Four-wheel drive - Knowledge (XXG)

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instance, the slipping wheel spins faster than the other wheels due to the lower traction at that wheel. Since a differential applies equal torque to each half-shaft, power is reduced at the other wheels, even if they have good traction. This problem can happen in both 2WD and 4WD vehicles, whenever a driven wheel is placed on a surface with little traction or raised off the ground. The simplistic design works acceptably well for 2WD vehicles. It is much less acceptable for 4WD vehicles, because 4WD vehicles have twice as many wheels with which to lose traction, increasing the likelihood that it may happen. 4WD vehicles may also be more likely to drive on surfaces with reduced traction. However, since torque is divided between four wheels rather than two, each wheel receives roughly half the torque of a 2WD vehicle, reducing the potential for wheel slip.

275: 403:. It typically uses a vehicle's braking system to slow a spinning wheel. This forced slowing emulates the function of a limited-slip differential, and by using the brakes more aggressively to ensure wheels are being driven at the same speed, can also emulate a locking differential. This technique normally requires wheel sensors to detect when a wheel is slipping, and only activates when wheel slip is detected. Therefore, typically no mechanism exists to actively prevent wheel slip (i.e., locking the differential in advance of wheel slip is not possible); rather, the system is designed to expressly permit wheel slip to occur, and then to attempt to send torque to the wheels with the best traction. If preventing all-wheel slip is a requirement, this is a limiting design. 415: 143: 673: 832: 461: 932: 2810:

dry pavement, the tires grip, then are forced to slip, then grip again, and so on, until the turn is completed. This causes the vehicle to exhibit a 'hopping' or 'binding' sensation. Using an engaged part-time 4WD system on a hard surface is not recommended, as damage to the drive-line eventually occurs. Part-time transfer cases are the industry standard transfer case for the 4x4 truck market. Any other transfer case can be considered more robust, however more moving parts and complexity can, sometimes, make other transfer cases less durable.

1081: 1481: 1619:, patented, GB 2172558, an improvement on Chadwick's design that did not use differential gear assemblies. By using near-spherical wheels with the provision to tilt and turn each wheel co-ordinatively, the driven wheels maintain constant traction. Furthermore, all driven wheels steer, and as pairing of wheels is not necessary, vehicles with an odd number of wheels are possible without affecting the system's integrity. Progressive deceleration is made possible by dynamically changing the front-to-rear effective wheel diameter ratios. 1696:

variable clutch packs that are allowed to 'slip' to give the required road wheel speeds. The front transaxle has three gears, two forward, and reverse. The two forward gears of the front transmission match the lower four forward gears of the rear transmission. It is not used in higher gears. The connection between this gearbox and each front wheel is via independent Haldex-type clutches, without a differential. Due to the difference in ratios, the clutches continually slip and only transmit, at most, 20% of the engine's torque.

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However, if both wheels are connected to the same axle driveshaft, they always have to spin at the same speed relative to each other. When going around a curve, this either forces one of the wheels to slip, if possible, to balance the apparent distance covered, or creates uncomfortable and mechanically stressful wheel hop. To prevent this, the wheels are allowed to turn at different speeds using a mechanical or hydraulic

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primary axle is driven by an internal combustion engine and the secondary axle is driven by an electric motor. When the internal combustion engine is shut off, the secondary, electrically driven axle is the only driven axle. On-demand systems function primarily with only one powered axle until torque is required by the second axle. At that point, either a passive or active coupling sends torque to the secondary axle.

681: 1253:. Most crossovers offer the popular technology, in spite of it increasing vehicle price and fuel consumption. Car manufacturers have inundated consumers with marketing proclaiming AWD as a safety feature, although the advantage of AWD over FWD occurs in accelerating, not braking or steering. Tests have shown that though AWD gives improved acceleration in wintery conditions, it does not help with braking. 1497: 357:

the tire that is not slipping receives little or no power from the engine. In very low-traction situations, this can prevent the vehicle from moving at all. To overcome this, several designs of differentials can either limit the amount of slip (these are called 'limited-slip' differentials) or temporarily lock the two output shafts together to ensure that engine power reaches all driven wheels equally.

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run together, or they could be split and the car driven solely by either engine. Combined with twin fuel tanks and twin batteries (which could be set up to run either or both engines), the redundancy of two separate drive trains meant that they could make it back to civilization even after major mechanical failures. Only around 700 of these cars were built, and only 27 are known to exist today.

