226:
that multiple winners from each district get sent to the national legislature. Normally, MMD win seat numbers based on the number of votes the party receives. The SNTV system, however, allowed parties to run multiple candidates at once and voters would choose among candidates. Because of this, candidates needed to differentiate themselves to voters, creating an environment where the personality of the candidate became more important than the party they represented. Candidates relied on pork barrel politics, patronage, and other favors to their constituents for votes in return. Reformers hoped that the change would encourage party centered, issue and policy based campaigns, so voters would know what the entire party stands for and push for at the national scale, as opposed to a candidate centered campaign where voting was simply based on candidate charisma or the candidate's promises to bring local benefits from national funds.
262:
768:
focus on their small constituency and thus pork barrel projects decreased. Urbanization called for the need to use broad-based policies for urban voters. As the needs of urban voters vary significantly, and a single candidate cannot appeal to the majority of voters as easily as they could in a rural constituency with generally similar needs. Furthermore, the LDP could not longer easily spend government resources on different candidates within a single party because of the poor economy and increasing government debt. It was necessary instead to centralize campaigns in order to limit their expenses.
783:) in the party list side is a Japanese idiosyncratic rule. To decide who will receive a seat in the party list side, the candidates who lose the most narrowly in the single-member district side of the election are given priority. Thus, candidates have an incentive to win with by the largest margin possible in their own districts. To do this, candidates will still use tactics to try to appeal themselves as an individual candidate in the case that the party they belong to does not win votes enough votes and they need to rely on the "best loser" system.
77:. This, plus the reformation of the JSP, created a "one and a half party system", as oftentimes the LDP had twice as many seats as the opposition within the legislature. Following this, the LDP remained in power for the next 38 years until 1993. The LDP was made up of many powerful factions within the party which acted as "parties within a party". These factions generally conducted deals with each other behind closed doors to choose the next prime minister, and in return, the prime minister made sure to allocate
361:
103:
started to diversify. In addition, the changing demographics to an aging society forced the LDP to start new welfare programs, and introduced the 3% sales tax in 1989 to increase funding, much to the dismay of the voters. The economic bubble also collapsed in 1991, bringing a shock to the legitimacy of the LDP. Money politics, including business deals between companies and the party, along with pork barrel spending and patronage systems led to finance scandals and corruption, as mentioned below.
353:
443:
453:
433:
423:
756:
chose based on party alone. This encouraged consolidation of the party system into two parties. Later, it became clear that the ratio of voters who put a higher priority on the individual candidate decreased under the new single-member district system. Although the LDP factions still exist, they mostly exist only in name, and the pre-reform factional competition was largely unseen after the reform.
154:
688:
election onward, the LDP has found it necessary to have a coalition in order to be able to form the cabinet. In addition, four of the parties in the 1993 election no longer exist, and are replaced by the New
Frontier Party and DPJ. There is already a slight consolidation of the number of political parties, moving one step towards the objective of having a two-party system.
382:(DPJ). There were several factors that allowed the DPJ to rise above the LDP. Unlike other opposition groups, the DPJ's ability to be flexible with regards to ideology made it easy for LDP opposition groups to join the party. The plurality elections also created a strong incentive for consolidation in two large parties rather than multiple small parties.
281:. Miyazawa had once promised to introduce reforms that were aimed to deal with effects of the scandals and economic collapse prior to 1993. Reforms included a system of 500 single member districts, elected by plurality voting. Pressure from other factions, however, eventually made Miyazawa back away from any promise of reform, and no agreement was made.
