, the British wanted the McMahon Act's restrictions on nuclear co-operation to be relaxed. They wanted to know the weight, dimensions, fusing and firing sequences, safety features, and in-flight procedures. That information would allow American bombs to be carried in British

611:, which allowed for greater exchange of information with foreign nations and paved the way for the Agreement for Co-operation Regarding Atomic Information for Mutual Defence Purposes, which was signed on 15 June 1955. On 13 June 1956, another agreement was concluded for the transfer of 404:

raised the matter in a Combined Policy Committee meeting in June 1945, the American copy could not be found. The Quebec Agreement specified that nuclear weapons would not be used against another country without mutual consent. On 4 July, Wilson gave the British agreement for the

873:. British information security, or the lack thereof no longer seemed so important now that the Soviet Union was apparently ahead and the UK had independently developed the hydrogen bomb, but the JCAE objected to the terms of the proposed deal to trade British uranium-235 for US 745:

might prove a stumbling block in negotiations, as it might reflect badly on British expertise and provide ammunition for opponents of closer co-operation with the British. He ordered extra copies of the report into the fire to be destroyed and for the printers to destroy their

599:

At the three-power Bermuda Conference in December 1953, Eisenhower and Churchill, who had become prime minister again on 25 October 1951, discussed the possibility of the United States giving Britain access to American nuclear weapons in wartime, which came to be called

773:, the head of the UKAEA, would investigate nuclear co-operation and the exchange of nuclear information. The personal relationship developed between Plowden and Strauss would be crucial in converting the latter over to the idea of providing information to Britain. 942:(HEU). The treaty did not originally allow for non-nuclear components of nuclear weapons to be given to Britain. It was amended on 7 May 1959 to give Britain access to non-nuclear components and to permit the transfer of special nuclear material such as 937:

Article 3 provided for the sale to the UK of one complete nuclear submarine propulsion plant, as well as the uranium needed to fuel it for ten years. Because of concerns expressed by the JCAE, the AEC would determine the price that Britain would pay for

489:

would be stored in the UK, the rest would be kept in the US and Canada. The offer was rejected by the British on the grounds that it was not "compatible with our status as a first-class power to depend on others for weapons of this supreme importance".

812:

be permitted to sell the Royal Navy a nuclear submarine reactor, which would allow it to immediately proceed with building its own nuclear-powered submarine. The British government endorsed this idea, as it would save it a great deal of money.

1117:

500,000 compared with £1,200,000 for the Mark 1 with Green Grass. A 1974 CIA proliferation assessment noted: "In many cases is based on technology received from the US and could not legitimately be passed on without US permission". The UK

807:

submarine-launched IRBM at a critical time. He feared that any delay might cause Congress to favour land-based missiles. By December, the British liaison officers were complaining of slow response to their questions. Rickover proposed that

1081:

the United Kingdom has achieved an advanced state of weapons research and development in both the fission and thermonuclear fields. Moreover, it appeared that certain advances made by the United Kingdom would be of benefit to the United

776:

By December, most of the issues with the IRBM negotiations had been ironed out, and a formal agreement was drawn up on 17 December, but it was not until the end of the month that it was definitely determined that Britain would receive

3242: 475:, as part of a wartime sharing agreement, along with 1,350 long tons (1,370 t) for British use. To gain access to the stockpile for their own nuclear weapons project, the Americans opened negotiations that resulted in the 1142:

Britain soon became dependent on the United States for its nuclear weapons, as it lacked the resources to produce a range of designs. The treaty allowed the UK to receive US nuclear weapons for the Royal Air Force (RAF) and

690: 3898: 2457:"Agreement between the Government of the United States of America and the Government of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland for Cooperation on the uses of Atomic Energy for Mutual Defence Purposes" 1126:

warhead development and production expenditure had been incurred in the US, which supplied special materials and "certain warhead-related components and services". There is evidence that the warhead design of the

163:

Agreement between the Government of the United States of America and the Government of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland for Cooperation on the uses of Atomic Energy for Mutual Defense

38:

3536: 395:

extended both commercial and military co-operation into the post-war period, but Roosevelt died on 12 April 1945, and it was not binding on subsequent administrations. In fact, it was physically lost. When

850:

allies, not just Britain. Indeed, the administration negotiated agreements with Australia, Canada and NATO. Eisenhower did not yet have wholehearted support for the proposal, but outright opposition from

735: 1244:. In return for a "considerable amount" of information regarding submarine design and quietening techniques being passed on to the United States, reactor technology was transferred from Westinghouse to 1289:, but production for military purposes ceased there in March 1963. Thereafter, uranium oxide was imported from Australia, Canada, Namibia, South Africa, the United States and Zaire and processed into 858:

failed to attract much support. On 27 January 1958, Strauss sent Durham the administration's proposed legislative changes, and the JCAE Subcommittee on Agreements for Cooperation, chaired by Senator

839:

as to give the president the authority that he needed without arousing its ire. Eisenhower declared that the US and the UK were "interdependent" and pledged to ask Congress to amend the McMahon Act.

540:

on 3 October 1952, but although it was more advanced than the American bombs of 1946, Britain was still several years behind in nuclear weapons technology. On 1 November, the United States conducted

738:, Macmillan wrote to Eisenhower on 10 October to urge for both countries pool their resources, as Macmillan put it, to meet the Soviet challenge on every front, "military, economic and political". 4240: 677:

in the Pacific. The test series was facilitated by the US, which also claimed the island. Although the first tests were unsuccessful, the Grapple X test on 8 November achieved the desired result.