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systems work well on all surfaces, but are not intended for more extreme off-road use. When used to describe AWD systems in light passenger vehicles, it refers to a system that applies torque to all four wheels (permanently or on-demand) or is targeted at improving on-road traction and performance (particularly in inclement conditions), rather than for off-road applications.

469: 1354:, while engine manufacturers Cosworth produced their own version, which was tested but never raced. All these F1 cars were considered inferior to their RWD counterparts, as the advent of aerodynamic downforce meant that adequate traction could be obtained in a lighter and more mechanically efficient manner, and the idea was discontinued, though Lotus tried repeatedly. 693: 291: 126:"Four-by-four" or "4×4" is frequently used to refer to a class of vehicles in general. Syntactically, the first figure indicates the total number of axle ends and the second indicates the number of axle ends that are powered. Accordingly, 4×2 means a four-wheel vehicle that transmits engine torque to only two axle ends: the front two in 443:

differentials, the torque split is 50:50. Planetary differentials can provide asymmetric torque splits as needed. A system that operates permanently in the full-time mode is sometimes called all-the-time 4WD, all-wheel drive, or AWD. If the interaxle differential is locked out, then the mode reverts to a part-time mode.

1139:), had towing capacity, and came in several equipment levels including sport and luxury trims. Two additional models were added in 1981, the subcompact SX/4 and Kammback. A manual transmission and a front axle-disconnect feature were also made available for greater fuel economy. During 1981 and 1982, a unique 888:

affected development. Though not used much on commercial vehicles, all-wheel drive vehicles all needed these; and they would use two or three times the number of driven axles, meaning more gears to cut for all the differentials. Produced up to the war by a few specialized firms with limited capacity,

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in Detroit. This vehicle has a unique "crab crawl" capability, which allows it to rotate 360° in place. This is accomplished by driving the left wheels as a pair and the right wheels as a pair, as opposed to driving the front and rear pairs. A central gearbox allows one side to drive in the opposite

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vehicle has three axles, two of which provide torque to two axle ends each. If this vehicle were a truck with dual rear wheels on two rear axles, so actually having ten wheels, its configuration would still be formulated as 6x4. During World War II, the U.S. military would typically use spaces and a

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to drive the front and rear axles, the Sahara had two engines, each independently driving a separate axle, with the rear engine facing backwards. The two throttles, clutches, and gear-change mechanisms could be linked, so the two 12 hp (9 kW) 425 cc (26 cu in) engines could

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fluid center differential provided a quiet and smooth transfer of power that was directed proportionally to the axle with the greatest traction. This was a true full-time system operating only in four-wheel drive without undue wear on suspension or driveline components. No low range was used in the

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work by temporarily locking together a differential's output shafts, causing all wheels to turn at the same rate, providing torque in case of slippage. This is generally used for the center differential, which distributes power between the front and the rear axles. While a drivetrain that turns all

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Full-time AWD systems drive both front and rear axles at all times via a center (interaxle) differential. The torque split of that differential may be fixed or variable depending on the type of center differential. This system can be used on any surface at any speed. The definition does not address

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These are vehicles that have no center differential. Since there is no center differential to allow for speed differences between the front and rear wheels when turning, a small amount of tire slippage must occur during turns. When used on slick surfaces, this is not a problem, but when turning on

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Part-time mode – The front and rear axle drives are rigidly coupled in the transfer case. Since the driveline does not permit any speed differentiation between the axles and would cause driveline wind-up, this mode is recommended only for part-time use in off-road or loose-surface conditions where

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to join the shafts, while other differentials are more commonly used on off-road vehicles generally use manually operated locking devices. In the multi-plate clutch, the vehicle's computer senses slippage and locks the shafts, causing a small jolt when it activates, which can disturb the driver or

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Many differentials have no way of limiting the amount of engine power that gets sent to their attached output shafts. As a result, if a tire loses traction on acceleration, either because of a low-traction situation (e.g., driving on gravel or ice) or the engine power overcomes available traction,

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between the front and rear drive shafts. This is often coupled with some sort of antislip technology, increasingly hydraulic-based, that allows differentials to spin at different speeds, but still be capable of transferring the torque from a wheel with poor traction to one with better. Typical AWD

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is unique in that it has a rear transaxle with a secondary front transaxle connected directly to the engine. The car operates primarily as a rear-wheel drive vehicle. Clutches in the front transaxle engage when the rear wheels slip. Drive to the front wheels is transmitted through two infinitely

