594:
1248:"The US tested a few uranium-233 bombs, but the presence of uranium-232 in the uranium-233 was a problem; the uranium-232 is a copious alpha emitter and tended to 'poison' the uranium-233 bomb by knocking stray neutrons from impurities in the bomb material, leading to possible pre-detonation. Separation of the uranium-232 from the uranium-233 proved to be very difficult and not practical. The uranium-233 bomb was never deployed since plutonium-239 was becoming plentiful."
342:
352:
332:
47:
1149:. Committee on Governmental Affairs. Subcommittee on Energy, N. Proliferation., United States. Congress. House. Committee on Foreign Affairs. Subcommittee on International Economic Policy and Trade., United States. Congress. House. Committee on Foreign Affairs. Subcommittee on Arms Control, I. Security. 1985. p. 295
620:
A declassified 1966 memo from the US nuclear program stated that uranium-233 has been shown to be highly satisfactory as a weapons material, though it was only superior to plutonium in rare circumstances. It was claimed that if the existing weapons were based on uranium-233 instead of plutonium-239,
844:
The production of "clean" U, low in U, requires a few factors: 1) obtaining a relatively pure Th source, low in Th (which also transmutes to U), 2) moderating the incident neutrons to have an energy not higher that 6 MeV (too-high energy neutrons cause the Th (n,2n) → Th reaction) and 3)
845:
removing the thorium sample from neutron flux before the U concentration builds up to a too high level, in order to avoid fissioning the U itself (which would produce energetic neutrons).
1471:
1616:"The Superior Design Advantages over All Other Nuclear Reactor Designs of the Liquid Fluoride Thorium Reactor (LFTR), with an Emphasis on Its Anti-Proliferation Features"
1435:
810:) too hazardous, (except possibly in a short period immediately following chemical separation of the uranium from its decay products) and instead requiring complex
1381:
1809:
868:
Thorium, from which U is bred, is roughly three to four times more abundant in the Earth's crust than uranium. The decay chain of U itself is part of the
362:
In 1946, the public first became informed of uranium-233 bred from thorium as "a third available source of nuclear energy and atom bombs" (in addition to
601:
As a potential weapon material, pure uranium-233 is more similar to plutonium-239 than uranium-235 in terms of source (bred vs natural), half-life and
315:. For both thermal neutrons and fast neutrons, the capture-to-fission ratio of uranium-233 is smaller than those of the other two major fissile fuels,
1600:
712:
Overall the United States is thought to have produced two tons of U, of various levels of purity, some with U impurity content as low as 6 ppm.
632:
can complicate the manufacture and use of uranium-233, though the
Livermore memo indicates a likelihood that this complication can be worked around.
622:
1288:
1273:
1891:
1632:
1802:
345:
300:
designs attempt to physically isolate the protactinium from further neutron capture before beta decay can occur, to maintain the
1482:
1662:
935:
1241:
849:
335:
1446:
385:, approximately 2 metric tons of uranium-233, in varying levels of chemical and isotopic purity. These were produced at the
401:
Uranium-233 has been used as a fuel in several different reactor types, and is proposed as a fuel for several new designs
961:. Washington State Department of Health, Division of Environmental Health, Office of Radiation Protection. December 2002.
1881:
1795:
1391:
593:
436:, which has substantial thorium reserves, is to move to a nuclear program breeding uranium-233 from thorium feedstock.
639:, speculation aside, there is scant publicly available information on this isotope actually having been weaponized:
304:(if it misses the U window, the next fissile target is U, meaning a total of 4 neutrons needed to trigger fission).
1886:
1144:
1066:
1034:
857:
999:
822:
1615:
838:
656:
610:
1056:
1024:
1367:
1119:
906:
433:
31:
841:
additionally need low levels (1 ppm range) of light impurities, to keep the neutron generation low.