576:

that the McMahon Act, which he considered a "terrible piece of legislation" and "one of the most deplorable incidents in American history of which he personally felt ashamed", was obsolete.

3234: 962:

The AEC invited the British government to send representatives to a series of meetings in Washington, DC, on 27 and 28 August 1958 to work out the details. The US delegation included

703: 1411: 1346:

proved mutually beneficial although it has never been one of equals after the World Wars since the US has been far larger than the United Kingdom both militarily and economically.

1147:(BAOR) under Project E. Similar custody arrangements were made for the Thor missiles supplied under Project Emily. The UK was able to carry out underground nuclear tests at the US 4225: 3905: 1429: 1309:

Most of the activity under the treaty is information exchange through Joint Working Groups (JOWOG). At least 15 of them were established in 1959. Subjects investigated included

2961: 1002: 4235: 524:, who had served as a British member of the Combined Policy Committee from January 1947 to August 1948, reinforced the Americans' distrust of British security arrangements. 1318:, radiochemistry, atomic demolition munitions, warhead hardening, asymmetric detonations, terrorist nuclear threat response, nuclear weapons accidents and waste management. 440:(McMahon Act), which forbade passing "restricted data" to American allies under pain of death. That partly resulted from the arrest for espionage of the British physicist 425:

The British government had trusted that the US would continue to share nuclear technology, which it considered to be a joint discovery. On 9 November 1945, Attlee and the

2577: 4220: 3134: 2507: 1399: 1090:

on 17 to 19 September also went well. Weapon designers who had worked in secret ended 12 years of isolation. Each side had problems which the other had solved.

385: 1207:

for the UK Trident warhead were purchased from the US, but much of the HEU supplied by the US was used not for weapons but as fuel for the growing fleet of UK

1196:

reactors, and the US gave assurances that the civil plutonium was not used in the US nuclear weapons programme. It was used in civil programmes which included

718:

The successful development of British thermonuclear weapons came at an opportune moment to renew negotiations with the Americans. The Soviet Union's launch of

3291: 1152: 661:

Although the IRBM negotiations pre-dated the Suez Crisis, the British government touted the IRBM deal as a demonstration that the rift had been healed. The

846:, the chairman of the JCAE. Eisenhower met with congressional leaders on 3 December 1957 and pressed for more discretion to co-operate with all America's 492:

As a counter-offer, the British proposed limiting the British programme in return for American bombs. The opposition of key American officials, including

1159:

in October 1992. Major subcritical nuclear tests continued to occur, most notably the Etna test in February 2002 and the Krakatau test in February 2006.

3979: 788:

However, the nuclear submarine propulsion effort was running into trouble. Under the July 1956 agreement and a February 1957 directive from Eisenhower,

1069:

in some respects we are as far, and even further, advanced in the art than our American friends. They thought interchange of information would be all

766: 1375: 617: 406: 309: 3795: 569: 437: 2787: 1119: 1073:. They are keen that we should complete our series, especially the last megaton, the character of which is novel and of deep interest to them. 695: 647: 497: 4128: 4092: 4014: 3960: 3933: 3879: 3845: 3590: 3549: 3514: 3453: 3349: 2892: 1014: 3265: 2997: 285: 1406:, which required signatories to take steps towards nuclear disarmament, but that was not accepted by the British government. In July 2014, 758: 632: 353: 179: 954:, which was signed on 6 April 1963. The two agreements have been "the cornerstone of the UK-US nuclear relationship for nearly 60 years". 4230: 4205: 1360: 301: 3208: 4210: 2824: 1294: 2740: 4200: 4041: 3808: 3769: 3734: 3707: 3483: 3397: 3187: 3046: 2972: 2791: 2714: 967: 445: 1326:

paid 2,000 visits to US nuclear facilities. As of 2014 there are also two enhanced collaborations jointly developing capabilities:

2225: 1403: 509: 3803:. A History of the United States Atomic Energy Commission. University Park, Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania State University Press. 3238: 662: 198: 3209:"Disarmament Documentation: Amendment to the 1958 US-UK Mutual Defence Agreement (on nuclear weapons' cooperation), June 2004" 978: 893: 397: 361: 134: 2817: 2569: 1109:. The British designers were impressed by the W28, which was not only lighter than the British Green Grass warhead used in 4137: 1034: 986: 863: 809: 627:

brought relations between Britain and the United States to a low ebb. Eisenhower met with the new British prime minister,

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but also remarkably more economical in its use of expensive fissile material. The Yellow Sun Mark 2 using Red Snow cost

869:, the Assistant to the Secretary of Defense for Atomic Energy Affairs, were forced to deal with pointed questions about 797: 770: 249:(HEU) between 1960 and 1979, but much of the HEU was used not for weapons but as fuel for the growing fleet of British 174:

countries, but this agreement is by far the most comprehensive. Because of the agreement's strategic value to Britain,

4245: 3407:

Baylis, John (June 2008). "The 1958 Anglo-American Mutual Defence Agreement: The Search for Nuclear Interdependence".