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trucks were built for similar use between 1913 and 1919. The Quad not only came with four-wheel-drive and four-wheel brakes, but also featured four-wheel steering. The Quad was one of the first successful four-wheel drive vehicles ever to be made, and its production continued for 15 years with a

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In addition to these basic modes, some implementations can combine these modes. The system could have a clutch across the center differential, for example, capable of modulating the front axle torque from a full-time mode with the 30:70 torque split of the center differential to the 0:100 torque

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On-demand mode – In this mode, the transfer case operates primarily in the 2WD mode. Torque is transferred to the secondary axle as needed by modulating the transfer clutch from open to a rigidly coupled state, while avoiding any driveline wind-up. The torque modulation may be achieved by active

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differential, which allows the output shafts to receive different amounts of torque. This design does not provide for traction when one wheel is spinning freely, where no torque exists, but provides excellent handling in less extreme situations. A typical Torsen II differential can deliver up to

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The described system handles extremely well, as it is able to accommodate various forces of movement and distribute power evenly and smoothly, making slippage unlikely. Once it does slip, however, recovery is difficult. If the left front wheel of a 4WD vehicle slips on an icy patch of road, for

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Note: the above all function like 2WD when the multi-plate clutch coupling is not engaged (with exception of Subaru models), and like 4WD high-range in a part-time 4WD system when the clutch is engaged (usually by computer although some allow manual control). Some in this category have varying

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hybrid), the front wheels can also receive drive power directly from the vehicle's gasoline engine, as well as via the electric motors, whereas the rear wheels derive power only from the second electric motor. Transfer of power is managed automatically by internal electronics based on traction

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On-demand AWD systems drive the secondary axle via an active or passive coupling device or "by an independently powered drive system". The standard notes that in some cases, the secondary drive system may also provide the primary vehicle propulsion. An example is a hybrid AWD vehicle where the

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Two wheels fixed to the same axle (but on the opposite axle ends) need to turn at different speeds as a vehicle goes around a curve. The reason is that the wheel that is located on the inner side of the curve needs to travel less distance than the opposite wheel for the same duration of time.

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Full-time mode – Both axles are driven at all times, but an interaxle differential permits the axles to turn at different speeds as needed. This allows the vehicle to be driven full-time in this mode, regardless of the road surface, without fear of driveline wind-up. With standard bevel-gear

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The 1937 Mercedes-Benz G5 and BMW 325 4×4 featured full-time four-wheel drive, four-wheel steering, three locking differentials, and fully independent suspension. They were produced because of a government demand for a four-wheel-drive passenger vehicle. The modern Geländewagen such as the

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in 1945, the first full-production four-wheel-drive vehicle for sale in the general marketplace. Due to the ubiquitous World War II Jeep's success, its rugged utilitarianism set the pattern for many four-wheel-drive vehicles to come. Dodge also started production of the civilian 4WD

182:, and so on, being used in that fashion at least as early as the 1920s. Today in North America, the term is applied to both heavy vehicles and light passenger vehicles. When referring to heavy vehicles, the term is increasingly applied to mean "permanent multiple-wheel drive" on 708:

trucks to four-wheel drive and got off to a successful start by procuring contracts for military and commercial aircraft refueling trucks, 4×4 chassis for towing light weaponry, and an order from the Iraqi Pipeline Company for what were the largest trucks built at the time.

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Four-wheel drive (4WD) refers to vehicles with two axles providing torque to four axle ends. In the North American market, the term generally refers to a system optimized for off-road driving conditions. The term "4WD" is typically designated for vehicles equipped with a

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transfer case. This became the forerunner of the designs that followed from other manufacturers. The automobile press at the time tested the traction of the Eagles and described it as far superior to the Subaru's and that it could beat many so-called off-road vehicles.

114:. There is no universally accepted set of terminology that describes the various architectures and functions. The terms used by various manufacturers often reflect marketing rather than engineering considerations or significant technical differences between systems. 217:

Part-time AWD systems require driver intervention to couple and decouple the secondary axle from the primarily driven axle, and these systems do not have a center differential (or similar device). The definition notes that part-time systems may have a low range.

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system in what was one of the first four-wheel drive automobiles to display an intentional ability to travel on challenging road surfaces. It stemmed from Bramagh's previous idea of developing an engine that would reduce the amount of damage to public roads.