331:
The
Hosokawa coalition first proposed reform in August 1993 which proposed 500 seats, 250 seats allocated to SMD with plurality voting, while the other 250 seats voted in by proportional representation. However, although the JSP favored maximization of proportional representation, the LDP desired the
767:
Other non-reform influences aimed at a more party centered campaign include demographic shifts, urbanization, and the LDP's reduced ability to spend government resources. Demographic shifts demanded a greater amount of funds used for national social welfare spending. Politicians could no longer only
729:
The electoral reforms did not directly reduce corruption, although the decline of pork barrel politics led to a decline in corruption, as pork barrel projects were used in the past to win votes from the residents of a district. However, the main cause to decrease corruption came from the revision of
687:
The 1996 election was the first election with the reform in place. Although the LDP has the largest number of seats, it does not have a majority, as they do not reach 250 in seat number. They formed a coalition with the Social
Democratic Party and the Sakigake Party in order to gain power. From this
225:
The focus on candidates rather than issues and policies strengthened the candidate disproportionately against the party they represented. This was caused by the combination of SNTV and multi-member districts (MMD). Under an SNTV system, voters cast one vote for one candidate. An MMD system indicates
763:
Due to these reforms, campaigns became party centered. The reforms made sure that all public financing for campaigns and all private contributions went to the party rather than specific individuals. Party media strategies also became party centered, as only public service announcements were allowed
759:
The DPJ also started to create party manifestos, which outlined the party's ideology and objectives. This was useful to distinguish itself from the LDP and to write out and explain their goals to the public. The LDP then followed and created its own party manifesto. Creating party manifestos forced
720:
Pork barrel politics has declined, as the party list campaigns require less effort by individuals for fundraising, and the effort must go on the party. However, as individual candidate campaigns still exist, there is some engagement still in pork barrel spending. However, rather than the electoral
390:
The DPJ was able to rise as the principal challenger to the LDP due to emphasis on single-member districts. The DPJ made an agreement with the
Communist Party of Japan to withdraw in many districts, which allowed the DPJ to become the main opposition to the LDP. Shown in the table below, the 2009
755:
The single-member districts of the electoral reform also decreased the intraparty (factional) competition within the LDP, as only one candidate per party was allowed in each district. With only one candidate, rather than looking at the differences between the candidates from the same party voters
335:
By
November 1993, Hosokawa and the new LDP President Kono Yohei put forth a compromise proposal with 274 SMD seats and 226 proportional representation seats. Although this proposal passed in the lower house, in January 1994, members from both the JSP and the LDP voted against this proposal in the
252:
proposed several reform ideas. These included replacing the previous SNTV system with a mixed system of single-member districts and proportional representation. This, however, was argued against and turned down on the basis that current struggles would soon pass and the Diet should not so quickly
84:
Although the previous system began as a "one and a half party system", over time, the opposition splintered. Meanwhile, the LDP came to dominate the government by winning reelection after reelection through a pragmatic approach to gain voters. The party also used their incumbency to create strong
102:
However, as globalization increased, the isolationist party was forced to open up to foreign companies and investment. Increased affluence in the citizens and urbanization also impacted the rural-based LDP's power. With urbanization also came liberalization, and citizens' interests and the media
239:
Some members within the LDP were frustrated with the internal structure of the party itself. Besides already mentioned issues of corruption, another problem was the need for consensus from faction leaders before any significant initiatives could be put into action. Subsidies for farmers, banks,
111:
Due to several economic changes in the later half of the 20th century, LDP members grew increasingly wealthy. Especially in the 1970s and 1980s, many used their position of power to take advantage of opportunities in real estate and the stock market. As this happened, the number of scandals and
804:
are especially useful for candidates to mobilize the voters who either will not join a local LDP branch or dislike the LDP. The candidates use their individual appeals to gain these voters. Although the campaign reform only allows funding to go to the party, loopholes still exist to contribute
216:
Even after Tanaka's arrest and forced resignation as an LDP member in 1976, the faction which he led within the party continued to have a significant influence in
Japanese politics. They had enough power to be able control who would be elected the next prime minister as well as creating public
344:
Finally, on
January 29, 1994, the parties agreed upon and passed the electoral reform law. This law changed the electoral system from having 130 MMD and 511 seats to the new system of 300 SMD seats elected through plurality voting, and 200 proportional representation seats elected from eleven
327:
At first, reception of the cabinet was positive. In public opinion polls, Hosokawa received an approximate 70% level of support. Ozawa, a key influence during this time, publicized his goals of this new cabinet that included a change in the electoral system of the lower house, anti-corruption
144:
Many money-related scandals occurred between LDP politicians and businesses during the 1955 system. Some businesses with close relationships with the LDP thrived because of favors granted to them via state intervention. Some ways this happened was through tax breaks, grants, or permits that
189:
Tanaka often used the custom of gift giving in
Japanese culture to hand out funds to his party members. The press claimed in that in 1974, ¥3 to ¥5 million was given to every member of the Diet as well as chiefs and ministries of the bureau all under the cover of summer gifts
95:, is when the LDP would give high-ranking, high-paying corporation jobs to retired bureaucrats in return for government approval for projects (such as public works) that employed companies (such as construction) that supported the LDP. This concept was most apparent during
391:
election has a unified opposition that allowed for the DPJ to gain power over the LDP, compared to the 1993 election where the opposition is splintered. Many small parties received seats, but without unification the opposition could not stand up to the LDP.