1110: 1062: 1010: 885: 731: 482: 1211:. Under the treaty, the US supplied the UK with not only nuclear submarine propulsion technology but also a complete 1371: 769:, to consider how the deployment of IRBMs to Britain might be expedited. Another study group, under Strauss and Sir 730:, officials in the United States and Britain seized an opportunity to mend their relationship. At the suggestion of 4215: 4117: 2456: 1440: 1259: 757:

Eisenhower and Macmillan agreed to form a study group headed by Sir Richard Powell, the Permanent Secretary to the

639:. There were also discussions on exchanging nuclear submarine propulsion technology for information on the British 381: 313: 921:(left) commemorating the 50th anniversary of the US-UK Mutual Defence Agreement in Washington, DC, on 9 July 2008. 909: 552:(also known as a hydrogen bomb). The JCAE saw little benefit for the US from sharing technology with Britain. The 237:

to fuel it. Other nuclear material was also acquired from the US under the treaty. Some 5.4 tonnes of UK-produced

45: 4250: 4182: 3833: 1392: 1277: 1271: 1265: 1233: 1215: 1172: 1144: 751: 612: 608: 392: 377: 266: 230: 223: 3367:

Baylis, John (Summer 1994). "The Development of Britain's Thermonuclear Capability 1954–61: Myth or Reality?".

1437:– Trilateral security partnership between Australia, the United Kingdom and the United States announced in 2021 1219: 426: 321: 4034:

RAF Strategic Nuclear Deterrent Forces, Their Origins, Roles and Deployment, 1946–1969. A documentary history

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The treaty has been amended and renewed nine times. The most recent renewal extended it to 31 December 2024.

3235:"UK/US: Amendment to the Agreement for Cooperation on the Uses of Atomic Energy for Mutual Defense Purposes" 3001: 1253: 1189: 951: 939: 453: 289: 254: 246: 226:

until the early 1990s when the UK became fully independent in designing and manufacturing its own warheads.

2173:"Foreign Relations of the United States, 1955–1957, Western Europe and Canada, Volume XXVII – Document 306" 2968: 2565: 1226: 1128: 926: 741:

Macmillan flew to Washington, DC, for talks on 25 October. He had concerns that the disastrous 10 October

561: 501: 4170: 4005:

Wade, Troy E. II (2008). "Nuclear Testing: A US Perspective". In Mackby, Jenifer; Cornish, Paul (eds.).

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cut the ribbon on the US-UK Mutual Defence Agreement 60th Anniversary commemorative exhibit in June 2018

1315: 1098: 1058: 1054: 1038: 870: 832: 827: 655: 401: 297: 2795: 512:(JCAE), coupled with security concerns aroused by the 2 February 1950 arrest of the British physicist 4054:(Spring 2007). "A Most Special Relationship: The Origins of Anglo-American Nuclear Strike Planning". 3928:. Nuclear Weapons and International Security since 1945. Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan. 1343: 1290: 1123: 1042: 1030: 1026: 878: 747: 723: 699: 666: 584: 549: 521: 262: 210: 202: 17: 2172: 166:. It allows the US and the UK to exchange nuclear materials, technology and information. The US has 1379: 1333:

Warhead Electrical System to develop architectures and technologies for warhead electrical systems.

1245: 1178: 1022: 998: 643: 537: 468: 349: 2900: 2226:"Britain Suppressed Details of '57 Atomic Disaster: Macmillan feared the loss of U.S. cooperation" 1391:

renewal was on 22 July 2014, extending the treaty to 31 December 2024, with minor changes for the

754:

under great public pressure to act on the deployment of IRBMs by a shocked and distraught nation.

417:

that referred to themselves as "heads of the Governments which have control of this great force".

376:

to create a combined British, American and Canadian project. The Quebec Agreement established the

4071: 3756: 3752: 3727:

Independence and Deterrence: Britain and Atomic Energy, 1945–1952, Volume 2, Policy and Execution

3662: 3625: 3538:

Ministry of Defence and Property Services Agency: Control and Management of the Trident Programme

3432: 1237: 1106: 994: 835: 651: 591:(left foreground) meet for talks in Bermuda in March 1957 to repair the rift created by the 1956 365: 121: 3840:. The Official History of the UK Strategic Nuclear Deterrent. Abingdon, Oxfordshire: Routledge. 2713:(Report). Special National Intelligence Estimate. CIA. 23 August 1974. p. 40. SNIE 4-1-74. 1330:

Enhanced Nuclear Safety to develop architectures and technologies related to warhead safety; and

3180: 4098: 4088: 4037: 4020: 4010: 3966: 3956: 3939: 3929: 3885: 3875: 3851: 3841: 3814: 3804: 3775: 3765: 3740: 3730: 3713: 3703: 3682: 3654: 3596: 3586: 3555: 3545: 3520: 3510: 3489: 3479: 3459: 3449: 3424: 3393: 3376: 3355: 3345: 3042: 2998:"Additional Information Concerning Underground Nuclear Weapon Test of Reactor-Grade Plutonium" 1445: 1383: 1208: 1156: 800: 762: 670: 565: 533: 505: 373: 357: 325: 305: 250: 206: 182:

who presided over the United Kingdom's entry into the agreement) called it "the Great Prize".