771:. Three different bodystyles were manufactured – a two-door roadster, a two-door pickup truck, and a four-door phaeton, all equipped with a transfer case that engaged the front wheels, powered by a 1.3-litre, two-cylinder, air-cooled OHV V-twin engine. 330:. When powered, each axle requires a differential to distribute power between the left and right sides. When power is distributed to all four wheels, a third or 'center' differential can be used to distribute power between the front and rear axles. 2054:– manual transmissions come with 50/50 viscous-type center differential; performance models include a planetary differential with computer-regulated lockup; automatic transmission models have an electronically controlled variable transfer clutch. 822:

in North America, but through the 1960s, the technology of Soviet 4×4 vehicles stayed on par with British, German, and American models, even exceeding it in some aspects, and for military purposes just as actively developed, produced, and used.

4301: 1031:(AMC) acquired Kaiser's Jeep Division in 1970 and quickly upgraded and expanded the entire line of off-road 4WD vehicles. With its added roadworthiness, the top-range full-sized Grand Wagoneer continued to compete with traditional 1604:. Simply by fitting a second engine/gearbox unit across the rear, a rudimentary 4×4 system could be produced. Early prototypes had separate gear levers and clutch systems for each engine. Later versions sent for evaluation by the 955:

appeared at the Amsterdam Motor Show in 1948. Originally conceived as a stop-gap product for the struggling Rover car company, despite chronic underinvestment, it succeeded far better than their passenger cars. Inspired by a

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in 1938. "Civilian use" may be a bit of a misnomer, as most, if not all, were used by the Soviet government and military (as command cars), but the GAZ-61-73 version is the first four-wheel-drive vehicle with a normal closed

1531:) was in use to describe North American military four-wheel-drive vehicles as early as the 1940s, with the first number indicating the number of wheel ends on a vehicle and the second indicating the number of driven wheels. 2777:

degrees of control in the torque distribution between front and rear by allowing some of the clutches in a multi-plate clutch coupling to engage and slip varying amounts. An example of a system like this is the BorgWarner

568:. The two-seat sports car featured permanent four-wheel drive and was also the first car equipped with a six-cylinder engine, as well as four-wheel braking. Later used as a hill-climb racer, it is now an exhibit in the 427:

The architecture of an AWD/4WD system can be described by showing its possible operating modes. A single vehicle may have the ability to operate in multiple modes depending on driver selection. The different modes are:

2041:/Escudo (2005 and later models, excepting the XL-7) -full-time 4WD using limited-slip center differential, off-road 4WD with selectable center differential lock and low range transfer case 4 mode (4h, 4h lock, 4l n), 1534:

Trucks with dual tires on the rear axle and two driven axles are designated as 4×4s despite having six wheels, because the paired rear wheels behave as a single wheel for traction and classification purposes. True

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and American armies during World War I – about half by FWD and the rest by other licensed manufacturers. Only about 20% of the trucks built were four-wheel drives, but the 4x4s were more often on the front lines.

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design, that allowed the driver to engage or disengage four-wheel drive using a lever inside the cab. In spite of the limited 1930s U.S. military budgets, the '34 truck was liked well-enough that a more modern

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provide power to an AWD system through a pair of electric motors, one to the front wheels and one to the rear. In the case of the AWD model version of the Lexus RX400h (and its Toyota-branded counterpart, the

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in 1989. So successful was the car that it dominated the Japanese circuit for the first years of production, going on to bigger and more impressive wins in Australia before weight penalties eventually levied

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Musk said the added efficiency is thanks to the electronic system that will shift power between the front and rear motors from one millisecond to the next, so each is always operating at its most efficient

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with a removable fiberglass roof section. The Eagle station wagon remained in production for one model year after Chrysler acquired AMC in 1987. Total AMC Eagle production was almost 200,000 vehicles.

1968:(VAZ-2121) – full-time 4WD using open center differential. Transfer case with high/low range and manual central diff lock. Low range selectable in locked or unlocked mode, allowing use on pavement. 1938:

with Borg Warner QuadraTrac: limited-slip center differential, 50/50 locked center differential. Low range could be used in locked or unlocked mode, allowing for use of the low range on pavement.

102:(AWD). However, "four-wheel drive" typically refers to a set of specific components and functions, and intended off-road application, which generally complies with modern use of the terminology. 712:

The early Marmon-Herringtons proved to be the exception to the rule — 4WD cars and trucks developed in the 1930s were mainly built for governments, with (future) warfare applications in mind.