1259:
955:
660:
61:
1596:
978:
1233:
690:
648:
1472:"Chronology of Important FOIA Documents: Hanford's Semi-Secret Thorium to U-233 Production Campaign"
1819:
1699:
1229:
1061:
853:
811:
652:
606:
605:(both 4–5 kg in beryllium-reflected sphere). Unlike reactor-bred plutonium, it has a very low
390:
297:
296:. Protactinium-233 has a half-life of 27 days and beta decays into uranium-233; some proposed
243:
216:
1535:
883:
which are among its daughters, low-mass nuclear reactors for space travel applications, use as an
1876:
1386:
1089:
888:
418:
402:
308:
251:
1567:
1770:
1742:
1507:
1291:
because of the availability of
Thorium in abundance in India", and could be elsewhere as well.
1269:
1237:
1203:
818:
667:
was sufficiently below the predicted 33 kt that the information gathered was of limited value.
614:
220:
187:
129:
75:
901:-213 is a decay product of uranium-233; it has promise for the treatment of certain types of
1748:
1195:
1101:
1029:
869:
729:
644:
375:
192:
85:
1187:
452:= 81.95 TJ/kg = 22764 MWh/kg that is 1.8 million times more than the same mass of diesel).
1636:
930:
918:
884:
767:
422:
410:
301:
263:
1413:
1327:
609:
rate, which combined with its low critical mass made it initially attractive for compact
429:
in order to breed plutonium, that is, to produce more fissile material than is consumed.
1301:
636:
564:
Energy released when those prompt neutrons which don't (re)produce fission are captured
371:
255:
169:
112:
1870:
1737:
1726:
1720:
834:
830:
706:
675:
602:
367:
320:
204:
183:
174:
162:
95:
1658:
341:
1583:
1226:
Introduction to
Weapons of Mass Destruction: Radiological, Chemical, and Biological
895:
876:
728:
as an impurity, because of parasitic (n,2n) reactions on uranium-233 itself, or on
702:
671:
445:
426:
406:
386:
289:
267:
259:
825:
require U levels below 50 ppm (above which the U is considered "low grade";
1855:
1850:
1845:
1840:
1830:
1776:
1762:
1731:
1712:
1690:
1354:
880:
763:
751:
747:
725:
721:
629:
449:
414:
363:
351:
331:
316:
312:
285:
281:
247:
209:
178:
156:
1753:
686:
293:
196:
1265:
807:
803:
698:
597:
The first detonation of a nuclear bomb that included U-233, on 15 April 1955
271:
136:
1787:
833:
content of no more than 6.5%." which is 65,000 ppm, and the analogous
1170:
Swords of
Armageddon: US Nuclear Weapons Development since 1945, Version 2
750:, which is a tiny fraction of natural thorium present due to the decay of
651:; its design was based on the plutonium/U pit from the TX-7E, a prototype
635:
While it is thus possible to use uranium-233 as the fissile material of a
1105:
910:
382:
356:
288:, which has a half-life of only 22 minutes. Thorium-233 decays into
405:, all of which breed it from thorium. Uranium-233 can be bred in either
46:
1703:
1621:. The South Africa Independent LFTR Power Producer Project. p. 10.
898:
664:
278:
240:
52:
746:
Another channel involves neutron capture reaction on small amounts of
1366:
PDF page 8, citing: D. Holloway, "Soviet
Thermonuclear Development",
1025:"Atomic Energy 'Secret' Put into Language That Public Can Understand"
914:
902:
679:
1207:
887:, nuclear weapons research, and reactor fuel research including the
875:
Uses for uranium-233 include the production of the medical isotopes
393:
in reactors that were designed for the production of plutonium-239.
17:
770:
emitters. Thallium-208 is the strongest of these, at 2.6 MeV:
1199:
592:
576:
Energy converted into heat in an operating thermal nuclear reactor
350:
340:
330:
57:
1791:
1261:
High Energy
Materials: Propellants, Explosives and Pyrotechnics
643:
The United States detonated an experimental device in the 1955
284:
of thorium-232. When thorium-232 absorbs a neutron, it becomes
826:
979:"Uses For Uranium-233: What Should Be Kept for Future Needs?"