896:, the British Minister in Washington, DC, on 3 July and was approved by Congress on 30 July. 4063: 3863: 3646: 3617: 3416: 3212: 1204: 1148: 1046: 855: 628: 588: 369: 337: 234: 175: 154: 3926:

Nuclear Illusion, Nuclear Reality: Britain, the United States, and Nuclear Weapons, 1958–64

4158: 4009:. Washington, DC: Center for Strategic and International Studies Press. pp. 200–211. 3700:

Independence and Deterrence: Britain and Atomic Energy, 1945–1952, Volume 1, Policy Making

3674: 2747: 1455: 1136: 974: 970: 918: 341: 329: 219: 167: 158: 2707: 579: 3868: 3581:

Churchill's Bomb: How the United States Overtook Britain in the First Nuclear Arms Race

3579: 3574: 3503: 3471: 2503: 1450: 1407: 1114: 1006: 990: 843: 804: 750:. He immediately sensed how shaken the Americans had been by Sputnik, which placed the 742: 727: 707: 430: 410: 317: 190: 4153: 1363:

reported that the US was "profoundly involved and benefited greatly" from the treaty.

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Goldberg, Alfred (July 1964). "The Atomic Origins of the British Nuclear Deterrent".

3532: 3436: 1298: 982: 963: 866: 711: 636: 493: 477: 460: 441: 4075: 3695: 3333: 3292:"Lady Warsi on Palestine, Islam, quitting ... and how to stay true to your beliefs" 1347: 1021:. The Americans disclosed the details of nine of their nuclear weapon designs: the 859: 553: 545: 464: 452:

status, the British government restarted its own development effort, now codenamed

414: 293: 186: 3637:

Gott, Richard (April 1963). "The Evolution of the Independent British Deterrent".

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in February 1946 while the legislation was being debated. Fearing a resurgence of

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Mutual Defence Agreement and the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty – Legal Opinion

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in 1963. The S5W was fuelled by uranium enriched to between 93 and 97 per cent

1225:

submarines. That was used in the Royal Navy's first nuclear-powered submarine,

1188:

plutonium was used in 1962 by the US for the only known nuclear weapon test of

650:(UKAEA) to purchase uranium ore from Canada and co-ordinating the war plans of 3420: 1286: 914: 852: 789: 674: 517: 472: 258: 50:

Logo for celebrations commemorating the 50th anniversary of the treaty in 2008

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at Springfields. It was then shipped to the US, where it was enriched at the

4067: 4051: 3970: 3493: 3337: 1458:– Multilateral treaty covering signals intelligence, secretly signed in 1946 1061:. In return, the British provided the details of seven of theirs, including 943: 874: 823: 719: 601: 238: 215: 3985:(Report). Washington, DC: Federation of American Scientists. Archived from 3818: 3686: 459:

By the end of 1947, 1,900 long tons (1,900 t) of uranium ore from the

3889: 3446:

The Long Wait: the Forging of the Anglo-American Nuclear Alliance, 1945–58

881:$ 30 per gram for plutonium that cost $ 12 per gram to produce in the UK. 2463: 1102: 1097:

An early benefit of the agreement was to allow the UK to "Anglicise" the

541: 4085:

The American Bomb in Britain: US Air Forces' Strategic Presence 1946–64

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The UK Naval Nuclear Propulsion Programme and Highly Enriched Uranium

1402:(BASIC) argued that renewal of the treaty violated Article VI of the 1193: 782: 3838:

Volume I: From the V-Bomber Era to the Arrival of Polaris, 1945–1964

3650: 3621: 631:, in Bermuda in March 1957 and raised the possibility of basing US 1434: 1370: 1192:. The plutonium sent to the US included some produced in UK civil 1166: 908: 689: 578: 557: 284: 1094:

estimated that British scientists gained two years of knowledge.

1077:

An AEC report to JCAE confirmed Macmillan's belief, stating that

892:

The 1958 US–UK Mutual Defence Agreement was signed by Dulles and

3448:. Contributions in Military Studies. New York: Greenwood Press. 3344:. Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire ; New York: Palgrave. 1249: 847: 520:, caused the proposal to be dropped. The June 1951 defection of 171: 803:, felt that their questions were slowing the deployment of the 384:

to co-ordinate their efforts. Many of Britain's top scientists

241:

was sent to the US in return for 6.7 kilograms (15 lb) of

2770: 2768: 1915: 1913: 1212: 1132: 1050: 917:(right) addresses a reception hosted by US Defense Secretary 3390:

Ambiguity and Deterrence: British Nuclear Strategy 1945–1964

2818:"Stockpile Stewardship Plan: Second Annual Update (FY 1999)" 2175:. Office of the Historian, United States Department of State 2092: 2090: 1942: 1940: 170:

agreements with other countries, including France and other

2851: 2849: 2746:(Report). Foreign Policy Centre. p. 15. Archived from 2548: 2546: 2355: 2353: 2143: 2141: 1151:, where the first British test took place on 1 March 1962. 796:'s nuclear submarine programme. By October 1957, its head, 229:

The treaty provided for the sale to the UK of one complete

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Nuclear Rivals: Anglo-American Atomic Relations, 1941–1952

1957: 1955: 1585: 1583: 1474: 1472: 2956: 2954: 1732: 1730: 620:

approaching, Eisenhower was forced to rescind the offer.