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Although Russia had their own jeep-like vehicle (the GAZ-64) up and running in 1940, a year earlier than the American jeep, in the early years of the war, they relied significantly on

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Pikes Peak Edition in 1996. Earlier Suzuki versions were twin-engined; from 1996 on, the engine is a twin-turbocharged 2.0-L V6, mated to a sequential six-speed manual transmission.

1120:. AMC's Eagles came with the comfort and high-level appointments expected of regular passenger models and used the off-road technology for an extra margin of safety and traction. 2801:. In the Hyundais, the ITM 3e acts like a full-time AWD with 95:5 normal torque split. In extreme conditions, the system can be locked in a 50:50 split via the 4WD LOCK button. 432:

Two-wheel drive mode – In this mode, only one axle (typically the rear axle) is driven. The drive to the other axle is disconnected. The operating torque split ratio is 0:100.

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vehicles, which have three powered axles, are classified as 6×6s regardless of how many wheels they have. Examples of these with two rear, one front axle are the six-wheeled

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Some all-wheel drive electric vehicles use one motor for each axle, thereby eliminating a mechanical differential between the front and rear axles. An example of this is the

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According to the SAE International standard J1952, AWD is the preferred term for all the systems described above. The standard subdivides AWD systems into three categories.

4525: 1379: 1192: 118:'s standard J1952 recommends only the term "all-wheel drive" with additional subclassifications that cover all types of AWD/4WD/4x4 systems found on production vehicles. 625:(see below), the 3-ton FWD Model B became a standard military four-wheel-drive truck for the U.S. Army in World War I. Some 16,000 FWD Model B trucks were built for the 664:; Mercedes and BMW, in 1926, introduced some rather sophisticated four-wheel drives, the G1, the G4, and G4 following. Mercedes and BMW developed this further in 1937. 1104:

for the 1980 model year. These were the first American mass-production cars to use the complete front-engine, four-wheel-drive system. The AMC Eagle was offered as a

274: 1636:, designed for cars that are normally front-wheel drive; however, the rear wheels are powered by electric motors. This system was introduced in some variants of the 3769: 524:

at each wheel, powered by batteries, which were in turn charged by a gasoline-engine generator. It was clumsily heavy, and due to its unusual status, the so-called

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In the United States, as of late 2013, AWD vehicles comprised 32% of new light vehicle sales, up 5% since 2008. This is in large part due to the popularity of the

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In engineering terms, "four-wheel drive" designates a vehicle with power delivered to four wheel ends spread over at least two axles. The term "4×4" (pronounced

1112:, and station wagon with permanent automatic all-wheel drive passenger models. The new Eagles combined Jeep technology with an existing and proven AMC passenger 3720: 1020:

sports car. While most 4WD systems split torque evenly, the Jensen split torque roughly 40% front, 60% rear by gearing the front and rear at different ratios.

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In addition to the above primary classifications, the J1952 standard notes secondary classifications resulting in a total of eight systems, designated as:

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electronic/hydraulic control systems, or by passive devices, based on wheel slip or wheel torque, as described in the section on traction control systems.

5420: 4325: 4253: 414: 142: 1893:– permanent four-wheel-drive (1973–1979) two-speed New Process 203 transfer case, center planetary differential with 50:50 torque split and lock. An 1061:

and having to manually select between 2WD and 4WD modes, it dominated all other makes in FIA rally competition. Gene Henderson and Ken Pogue won the

5441: 4468: 1561:, and not to be confused with four-wheel drive. The "four" in the instance referring to the vehicle having four wheels, not necessarily all driven. 5275: 3735: 3178: 3146: 1480: 5413: 4518: 4000: 3241: 2191: 1656: 3468: 5455: 5434: 5427: 4069: 4010: 3892: 3745: 3644: 3604: 3521: 3494: 3398: 3057: 2955: 555: 3016: 1908:

at the front and rear axle, The H1 moved to Torsen2 when ABS was added. The H1 Alpha had optional locking differentials in place of torsens.

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was founded in 1931 to serve a growing market for moderately priced four-wheel-drive vehicles. Marmon-Herrington specialized in converting

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Prompted by a perceived need for a simple, inexpensive all-terrain vehicle for oil exploration in North Africa, French motor manufacturer

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in 1988 was equally controversial, as it led to a weight penalty midseason and to a rule revision banning all AWD cars; its dominance in

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driveline wind-up is unlikely. Up to full torque could go to either axle, depending on the road conditions and the weight over the axles.