1414:"India's Nuclear Weapons Program – Operation Shakti: 1998"
1287:
states briefly that U233 is "thought to be a component of
837:
was produced in levels of 0.5% (5,000 ppm) or less).
1568:"Managing the Uranium-233 Stockpile of the United States"
444:
The fission of one atom of uranium-233 generates 197.9
1659:"It's Elemental — The Periodic Table of Elements"
1090:"Savannah River Plant Thorium Processing Experience"
1561:
1559:
689:tests, India detonated an experimental U device of
625:would not be interested in switching to plutonium.
381:The United States produced, over the course of the
203:
168:
155:
135:
128:
111:
94:
84:
74:
69:
1536:"Hanford Radioactivity in Salmon Spawning Grounds"
1508:"Questions and Answers on Uranium-233 at Hanford"
977:C. W. Forsburg; L. C. Lewis (24 September 1999).
806:with only light shielding (as commonly done with
1355:"Thorium and its role in the nuclear fuel cycle"
1172:. Chuckelea Publications. pp. I-262, I-270.
262:. It has been used successfully in experimental
1219:
1217:
972:
970:
968:
311:, but sometimes retains the neutron, becoming
266:and has been proposed for much wider use as a
1803:
780:Ra (α, 5.44 MeV, 3.6 d, with a γ of 0.24 MeV)
8:
829:"Standard weapon grade plutonium requires a
783:Rn (α, 6.29 MeV, 56 s, with a γ of 0.54 MeV)
720:Production of U (through the irradiation of
682:, which contained a fissile core of U and U.
39:
1181:
1179:
795:Tl (β, 1.8 MeV, 3 min, with a γ of 2.6 MeV)
1810:
1796:
1788:
1683:
742:Th (n,2n) → Th (β) → Pa (n,γ) → Pa (β) → U
709:material have been used to manufacture U.
254:. Uranium-233 was investigated for use in
45:
1633:"Abundance in Earth's Crust: periodicity"
956:"Uranium-233 at the Hanford Nuclear Site"
872:, the decay chain of its grandparent Np.
758:Th (n,γ) → Th (β) → Pa (n,γ) → Pa (β) → U
739:Th (n,γ) → Th (β) → Pa (n,2n) → Pa (β)→ U
736:Th (n,γ) → Th (β) → Pa (β) → U (n,2n) → U
454:
947:
724:) invariably produces small amounts of
448:= 3.171·10 J (i.e. 19.09 TJ/
1436:"Historical use of thorium at Hanford"
817:The hazards are significant even at 5
659:"Easy" test. Although not an outright
38:
506:Energy from decaying fission products
7:
647:"MET" test which used a plutonium/U
553:(excluding escaping anti-neutrinos)
475:Kinetic energy of fission fragments
1665:from the original on 29 April 2007
25:
1635:. WebElements.com. Archived from
1186:Woods, W. K. (10 February 1966).
860:, that was about 220 ppm U.
483:Kinetic energy of prompt neutrons
346:Shippingport Atomic Power Station
55:containing solidified pieces of a
988:. Oak Ridge National Laboratory.
802:This makes manual handling in a
705:optimized for the production of
1380:Rajat Pandit (28 August 2009).
936:Liquid fluoride thorium reactor
494:Energy carried by prompt γ-rays
469:Instantaneously released energy
277:Uranium-233 is produced by the
1573:. Science and Global Security.
1146:Nuclear proliferation factbook
850:Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment
434:nuclear power program of India
432:The long-term strategy of the
336:Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment
1:
1382:"Forces gung-ho on N-arsenal"
1258:Agrawal, Jai Prakash (2010).
1224:Langford, R. Everett (2004).
1057:"Third Nuclear Source Bared"
1614:SA LFTR Energy (Pty.) Ltd.
1088:Orth, D. A. (1 June 1978).
766:of U quickly yields strong
663:, MET's actual yield of 22
421:which require the superior
1908:
1000:"Capture-to-fission Ratio"
858:Indian Point Energy Center
221:Complete table of nuclides
29:
27:Fissile isotope of uranium
1892:Special nuclear materials
1826:
1328:"Operation Buster-Jangle"
823:Implosion nuclear weapons
693:(0.2 kt) called Shakti V.