532:

The first British atomic bomb was successfully tested in

3764:. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press. 3021: 3019: 2261: 2259: 2207: 2205: 3476:

Test of Greatness: Britain's Struggle for the Atom Bomb

3104: 3102: 2486: 2484: 2370: 2368: 2304: 2302: 2300: 2298: 2192: 2190: 1139:, with design and blast model data supplied to the UK. 1005:, and Victor Macklen from the Ministry of Defence; and 269:

using American missiles with British nuclear warheads.

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Prospects for Further Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons

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Minister of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs

4142: 3135:"Written question 209762: Angus Robertson 26-09-2014" 2533: 2531: 2529: 463:

was stockpiled for the Combined Development Trust at

261:

ultimately acquired entire weapons systems, with the

1430:

Allied technological cooperation during World War II

1414:

from 2012 to 2014, stated the government's position:

1155:

continued until it was abruptly halted by President

925:

The agreement enables the US and the UK to exchange

157:

between the United States and the United Kingdom on

2962:"Plutonium and Aldermaston – an historical account" 1003:

Chief Scientific Adviser to the Ministry of Defence

862:, held hearings from 29 to 31 January. Quarles and 694:Eisenhower (left) lays the cornerstone for the new 108: 93: 78: 70: 55: 37: 3904:(Report). House of Commons Library. Archived from 3867: 3578: 3502: 635:(IRBM) systems in the UK. This came to be called 2893:"UK Mounts First Underground Nuclear Test (UGT)" 4241:United Kingdom–United States military relations 3955:. Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State University Press. 3266:"UK-US sign secret new deal on nuclear weapons" 2508:"Military Alliances: Written question – 214429" 1661: 1601: 1562: 1514: 1502: 1416: 1352: 1311: 1079: 1067: 842:Crucially, he managed to secure the support of 587:(second from right) and British Prime Minister 185:The treaty was signed on 3 July 1958 after the 950:. The treaty paved the way for the subsequent 826:and American warheads to be fitted to British 3794:Hewlett, Richard G.; Duncan, Francis (1969). 3041:, US Naval Institute Press, Annapolis, 1996, 1931: 1892: 1880: 1856: 1844: 1820: 1808: 1796: 1784: 1772: 1760: 1748: 1721: 1697: 1685: 1673: 1637: 1625: 1400:British American Security Information Council 564:, on 12 August 1953. That prompted President 372:, which merged Tube Alloys with the American 8: 4226:Nuclear weapons program of the United States 3544:. -London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office. 2451: 2449: 2447: 2445: 2443: 1355:scientists, and notably Teller, appreciated. 1153:British nuclear testing in the United States 32: 4087:. Manchester: Manchester University Press. 2462:. Nuclear Threat Initiative. Archived from 1359:A 1985 report by the US State Department's 3155: 2670: 2658: 2634: 2159: 2132: 2120: 1919: 1904: 44: 31: 3725:Gowing, Margaret; Arnold, Lorna (1974b). 2646: 1478: 973:, AEC Director of Military Applications; 767:United States Deputy Secretary of Defense 4007:US-UK Nuclear Cooperation After 50 Years 1709: 1589: 1131:is similar to or even based upon the US 792:officers had been assigned to study the 607:It was amended on 30 August 1954 by the 436:Technical co-operation was ended by the 161:co-operation. The treaty's full name is 4149: 3264:Norton-Taylor, Richard (30 July 2014). 3093: 3069: 3039:Conway's All The World's Fighting Ships 3025: 1973: 1468: 1285:The UK produced HEU at its facility in 997:. The British representatives were Sir 930:Macmillan called it "the Great Prize". 736:British Ambassador to the United States 556:responded to Ivy Mike with the test of 438:United States Atomic Energy Act of 1946 233:plant, as well as ten years' supply of 3167: 2921: 2774: 2610: 2332: 2320: 2277: 2265: 2250: 2211: 2196: 2096: 1946: 1832: 1574: 1538: 1526: 1490: 648:United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority 498:United States Atomic Energy Commission 4236:United Kingdom–United States treaties 4221:Nuclear history of the United Kingdom 3315: 3120: 3108: 3081: 3057: 2879: 2867: 2855: 2720:from the original on 13 February 2008 2694: 2682: 2622: 2598: 2552: 2537: 2490: 2434: 2422: 2410: 2398: 2386: 2374: 2359: 2344: 2308: 2147: 2108: 2081: 2069: 2057: 2045: 2033: 2021: 2009: 1997: 1985: 1868: 1736: 1398:A 2004 legal opinion obtained by the 1248:, which used it as the basis for its 1015:Atomic Weapons Research Establishment 386:participated in the Manhattan Project 292:in 1943. Seated are (left to right): 18:1958 U.S.