328:
legislation, election of politicians who had responsibility to the electorate over the bureaucracy, a system of competitive parties instead of a single party dominate system, and a shift in focus away from personal voting and towards policies and issues.
712:
The reduced size of the electoral districts decreased the total political funds required for each campaign. However, as most political parties lacked the organizational and financial strength to subsidize the political activities of their own members,
186:, a prominent Japanese businessman and hotel owner, to purchase the Princess Kaiulani Hotel in Hawaii with exported funds, despite high restriction on the export of capital. In return, Osano bought one of Tanaka's near bankrupt construction companies.
698:
As evidenced by the 2009 election, the two-party system has been accomplished, and the DPJ took power over the LDP. The bipolar competition at the district level left two viable candidates, one from the incumbency and one from the opposition.
348:
The three main objectives of the election reform was to create a two party system with alternation in power, reduce cost of elections and levels of corruption, and create more party-centered campaigns rather than individual candidate-centered
131:
This is a group of a politician's followers and serves as a middle ground for providing voter and financial support to politicians and granting favors to constituents. The stronger the politician's influence and power, the stronger his or her
751:
Due to the party list side of the voting system, voters were encouraged to think about parties over individual candidates' personalities. Without any candidates to choose from, parties also had to centralize and strengthen their unification.
683:
In the 1993 election, the LDP became the opposition, while the remaining parties (excluding the
Communist Party) formed a coalition and took power. This was the last election with the previous multi-member district system.
323:
lasted from August 9, 1993 to April 28, 1994 and was led by
Hosokawa Morihiro. This was largely influenced by Ozawa, who advocated for Hosokawa to lead the coalition of parties that banded together against the LDP.
721:
reform significantly attributing to the decline of pork barrel politics, it can be seen that the overall decline is a result of demographic changes and economic pressures on the government budget.
734:, which were created to establish transparency of the funding that parties receive. However, even with the revision, there are loopholes that still exist, such as through vague wording, utilizing
848:
136:
will be. If the politician can engage in pork barrel politics and provide national spending on local projects, the more influence and power the politician can gain in his/her constituency.
124:: spending from the national budget on a certain district in return for votes and other supporting contributions. One important factor within pork barrel politics is the concept of the
332:
most SMD seats possible. As for the anti-corruption issues, the LDP advocated a more relaxed regime, while the JSP wanted to ensure legislation against money-related corruption.
695:
still exists as of 2019. Komeito serves as an important check to prevent the one party dominance of the LDP. In this election, we can also see the rising power of the DPJ.
309:
691:
There were slight changes before the 2000 election to reduce the total number of seats to 480. The LDP formed a coalition with Komeito in order to gain power. The
48:
to a two-party system with alternation in power, reduce the cost of elections and campaigns, and change campaign focus from individual-centered to party-centered.
201:
in the 1970s refer to several bribes accepted during Tanaka's time as prime minister. After accepting a bribe of ¥3 million from Lockheed, Tanaka influenced the
175:) based on his frequent use of money to influence politics. Tanaka was arrested for accepting a bribe for the first time shortly after he entered the
1154:
Party Politics in Japan: Political Chaos and Stalemate in the Twenty-first Century, Routledge Contemporary Japan Series. DOI 10.4324/9781315794921.
261:
37:
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679:
Note: The number of representatives has changed over time, resulting in differences of the total number of representatives over the years.