613:, such as small-diameter
504:
467:
215:
62:uranium-233 tetrafluoride
44:
839:Gun-type fission weapons
792:Bi (α, 61 min, 0.78 MeV)
685:In 1998, as part of its
655:design used in the 1951
538:Energy of delayed γ-rays
524:Energy of anti-neutrinos
403:(see thorium fuel cycle)
90:uranium-233, 233U, U-233
1188:"LRL interest in U-233"
1120:"Nuclear fission 4.7.1"
852:(MSRE) used U, bred in
657:Operation Buster-Jangle
374:report and a speech by
1370:4:3 (1979–80) 192–197.
1368:International Security
1332:Nuclear Weapon Archive
1306:Nuclear Weapon Archive
1289:India's weapon program
1168:Hansen, Chuck (2007).
907:acute myeloid leukemia
814:for fuel fabrication.
598:
359:
348:
338:
307:U usually fissions on
32:U-233 (disambiguation)
1597:US patent 4393510
1234:John Wiley & Sons
732:, or on thorium-232:
596:
512:Energy of β particles
354:
344:
334:
1479:hanfordchallenge.org
1443:hanfordchallenge.org
1106:10.13182/NT79-A16175
854:light water reactors
674:detonated its first
30:For other uses, see
1882:Isotopes of uranium
1820:isotopes of uranium
1353:Stephen F. Ashley.
1230:Hoboken, New Jersey
1062:The Tuscaloosa News
1037:. 29 September 1946
909:and cancers of the
864:Further information
812:remote manipulation
678:the same year, the
653:Mark 7 nuclear bomb
628:The co-presence of
607:spontaneous fission
391:Savannah River Site
298:molten salt reactor
217:Isotopes of uranium
41:
40:Uranium-233, U
1696:Uranium-233 is an
1488:on 15 October 2012
1387:The Times of India
1302:"Operation Teapot"
1268:. pp. 56–57.
1124:kayelaby.npl.co.uk
1094:Nuclear Technology
889:thorium fuel cycle
701:and others at the
599:
360:
349:
339:
309:neutron absorption
274:of 160,000 years.
252:thorium fuel cycle
246:that is bred from
244:isotope of uranium
1887:Fissile materials
1864:
1863:
1786:
1785:
1661:. Jefferson Lab.
1584:Nuclear Materials
1515:radioactivist.org
1334:. 15 October 1997
1308:. 15 October 1997
1275:978-3-527-32610-5
1069:. 21 October 1946
1004:nuclear-power.com
819:parts per million
586:
585:
226:
225:
16:(Redirected from
1899:
1812:
1805:
1798:
1789:
1749:protactinium-233
1684:
1675:
1674:
1672:
1670:
1655:
1649:
1648:
1646:
1644:
1629:
1623:
1622:
1620:
1611:
1605:
1604:
1603:
1599:
1593:
1587:
1581:
1575:
1574:
1572:
1566:Robert Alvarez.