–UK Mutual Defence Agreement 7: 4123:Negotiations for extension to treaty 2945: 2933: 2289: 1961: 1649: 1613: 1550: 1322:Between 2007 and 2009, staff of the 633:intermediate range ballistic missile 407:use of nuclear weapons against Japan 354:Prime Minister of the United Kingdom 3897:Mills, Claire (17 September 2014). 3679:Britain and Atomic Energy 1939–1945 3509:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 3211:. Acronym Institute. Archived from 1361:Bureau of Intelligence and Research 409:. On 8 August, the Prime Minister, 253:. The treaty paved the way for the 151:1958 UK–US Mutual Defence Agreement 2971:. 4 September 2001. Archived from 2825:United States Department of Energy 2580:from the original on 12 March 2007 1295:Portsmouth Gaseous Diffusion Plant 884:The amendments were passed by the 25: 4036:. London: The Stationery Office. 3245:from the original on 2 April 2015 3188:United States Department of State 3133:Dunne, Philip (21 October 2014). 2794:. 7 December 2006. Archived from 2792:Federation of American Scientists 1218:of the kind used to power the US 1200:production and reactor research. 4176: 4164: 4152: 3409:The Journal of Strategic Studies 2570:"UK-US Mutual Defence Agreement" 1404:Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty 1163:Special nuclear materials barter 704:Joint Committee on Atomic Energy 510:Joint Committee on Atomic Energy 308:. Standing are (left to right): 128: 115: 3978:Ritchie, Nick (February 2015). 3239:Foreign and Commonwealth Office 663:British hydrogen bomb programme 572:in January 1953, to inform the 199:British hydrogen bomb programme 3899:UK-US Mutual Defence Agreement 3729:. London: Palgrave Macmillan. 2224:Lohr, Steve (2 January 1988). 979:Los Alamos National Laboratory 966:, AEC deputy chairman; Loper; 413:, sent a message to President 362:President of the United States 147:US–UK Mutual Defense Agreement 135:Samuel Hood, 6th Viscount Hood 33:US–UK Mutual Defense Agreement 1: 3755:; Anderson, Oscar E. (1962). 987:Lawrence Livermore Laboratory 877:under which the US would pay 336:During the early part of the 27:Nuclear weapons security pact 4133:Atomic Weapons Establishment 2897:Atomic Weapons Establishment 2827:. April 1998. Archived from 2788:"Britain's Next Nuclear Era" 1324:Atomic Weapons Establishment 613:nuclear submarine propulsion 231:nuclear submarine propulsion 4056:Journal of Cold War Studies 3870:Riding the Storm: 1956–1959 3392:. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 2741:The Future of Britain's WMD 1662:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 1602:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 1563:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 1515:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 1503:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 958:Nuclear weapons development 886:US House of Representatives 483:Combined Development Agency 197:on 4 October 1957, and the 191:shocked the American public 4267: 4231:Treaties concluded in 1958 4206:1958 in the United Kingdom 4118:Full text of the Agreement 3951:Paul, Septimus H. (2000). 3501:Divine, Robert A. (1993). 3444:Botti, Timothy J. (1987). 2739:Plesch, Dan (March 2006). 1441:List of military alliances 1135:warhead fitted in US Navy 710:(centre) and AEC Chairman 618:1956 presidential election 382:Combined Development Trust 314:Governor General of Canada 201:had successfully tested a 97:31 December 2024 4211:1958 in the United States 3585:. New York: Basic Books. 3421:10.1080/01402390802024726 1932:Gowing & Arnold 1974b 1893:Gowing & Arnold 1974b 1881:Gowing & Arnold 1974b 1857:Hewlett & Duncan 1969 1845:Hewlett & Duncan 1969 1821:Gowing & Arnold 1974a 1809:Hewlett & Duncan 1969 1797:Hewlett & Duncan 1969 1785:Hewlett & Duncan 1969 1773:Gowing & Arnold 1974a 1761:Hewlett & Duncan 1969 1749:Gowing & Arnold 1974a 1722:Gowing & Arnold 1974a 1712:, pp. 23–24, 48, 57. 