1339:
Reed, Steven R.; Scheiner, Ethan; Thies, Michael F. (2012). "The End of LDP Dominance and the Rise of Party-Oriented Politics in Japan".
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parties to come up with coherent ideologies and to centralize and unify themselves, which led to a more party-centered type of campaign.
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are valuable means of funding for candidates, it is not something they would like to easily give up. The incumbents simply align their
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296:. For the first time since the 1955 system, the LDP lost its majority in the House of Representatives and became the opposition. The
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945:
831:
41:
1080:
Fukui, Haruhiro; Fukai, Shigeko (1996). "Pork Barrel Politics, Networks, and Local Economic Development in Contemporary Japan".
297:
820:
814:
293:
70:
308:
202:
179:. Interest mining groups in Fukuoka paid him approximately ¥1 million to vote against the nationalization of coal mines.
1293:"Pork-Barrel Politics and Electoral Reform: Explaining the Curious Differences in the Experiences of Thailand and Japan"
145:
eliminated other business competition. Listed below is an example of a scandal that occurred during the Tanaka Cabinet.
17:
360:
1124:
Johnson, Chalmers (Winter 1986). "Tanaka Kakuei, Structural Corruption, and the Advent of Machine Politics in Japan".
74:
40:
system with proportional representation. The reform had three main objectives: change the one-party dominance of the
112:
corruption increased. Consequently, confidence in the LDP decreased as money scandals continued to plague the Diet.
1430:
731:
1014:
836:
379:
198:
81:
positions across all factions. These factions played a major role in influencing the LDP's policies and agendas.
1270:
Reed, S, 2008. "Japan: Haltingly Towards a Two-Party System". In: Gallagher, M., and Mitchell, P., eds., 2008.
66:
165:
171:
One of the primary concerns regarding Tanaka's presence in Japanese politics was the structural corruption (
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29:
25:
273:, a significant member of one of the LDP's many factions. This faction was led by former Prime Minister
21:
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872:
Jou, W., 2009. Electoral Reform and Party System Development in Japan and Taiwan: A Comparative Study,
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along with 44 of their supporters, which eventually grew into and eight party coalition led by
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69:(JSP). The LDP was created in November 1955 by the combination of two conservative parties,
33:
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422:
278:
270:
1207:
Party Politics in Japan : Political Chaos and Stalemate in the twenty-first Century
962:"Politics in Japan: Bureaucrats, Iron Triangles, Public Works and Reforms Begun in 2009"
292:, leader of the Japan New Party, and Miyazawa's previous government was replaced in the
315:
as the 50th prime minister of Japan. He is the first non-LDP Prime Minister since 1955.
265:
July 18, 2001. Ozawa Ichirō makes a speech in Hokkaidō for Yoshitaka Kimoto's campaign.
85:
connections with the bureaucracy and with businesses. This relationship was called the
1414:
176:
157:
96:
378:
For a brief time, Japan was able to have a two party system between the LDP and the
780:
249:
89:
and helped the LDP maintain their power and influence. An example of this, called
1376:"Explaining Party Adaptation to Electoral Reform: The Discreet Charm of the LDP?"
1173:
867:
Japan's reluctant reform: foreign policy challenges in an era of uncertain power.
1057:
Japan's reluctant reform: foreign policy challenges in an era of uncertain power
792:, a financial support network for politicians, they still exist post-reform. As
121:
62:
45:
153:
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to new boundaries, and attract new organizations in the new constituency. The
776:
Despite the reforms, the traces of individual centered campaigns still exist.
1401:
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91:
120:
Another major characteristic of Japanese politics prior to reformation was
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788:
126:
1137:
1164:
Scheiner, Ethan (2005), "Conclusion: Democracy Without Competition",
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Despite the electoral and campaign reforms to minimize or eradicate
269:
Another one of the most significant figures among LDP defectors was
451:
441:
431:
421:
359:
307:
152:
16:
The 1994 electoral reform in Japan was a change from the previous
1246:
300:(JSP) became the new party in power under the Hosokawa Cabinet.
240:
retailers, and zombie companies were also frequent complaints.
356:
PR districts and seat distribution created by the 1994 reform.