1563:
1554:
1553:
1551:
1549:
1540:
1532:
1526:
1525:
1523:
1521:
1512:
1504:
1498:
1497:
1495:
1493:
1487:
1481:. Archived from
1476:
1468:
1462:
1461:
1459:
1457:
1451:
1445:. Archived from
1440:
1432:
1426:
1425:
1423:
1421:
1410:
1404:
1403:
1401:
1399:
1390:. Archived from
1377:
1371:
1365:
1363:
1361:
1350:
1344:
1343:
1341:
1339:
1324:
1318:
1317:
1315:
1313:
1298:
1292:
1286:
1284:
1282:
1255:
1249:
1247:
1221:
1212:
1211:
1183:
1174:
1173:
1165:
1159:
1158:
1156:
1154:
1141:
1135:
1134:
1132:
1130:
1116:
1110:
1109:
1085:
1079:
1078:
1076:
1074:
1053:
1047:
1046:
1044:
1042:
1030:Pittsburgh Press
1021:
1015:
1014:
1012:
1010:
996:
990:
989:
983:
974:
963:
962:
960:
952:
870:neptunium series
730:protactinium-233
645:Operation Teapot
615:artillery shells
611:gun-type weapons
569:
543:
531:
517:
499:
488:
455:
411:thermal reactors
376:Glenn T. Seaborg
327:Fissile material
264:nuclear reactors
148:
121:
104:
49:
42:
21:
1907:
1906:
1902:
1901:
1900:
1898:
1897:
1896:
1867:
1866:
1865:
1860:
1822:
1816:
1774:
1767:of uranium-233
1766:
1747:
1736:
1724:
1710:
1697:
1688:
1681:
1679:
1678:
1668:
1666:
1657:
1656:
1652:
1642:
1640:
1631:
1630:
1626:
1618:
1613:
1612:
1608:
1601:
1595:
1594:
1590:
1582:
1578:
1570:
1565:
1564:
1557:
1547:
1545:
1538:
1534:
1533:
1529:
1519:
1517:
1510:
1506:
1505:
1501:
1491:
1489:
1485:
1474:
1470:
1469:
1465:
1455:
1453:
1449:
1438:
1434:
1433:
1429:
1419:
1417:
1416:. 30 March 2001
1412:
1411:
1407:
1397:
1395:
1379:
1378:
1374:
1359:
1357:
1352:
1351:
1347:
1337:
1335:
1326:
1325:
1321:
1311:
1309:
1300:
1299:
1295:
1280:
1278:
1276:
1257:
1256:
1252:
1244:
1223:
1222:
1215:
1185:
1184:
1177:
1167:
1166:
1162:
1152:
1150:
1143:
1142:
1138:
1128:
1126:
1118:
1117:
1113:
1087:
1086:
1082:
1072:
1070:
1055:
1054:
1050:
1040:
1038:
1023:
1022:
1018:
1008:
1006:
998:
997:
993:
981:
976:
975:
966:
958:
954:
953:
949:
944:
931:Breeder reactor
927:
885:isotopic tracer
866:
789:Pb (β, 10.64 h)
768:gamma radiation
718:
591:
589:Weapon material
567:
541:
529:
515:
497:
486:
463:released (MeV)
462:
442:
440:Energy released
423:neutron economy
399:
370:), following a
329:
302:neutron economy
256:nuclear weapons
250:as part of the
219:
191:
182:
170:Parent isotopes
146:
139:
115:
98:
65:
56:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
1905:
1903:
1895:
1894:
1889:
1884:
1879:
1869:
1868:
1862:
1861:
1859:
1858:
1853:
1848:
1843:
1838:
1833:
1827:
1824:
1823:
1817:
1815:
1814:
1807:
1800:
1792:
1784:
1783:
1768:
1759:
1717:
1716:
1707:
1694:
1677:
1676:
1650:
1639:on 23 May 2008
1624:
1606:
1588:
1576:
1555:
1527:
1499:
1463:
1452:on 12 May 2013
1427:
1405:
1394:on 21 May 2013
1372:
1345:
1319:
1293:
1274:
1250:
1242:
1236:. p. 85.