1698:Gowing & Arnold 1974a 1686:Gowing & Arnold 1974a 1674:Gowing & Arnold 1974a 1638:Gowing & Arnold 1974a 1626:Gowing & Arnold 1974a 1393:Trident nuclear programme 1252:reactor used in the UK's 1216:pressurised water reactor 1145:British Army of the Rhine 1013:and E. F. Newly from the 752:Eisenhower administration 609:Atomic Energy Act of 1954 528:Eisenhower administration 378:Combined Policy Committee 267:Trident nuclear programme 224:British Army of the Rhine 43: 4201:1958 in military history 3797:Atomic Shield, 1947–1952 3758:The New World, 1939–1946 817:Amendment of McMahon Act 696:Atomic Energy Commission 665:attempted to detonate a 427:Prime Minister of Canada 322:Prime Minister of Canada 209:test on 8 November. The 4068:10.1162/jcws.2007.9.2.5 4032:Wynn, Humphrey (1997). 3924:Moore, Richard (2010). 3478:. London: John Murray. 3002:US Department of Energy 1190:reactor-grade plutonium 1122:noted that most of the 952:Polaris Sales Agreement 940:highly enriched uranium 454:High Explosive Research 448:and Britain losing its 255:Polaris Sales Agreement 247:highly enriched uranium 82:4 August 1958 3342:Britain and the H-bomb 3156:Arnold & Pyne 2001 2969:UK Ministry of Defence 2671:Arnold & Pyne 2001 2659:Arnold & Pyne 2001 2635:Arnold & Pyne 2001 2160:Arnold & Pyne 2001 2133:Arnold & Pyne 2001 2121:Arnold & Pyne 2001 1920:Arnold & Pyne 2001 1905:Arnold & Pyne 2001 1421: 1387: 1357: 1320: 1316:nuclear cross sections 1184: 1129:British Trident system 1084: 1075: 927:classified information 922: 715: 702:, on 8 November 1957. 596: 562:boosted fission weapon 502:Bourke B. Hickenlooper 393:Hyde Park Aide-Mémoire 333: 3874:. London: Macmillan. 3702:. London: Macmillan. 3681:. London: Macmillan. 3639:International Affairs 3610:International Affairs 3505:The Sputnik Challenge 3388:Baylis, John (1995). 2777:, pp. 3, 10, 18. 1374: 1170: 1120:National Audit Office 912: 871:nuclear proliferation 833:US Secretary of State 693: 656:Strategic Air Command 582: 446:American isolationism 421:Truman administration 402:Henry Maitland Wilson 298:Franklin D. Roosevelt 288: 59:3 July 1958 3911:on 12 September 2017 2506:(24 November 2014). 1344:special relationship 1305:Joint Working Groups 1291:uranium hexafluoride 1124:UK Trident programme 913:UK Defence Minister 724:artificial satellite 722:, the world's first 700:Germantown, Maryland 667:thermonuclear device 585:Dwight D. Eisenhower 550:thermonuclear device 500:(AEC), and Senators 352:in August 1943, the 263:UK Polaris programme 211:special relationship 203:thermonuclear device 168:nuclear co-operation 4083:Young, Ken (2016). 3753:Hewlett, Richard G. 3369:Contemporary Record 3241:. 16 October 2014. 3181:"Treaties in Force" 3084:, pp. 197–199. 2978:on 13 December 2006 2870:, pp. 114–115. 2858:, pp. 238–241. 2697:, pp. 104–105. 2673:, pp. 206–209. 2637:, pp. 202–205. 2613:, pp. 455–456. 2555:, pp. 236–237. 2437:, pp. 234–236. 2425:, pp. 232–233. 2401:, pp. 224–225. 2389:, pp. 215–219. 2362:, pp. 207–208. 2323:, pp. 441–442. 2150:, pp. 199–201. 2135:, pp. 160–162. 2111:, pp. 159–160. 2099:, pp. 166–170. 2072:, pp. 180–181. 2048:, pp. 174–177. 2036:, pp. 171–174. 2024:, pp. 161–164. 2012:, pp. 147–149. 2000:, pp. 140–141. 1988:, pp. 200–201. 1976:, pp. 372–375. 1964:, pp. 200–201. 1949:, pp. 429–430. 1934:, pp. 498–500. 1895:, pp. 474–475. 1883:, pp. 493–495. 1859:, pp. 312–314. 1847:, pp. 309–310. 1823:, pp. 281–283. 1799:, pp. 307–308. 1775:, pp. 352–353. 1763:, pp. 281–283. 1751:, pp. 245–254. 1724:, pp. 358–360. 1700:, pp. 181–184. 1688:, pp. 105–108. 1676:, pp. 106–108. 1604:, pp. 372–373. 1565:, pp. 457–458. 1541:, pp. 340–342. 1529:, pp. 236–242. 1517:, pp. 285–286. 1493:, pp. 108–111. 1380:Lisa Gordon-Hagerty 1342:The Anglo-American 1099:W28 nuclear warhead 1086:Another meeting at 999:Frederick Brundrett 993:, president of the 759:Ministry of Defence 644:nuclear power plant 538:Operation Hurricane 391:The September 1944 350:Quadrant Conference 344:project, codenamed 302:Countess of Athlone 193:with the launch of 34: 4246:Military diplomacy 4183:Nuclear technology 3694:Gowing, Margaret; 2903:on 18 January 2008 2798:on 6 February 2007 2230:The New York Times 1388: 1209:nuclear submarines 1185: 1107:Blue Steel missile 995:Sandia Corporation 985:, director of the 977:, director of the 923: 836:John Foster Dulles 716: 698:(AEC) building in 654:with those of the 652:RAF Bomber Command 597: 366:Franklin Roosevelt 334: 251:nuclear submarines 245:and 7.5 tonnes of 122:John Foster Dulles 4216:Cold War treaties 4094:978-0-7190-8675-5 4016:978-0-89206-530-1 3962:978-0-8142-0852-6 3935:978-0-230-21775-1 3881:978-0-333-10310-4 3864:Macmillan, Harold 3847:978-1-138-67493-6 3592:978-0-465-02195-6 3551:978-0-10-202788-4 3516:978-0-19-505008-0 3455:978-0-313-25902-9 3351:978-0-230-59977-2 2882:, pp. 98–99. 