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still feature some of the attributes, with the exception of fully independent suspension, since it can compromise ground clearance. The

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The 1903 Spyker 60-HP was the world's first 4WD that was directly powered by an internal combustion engine, and the first 4WD race-car.

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coupled to 4WD, but also it was equipped and finished as a regular passenger automobile. In effect, it was the ancestor of the modern

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60 H.P., Commissioned for the Paris to Madrid race of 1903, it was presented that year by brothers Jacobus and Hendrik-Jan Spijker of

4443: 1456: 5617: 4511: 4165: 3077: 2972: 2117: 1268:, one main shaft from the engine to the transaxle and differential and a second drive shaft from the transaxle to the front wheels. 1181: 1057:

full-time AWD for the 1973 model year Jeep Cherokee and Wagoneer. Due to full-time AWD, which relieved the driver of getting out to

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from spring 1942, Ford, Dodge, and Chevrolet joined in fabricating these in a quantity more than a 100-fold greater than in 1939.

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The above systems ending with "#" function by selectively using the traction control system (via ABS) to brake a slipping wheel.

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fluid in the differential to become solid, linking the two shafts. This design suffers from fluid degradation with age and from

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with a light-duty, part-time four-wheel-drive system that could not be engaged on dry pavement. In September, AMC introduced

818:"Victory" and built from 1955 to 1958. Soviet civilian life did not allow the proliferation of civilian products such as the 435:

Four-wheel drive mode – Here, depending on the nature of torque transfer to the axles, three submodes (below) can be defined.

3723:(Originally published: 1960, Washington, D.C., Office of the Chief of Military History, Dept. of the Army). p. 273/274. 1407:

race, the first hybrid/4WD to win Le Mans), using an electric motor in the front axle with the gasoline engine in the rear.

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wheels equally would normally fight the driver and cause handling problems, this is not a concern when wheels are slipping.

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four-wheel drive with two-speed dual range BorgWarner transfer case and intelligent locking center multi-disc differential

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four-wheel drive with two-speed dual range BorgWarner transfer case and intelligent locking center multi-disc differential

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and RSC (Roll Stability Control), Curve Control functionality, HDC (Hill Descent Control) and HAA (Hill Ascent Assist).

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is currently being used for the rear drive, under Ford and Ram's medium-duty trucks. The Dana 110 was also used on the

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trucks, for the 1946 model year. Both the Willys and the Dodge were developed directly from their WW II predecessors.

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patented a 4WD system, GB 1113068, that used hemispherical wheels for an all-terrain vehicle. Twenty years later,

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Cadillac Escalade, STS AWD, SRX AWD (The first two generations had a viscous clutch on the center differential) #

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locking behavior. Some designs use gearing to create a small rotational difference that hastens torque transfer.

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to independently drive two output shafts, axles that go from the differential to the wheel, at different speeds.

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ton truck was developed, and 1,700 RF-40-X-4(USA) trucks were produced in 1938, and 292 TF-40-X-4(USA) in 1939.

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To prevent slippage, some vehicles have controls for independently locking center, front, and rear differentials

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The world's first four-wheel-drive car directly powered by an internal-combustion engine, and the first with a

308: 4034: 1932:) – NV 242 transfer case- rear drive, open center differential, locked center differential, Neutral, low range 1426:

trucks. These trucks shared many parts between the light-duty and medium-duty, reducing production costs. The

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trucks have recently adopted 4×4 drivetrains; 4×4 medium-duty trucks became common after Ford began selling

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is a 4WD/AWD that powers all wheels evenly (continuously) via a manually lockable center differential, with

35: 4333: 4261: 3974: 1331:, that had both turbine engines and 4WD, as well as the 1969 4WD-Lotus 63 that had the standard 3-litre V8 5528: 5300: 5210: 5137: 4710: 2187: 2031:

Classic 1970–1995 all full-time 4WD either plate LSD, manual lock or Ferguson viscous center differential.

2009: 1843: 1308: 1250: 1009: 984: 546: 4476: 2793:

ITM3e system is used on 2006 and up Porsche 911TT's. The Borg-Warner ITM 3e is also used in the 2006-now

1592:(dubbed the "Twini Moke") in the mid-1960s, but never put it into production. This made advantage of the 1302: 729:

ton designated K-39-X-4(USA), of which 796 units were built for the U.S. Army in several configurations.