1213:
1175:
1160:
1136:
1111:
1080:
1048:
1016:
991:
964:
946:
945:
943:
940:
939:
938:
933:
926:
923:
865:
862:
800:
799:
796:
793:
790:
787:
786:Po (α, 0.15 s)
784:
781:
778:
775:
760:
759:
744:
743:
740:
737:
717:
714:
695:
694:
683:
668:
637:nuclear weapon
590:
587:
584:
583:
578:
572:
571:
565:
561:
560:
555:
546:
545:
539:
535:
534:
526:
520:
519:
513:
509:
508:
502:
501:
495:
491:
490:
484:
480:
479:
476:
472:
471:
465:
464:
461:Average energy
459:
441:
438:
398:
395:
372:United Nations
328:
325:
224:
223:
213:
212:
207:
205:Decay products
201:
200:
172:
166:
165:
159:
153:
152:
149:
144:
133:
132:
126:
125:
122:
109:
108:
105:
92:
91:
88:
82:
81:
78:
72:
71:
67:
66:
50:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1904:
1893:
1890:
1888:
1885:
1883:
1880:
1878:
1875:
1874:
1872:
1857:
1854:
1852:
1849:
1847:
1844:
1842:
1839:
1837:
1834:
1832:
1829:
1828:
1825:
1821:
1813:
1808:
1806:
1801:
1799:
1794:
1793:
1790:
1782:
1779:
1778:
1772:
1769:
1765:
1764:
1760:
1758:
1755:
1751:
1750:
1744:
1740:
1739:
1738:neptunium-233
1733:
1729:
1728:
1727:plutonium-237
1722:
1721:Decay product
1719:
1718:
1715:
1714:
1708:
1706:
1705:
1701:
1695:
1693:
1692:
1686:
1685:
1682:
1664:
1660:
1654:
1651:
1638:
1634:
1628:
1625:
1617:
1610:
1607:
1598:
1592:
1589:
1585:
1580:
1577:
1569:
1562:
1560:
1556:
1544:
1537:
1531:
1528:
1516:
1509:
1503:
1500:
1484:
1480:
1473:
1467:
1464:
1448:
1444:
1437:
1431:
1428:
1415:
1409:
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877:actinium-225
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157:Isotope mass
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130:Nuclide data
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1777:thorium-229
1763:Decay chain
1713:uranium-234
1691:uranium-232
1194:. DUN-677.
1153:29 November
881:bismuth-213
798:Pb (stable)
764:decay chain
752:uranium-238
748:thorium-230
726:uranium-232
722:thorium-232
630:uranium-232
419:fuel cycles
415:uranium-238
364:uranium-235
317:uranium-235
313:uranium-234
286:thorium-233
282:irradiation
270:. It has a
248:thorium-232
229:Uranium-233
1871:Categories
1543:clarku.edu
1312:9 December
1243:0471465607
1073:18 October
1041:18 October
917:and other
716:U impurity
687:Pokhran-II
294:beta decay
1877:Actinides
1709:Heavier:
1687:Lighter:
1266:Wiley-VCH
1100:: 63–74.
986:Ornl-6952
808:plutonium
804:glove box
699:B Reactor
691:low-yield
623:Livermore
272:half-life
258:and as a
137:Half-life
1669:14 April
1663:Archived
1643:12 April
1548:21 April
1520:21 April
1492:21 April
1456:21 April
1360:16 April
1338:18 March
1281:19 March
1129:21 April
925:See also
911:pancreas
856:such as
665:kilotons
383:Cold War
357:THTR-300
161:233.039
113:Neutrons
1704:uranium
1700:isotope
1420:21 July
1398:20 July
1009:26 June
915:kidneys
899:bismuth
417:-based
355:German
279:neutron
241:fissile
239:) is a
195: (
186: (
177: (
96:Protons
70:General
64:mixture
53:ampoule
1771:Decays
1602:
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1206:
919:organs
903:cancer
680:RDS-37
661:fizzle
478:168.2
458:Source
197:β
188:β
179:α
76:Symbol
1818:Main
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1571:(PDF)
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1439:(PDF)
1208:79078
982:(PDF)
959:(PDF)
942:Notes
581:200.1
558:191.0
425:of a
237:U-233
86:Names
58:FLiBe
1773:to:
1723:of:
1671:2007
1645:2014
1550:2018
1522:2018
1494:2018
1458:2018
1422:2012
1400:2012
1362:2014
1340:2012
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1283:2012
1270:ISBN
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1155:2019
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1075:2011
1043:2011
1011:2024
894:The
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544:5.0
518:5.2
500:7.7
489:4.8
389:and
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60:and
18:233U
1780:(α)
1702:of
1586:FAQ
1196:doi
1102:doi
827:cf.
550:Sum
532:6.9
450:mol
446:MeV
409:or
235:or
145:1/2
124:141
51:An
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210:Th
193:Pa
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163:Da
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