928:
Koellner, Patrick (2010), "The Democratic Party of Japan",
849:
List of districts of the House of Representatives of Japan
717:
and pork barrel politics accounted for most of the funds.
881:
Governing Japan: divided politics in a resurgent economy.
988:
Governing Japan: divided politics in a resurgent economy
65:
saw the emergence of two main parties, the LDP and the
1152:
The Triumph and Fall of the Democratic Party of Japan.
1059:. United States of America: Palgrave. pp. 38–44.
1291:Christensen, Ray; Selway, Joel Sawat (2017-04-11).
1205:Hrebenar, Ronald J.; Nakamura, Akira, eds. (2015).
869:
United States of America: Palgrave. pp. 38–44.
284:Ozawa and Hata split from the LDP and formed the
168:lasted from April 26, 1972, to January 24, 1974.
1168:, Cambridge University Press, pp. 210–232,
805:directly or indirectly to a specific candidate.
364:Electoral system changes due to the 1994 reform.
1021:. Princeton University Press. pp. 53–122.
386:Original rise of the Democratic Party of Japan
277:. Takeshita was a supporter of Prime Minister
8:
160:as 40th prime minister of Japan. (1972-1974)
1374:Krauss, Ellis S.; Pekkanen, Robert (2004).
930:The Routledge Handbook of Japanese Politics
772:Existence of individual-centered campaigns
1391:
1308:
1274:New York: Oxford University Press. Ch 13.
902:Blueprint for a new Japan (kaizo keikaku)
990:. Blackwell Publishing. pp. 79–100.
738:or the culture of Japanese gift-giving.
393:
351:
260:
99:'s time as prime minister in the 1970s.
986:Stockwin, James Arthur Ainscow (2009).
892:
1166:Democracy Without Competition in Japan
883:Blackwell Publishing. pp. 79–100.
182:In 1974, Tanaka approved a request by
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565: Democratic Reform Party: 1 seat
221:Candidate vs party strength imbalance
7:
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248:From 1990 to 1991, Finance Minister
904:. Japan: Kodansha. pp. 34–35.
747:Changes to party-centered campaigns
535: New Frontier Party: 156 seats
1272:The Politics of Electoral Systems.
854:List of political parties in Japan
14:
823:, first election after the reform
817:, last election before the reform
615: Social Democratic: 19 seats
603: Conservative Party: 7 seats
547: Social Democratic: 15 seats
52:Criticisms of the previous system
659: Nationalist Party: 3 seats
653: Social Democratic: 7 seats
399:1993 pre-reform general election
1380:The Journal of Japanese Studies
1341:The Journal of Japanese Studies
1126:The Journal of Japanese Studies
253:abandon their original system.
230:Discussion leading up to reform
821:1996 Japanese general election
815:1993 Japanese general election
456:2009 Japanese General Election
446:2000 Japanese General Election
436:1996 Japanese General Election
426:1993 Japanese General Election
1:
609: Liberal Party: 22 seats
1441:January 1994 events in Japan
1297:The Journal of Asian Studies
1174:10.1017/cbo9780511610660.011
304:Hosokawa Cabinet (1993–1994)
18:single non-transferable vote
1017:; Thies, Michael F (2010).
732:Political Funds Control Law
1457:
1436:Politics of Post-war Japan
1247:"衆議院・参議院 選挙の歴史 | NHK選挙WEB"
1150:Köllner, Patrick. (2014).
1055:Green, Michael J. (2003).
1015:Rosenbluth, Frances McCall
515: Nipponshin: 35 seats
209:to create a contract with
203:Ministry of Transportation
149:Tanaka Cabinet (1972–1974)
1426:Electoral reform in Japan
1310:10.1017/s002191181700002x
938:10.4324/9780203829875.ch3
837:Democratic Party of Japan
779:The "best loser" system (
665: Your Party: 5 seats
597: Communist: 20 seats
553: Communist: 26 seats
491: Communist: 15 seats
485: Shinseito: 55 seats
380:Democratic Party of Japan
199:Lockheed bribery scandals
879:Stockwin, J.A.A., 2008.
832:Liberal Democratic Party
764:on national television.