5029: 4894: 4649: 4356: 2850: 2621: 2003: 1972: 1960: 1753: 1092: 960:– the ubiquitous WWII "jeep" – that was frequently run off-road on the farm belonging to chief engineer 776: 597:

The first four-wheel-drive vehicles to go into mass production were built by (what became) the American

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in Vienna in 1899, presented to the public during the 1900 World Exhibition in Paris. The vehicle was a

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All-wheel drive (AWD) was historically synonymous with "four-wheel drive" on four-wheeled vehicles, and

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Selection lever: 2H for two-wheel drive, 4H for high-range 4WD, 4L for low-range 4WD, and N for neutral

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Center transfer case sending power from the transmission to the rear axle (right) and front axle (left)

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is credited with building and racing the first four-wheel-drive racing car, the Spyker 60 HP in 1903.

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twice as much torque to the high-traction side before traction is exceeded at the low-traction side.

360: 326:(turning speed) such that the average for the two output shafts is equal to that of the differential 87:

to all of its wheels simultaneously. It may be full-time or on-demand, and is typically linked via a

3249: 1904:

NVG 242HD AMG open center differential, locked center differential, Neutral, low range locked. Also

1616: 5607: 5381: 5102: 4914: 4659: 2615: 2428: 2234: 2057: 1941: 1886: 1773: 1558: 1389: 1358: 1339: 1295: 1113: 1035:. Partially hand-built, it was relatively unchanged during its production through 1991, even after 923: 855:

and Ford, became the best-known four-wheel-drive vehicle in the world during the war. The American

657: 135: 896:

vehicles, provided by the western allies. In 1943, they launched a further-developed version: the

526: 5513: 5391: 5363: 5107: 5039: 4543: 3577: 3536: 3024: 2563: 2523: 2519: 2502: 2278: 2262: 2068: 1921: 1890: 1777: 1749: 1745: 1692: 1332: 976: 839:

Until "go-anywhere" vehicles were needed for the military on a large scale, four-wheel drive and

796: 705: 550:

The Jeffery / Nash Quads were the first 4WD vehicles produced in five-figure numbers (1913–1928).

485:

In 1893, before the establishment of the modern automotive industry in Britain, English engineer

385: 56: 2688:

ITM3e) — excluding the 964-series Porsche 911 Carrera 4 31/69 planetary center differential

1357:

Nissan and Audi had success with all-wheel drive in road racing with the former's advent of the

971:

With the acquisition of the "Jeep" name in 1950, Willys had cornered the brand. Its successor,

406: 5538: 5401: 5386: 5373: 5353: 5333: 5328: 5172: 4065: 4006: 3888: 3741: 3640: 3631: 3600: 3517: 3490: 3394: 3311: 3053: 3047: 2951: 2880: 2755: 2751: 2538: 2532: 2256: 2222: 2019: 1989: 1978: 1945: 1807: 1396: 1234: 1191:

also developed a car built for competition in rally campaigns. A limited number of road-going

1162: 1140: 945: 701: 538: 505: 183: 127: 115: 3511: 3484: 367:

The two most common factory-installed locking differentials use either a computer-controlled

110:

Four-wheel-drive systems were developed in many different markets and used in many different

5290: 5220: 5117: 4994: 4944: 4824: 4389: 3618:

It became a famous vehicle around the world and is mentioned in a majority of the histories.

3596: 2860: 2840: 2794: 2747: 2593: 2583: 2403: 2397: 2106: 2102: 1872: 1447: 1367: 1343: 1173: 908: 812: 786:

The first Russian-produced four-wheel-drive vehicle, also in part for civilian use, was the

764: 598: 509: 323: 131: 111: 4420: 2652:: Mazda3, Mazdaspeed6, Tribute, CX-3, CX-30, CX-5, CX-50, CX-60, CX-7, CX-8, CX-9 (tribute 1392:

regulations may revive AWD/4WD in road racing, though such systems are only allowed in new

733:

supplied front axles and transfer cases, added to militarized a civilian truck. The Timken

5533: 5358: 5348: 5338: 4969: 3688: 2782: 2769: 2759: 2743: 2715: 2691: 2663: 2653: 2625: 2571: 2567: 2506: 1948: 1825: 1821: 1536: 1423: 1371: 1291: 1032: 856: 848: 840: 490: 179: 175: 1804:(RS 2000 16v 4×4 models and RS Cosworth), Sierra Cosworth, Sierra and Granada 4×4 models, 799:

body. Elements of the chassis were used in subsequent military vehicles such as the 1940