2685:, pp. 88–89. 2601:, pp. 84–85. 2576:. UK Parliament. 2253:, pp. 73–74. 2060:, pp. 98–99. 1922:, pp. 27–30. 1907:, pp. 16–20. 1871:, pp. 74–75. 1739:, pp. 34–35. 1652:, pp. 80–83. 1628:, pp. 73–77. 1553:, pp. 72–73. 1446:Military alliance 1384:Stephen Lovegrove 1205:fissile materials 1171:The Royal Navy's 1157:George H. W. Bush 968:Brigadier General 801:Hyman G. Rickover 763:Donald A. Quarles 671:Operation Grapple 623:The October 1956 566:Dwight Eisenhower 534:Western Australia 506:Arthur Vandenberg 374:Manhattan Project 358:Winston Churchill 326:Alexander Cadogan 306:Winston Churchill 290:Quebec Conference 207:Operation Grapple 143: 142: 16:(Redirected from 4258: 4251:Harold Macmillan 4181: 4180: 4179: 4169: 4168: 4167: 4157: 4156: 4148: 4106: 4079: 4047: 4028: 4001: 3999: 3997: 3992:on 13 April 2019 3991: 3984: 3974: 3947: 3920: 3918: 3916: 3910: 3903: 3893: 3873: 3859: 3829: 3827: 3825: 3802: 3790: 3788: 3786: 3763: 3748: 3721: 3690: 3675:Gowing, Margaret 3670: 3633: 3604: 3584: 3570: 3568: 3566: 3543: 3535:(29 June 1987). 3528: 3508: 3497: 3467: 3440: 3403: 3384: 3363: 3319: 3313: 3307: 3306: 3304: 3302: 3290:Townsend, Mark. 3287: 3281: 3280: 3278: 3276: 3261: 3255: 3254: 3252: 3250: 3231: 3225: 3224: 3222: 3220: 3205: 3199: 3198: 3196: 3194: 3185: 3177: 3171: 3165: 3159: 3153: 3147: 3146: 3144: 3142: 3130: 3124: 3118: 3112: 3106: 3097: 3091: 3085: 3079: 3073: 3067: 3061: 3055: 3049: 3035: 3029: 3023: 3014: 3013: 3011: 3009: 2994: 2988: 2987: 2985: 2983: 2977: 2966: 2958: 2949: 2943: 2937: 2931: 2925: 2919: 2913: 2912: 2910: 2908: 2899:. 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Gates 907: 902: 819: 688: 683: 673:test series at 646:, allowing the 530: 423: 342:nuclear weapons 330:Brendan Bracken 310:Earl of Athlone 283: 278: 220:Royal Air Force 218:for use by the 159:nuclear weapons 129: 127: 116: 114: 100: 98: 85: 83: 62: 60: 51: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 4264: 4262: 4254: 4253: 4248: 4243: 4238: 4233: 4228: 4223: 4218: 4213: 4208: 4203: 4193: 4192: 4186: 4185: 4173: 4171:United Kingdom 4161: 4141: 4140: 4135: 4126: 4120: 4113: 4112:External links 4110: 4108: 4107: 4093: 4080: 4048: 4042: 4029: 4015: 4002: 3975: 3961: 3948: 3934: 3921: 3894: 3880: 3860: 3846: 3834:Jones, Matthew 3830: 3809: 3791: 3770: 3749: 3735: 3722: 3708: 3691: 3671: 3645:(2): 238–252. 3634: 3616:(3): 409–429. 3605: 3591: 3571: 3550: 3533:Downey, Gordon 3529: 3515: 3498: 3484: 3468: 3454: 3441: 3415:(3): 425–466. 3404: 3398: 3385: 3375:(1): 159–164. 3364: 3350: 3329: 3327: 3324: 3321: 3320: 3308: 3282: 3256: 3226: 3200: 3172: 3170:, p. 461. 3160: 3158:, p. 215. 3148: 3125: 3113: 3098: 3086: 3074: 3062: 3050: 3030: 3015: 2989: 2950: 2948:, p. 210. 2938: 2936:, p. 209. 2926: 2924:, p. 462. 2914: 2884: 2872: 2860: 2845: 2809: 2779: 2764: 2731: 2699: 2687: 2675: 2663: 2651: 2649:, p. 565. 2647:Macmillan 1971 2639: 2627: 2625:, p. 444. 2615: 2603: 2591: 2557: 2542: 2525: 2495: 2493:, p. 238. 2480: 2439: 2427: 2415: 2413:, p. 224. 2403: 2391: 2379: 2377:, p. 214. 2364: 2349: 2337: 2335:, p. 439. 2325: 2313: 2311:, p. 203. 2294: 2292:, p. 287. 2282: 2280:, p. 442. 2270: 2268:, p. 440. 2255: 2243: 2216: 2214:, p. 438. 2201: 2186: 2164: 2162:, p. 199. 2152: 2137: 2125: 2123:, p. 147. 2113: 2101: 2086: 2074: 2062: 2050: 2038: 2026: 2014: 2002: 1990: 1978: 1966: 1951: 1936: 1924: 1909: 1897: 1885: 1873: 1861: 1849: 1837: 1825: 1813: 1811:, p. 310. 1801: 1789: 1787:, p. 285. 1777: 1765: 1753: 1741: 1726: 1714: 1702: 1690: 1678: 1666: 1664:, p. 468. 1654: 1642: 1630: 1618: 1616:, p. 240. 1606: 1594: 1592:, p. 410. 1579: 1577:, p. 372. 1567: 1555: 1543: 1531: 1519: 1507: 1505:, p. 277. 1495: 1483: 1481:, p. 323. 1479:Macmillan 1971 1467: 1466: 1464: 1461: 1460: 1459: 1453: 1451:Tizard Mission 1448: 1443: 1438: 1432: 1425: 1422: 1408:Baroness Warsi 1378:Administrator 1368: 1365: 1339: 1338:Mutual benefit 1336: 1335: 1334: 1331: 1306: 1303: 1164: 1161: 1007:William Penney 991:James W. 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