708:Effects on election cost
647: Communist: 9 seats
503: Sakigake: 13 seats
67:Japanese Socialist Party
44:(LDP) from the previous
42:Liberal Democratic Party
641: Komeito: 21 seats
591: Komeito: 31 seats
559: Sakigake: 2 seats
479: Komeito: 51 seats
166:Tanaka Kakuei I Cabinet
30:single-member districts
900:Ozawa, Ichiro (1994).
457:
447:
437:
427:
365:
357:
316:
266:
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71:Japan Democratic Party
26:mixed electoral system
22:multi-member districts
1393:10.1353/jjs.2004.0021
1353:10.1353/jjs.2012.0037
725:Effects on corruption
693:LDP-Komeito coalition
621: Other: 21 seats
521: Other: 30 seats
455:
445:
435:
425:
415:2009 General Election
410:2000 General Election
405:1996 General Election
363:
355:
311:
298:Japan Socialist Party
264:
156:
671: Other: 8 seats
635: DPJ: 308 seats
629: LDP: 119 seats
585: DPJ: 127 seats
579: LDP: 233 seats
571: Other: 9 seats
529: LDP: 239 seats
467: LDP: 223 seats
122:pork barrel politics
116:Pork barrel politics
541: DPJ: 52 seats
497: DSP: 15 seats
473: JSP: 70 seats
509: SDF: 4 seats
458:
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428:
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207:All Nippon Airways
162:
1431:Politics of Japan
1019:Japan Transformed
865:Green, M., 2003.
827:Electoral systems
676:
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313:Hosokawa Morihiro
290:Hosokawa Morihiro
211:Lockheed Aircraft
20:(SNTV) system of
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374:Two-party system
345:regional blocs.
340:Electoral reform
321:Hosokawa Cabinet
275:Takeshita Noboru
34:plurality voting
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279:Miyazawa Kiichi
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1366:
1347:(2): 353–376.
1324:
1303:(2): 283–310.
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1215:
1188:
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1156:
1143:
1107:
1088:(3): 268–286.
1072:
1066:978-0312238940
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1028:978-0691135922
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2:
1453:
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1253:(in Japanese)
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1237:
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1218:
1216:9781138013933
1212:
1209:. Routledge.
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294:1993 election
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286:Renewal Party
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177:National Diet
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97:Tanaka Kakuei
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87:Iron Triangle
82:
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76:
75:Liberal Party
72:
68:
64:
57:LDP dominance
56:
51:
49:
47:
43:
39:
35:
31:
27:
23:
19:
1383:
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1369:
1344:
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1266:
1255:. Retrieved
1250:
1206:
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1082:Asian Survey
1081:
1075:
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781:Sekihairitsu
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369:After reform
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271:Ozawa Ichirō
268:
257:Ozawa Ichirō
250:Hata Tsutomu
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60:
15:
1386:(1): 1–34.
1132:(1): 1–28.
184:Osano Kenji
173:kōzō oshoku
63:1955 system
46:1955 system
32:(SMD) with
24:(MMD) to a
1415:Categories
1257:2018-12-15
888:References
349:campaigns.
217:policies.
140:Corruption
38:party list
1402:1549-4721
1361:1549-4721
1319:0021-9118
1225:900770492
92:amakudari
1245:日本放送協会.
809:See also
192:o-chūgen
1102:2645692
842:Koenkai
802:koenkai
798:koenkai
794:koenkai
789:koenkai
736:koenkai
715:koenkai
134:koenkai
127:koenkai
79:Cabinet
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1213:
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36:and a
1134:JSTOR
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1398:ISSN
1357:ISSN
1315:ISSN
1221:OCLC
1211:ISBN
1178:ISBN
1061:ISBN
1023:ISBN
942:ISBN
906:ISBN
730:the
319:The
205:and
197:The
164:The
73:and
61:The
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194:).
28:of
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1382:.
1378:.
1355:.
1345:38
1343:.
1327:^
1313:.
1301:76
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1295:.
1279:^
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1219:.
1191:^
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1096:.
1086:36
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1037:^
996:^
970:^
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920:^
213:.
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1390::
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190:(
129:.
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