4326:"Instruction Book: Driving, Maintenance, Repair. Department of National Defence, Canada" 3807: 1988:

Navigator and Navigator L (2007–present) use a one-speed single range transfer case, no

1752:

in the 1980s – planetary center differential with a 37–63 (front-back) torque split and

767:

reconnaissance car, used by the Imperial Japanese Army from 1937 until 1944, during the

5284: 5074: 5049: 5034: 4939: 4886: 4568: 2798: 2719: 2711: 2707: 2587: 2442: 2240: 2216: 2097: 2091: 2062: 1801: 1716: 1710: 1680: 1652: 1574: 1512: 1504: 1439: 1211: 1132:

magazine concluded that the AMC Eagle was "The beginning of a new generation of cars."

1068: 860: 815: 730: 569: 473: 1430:

front axle is used on both medium- and light-duty Super Duty trucks. Furthermore, the

680: 337: 5591: 5571: 5553: 5265: 5215: 5112: 5064: 5054: 5019: 4804: 4758: 4654: 4593: 2855: 2845: 2737: 2703: 2675: 2609: 2558: 2350: 1925: 1882: 1878: 1858: 1848: 1769: 1765: 1626: 1622: 1578: 1375: 1316: 1215: 1199: 1117: 1050: 1005: 992: 961: 734: 517: 498: 203: 199: 169: 160:

that switches between 2WD and 4WD operating modes, either manually or automatically.

157: 99: 88: 60: 52: 3422: 3001:

Surface Vehicle Recommended Practice – J1952 – All-Wheel Drive System Classification

2646:(a power takeoff unit linked to clutch pack with torque sensitive rear differential) 5014: 5009: 4919: 4763: 4738: 4588: 2825: 2605: 2527: 2282: 2228: 2038: 1917: 1829: 1732: 1719:

Q4 (central epicyclic unit, Ferguson viscous coupling and Torsen rear differential)

1675: 1641: 1633: 1605: 1496: 1238: 1207: 1195: 1158: 1058: 1046: 1017: 791: 685: 645: 638: 377: 3590: 3578:

The world's first mass-produced compact 4WD car, restored – Japanese Nostalgic Car

4444:"2011 Ford Explorer puts four-cylinder EcoBoost engine above V6 in pecking order" 3229: 2034:

Range Rover 2nd Gen. 1994–2002 full-time 4WD Ferguson viscous center differential

1735:

Coupé, 80, 90, 100 & 200 (locking center and rear differentials) – up to 1987

660:, in 1907, that was used by German colonial civil servant, Bernhard Dernburg, in 5566: 5508: 5503: 5320: 5260: 5245: 5200: 5132: 5069: 5024: 4929: 4814: 4799: 4794: 4789: 4677: 4583: 3920: 2785:-based car list was created from the list on Haldex Traction corporate website: 2731: 2681: 2643: 2631: 2552: 2548: 2459: 2453: 2446: 2418: 2373: 2289:– planetary center differential with permanent 38–62 (front-back) torque split # 2028: 1862: 1811: 1781: 1645: 1637: 1593: 1347: 1312: 1301:

Miller produced the first 4WD car to qualify for the Indianapolis 500, the 1938

1265: 1257: 1222: 1166: 1105: 972: 965: 912: 904: 884:

Availability of certain critical components, such transfer cases and especially

605:, founded in 1908. (not to be confused with the term "FWD" as an initialism for 206:, which controls the torque distribution between its two motors electronically. 2722:

automatic transmission models: mechanical front drive, clutch coupled rear axle

1002:-powered Super Wagoneer produced from 1966 to 1969 raised the bar even higher. 47: 5162: 5147: 5142: 4909: 4748: 4730: 4641: 4603: 4578: 4284:"Hybrid Tech Dominates The 24 Hours Of Le Mans Endurance Race [VIDEO]" 3104: 2790: 2685: 2577: 2542: 2515: 2387:(normally rear-drive, automatic clutch in transfer case engages 4WD on demand) 2286: 2246: 2081: 1835: 1688: 1570: 1446:

began selling medium-duty trucks, 4×4 and 4×2, in 2008. General Motors sold a

1443: 1435: 1320: 1230: 1170: 964:, Land Rover developed the more refined yet still off-road capable luxury 4WD 952: 893: 530:

is not frequently given its credit as the first four-wheel driven automobile.

312: 98:

A four-wheel drive vehicle with torque supplied to both axles is described as

92: 91:

providing an additional output drive shaft and, in many instances, additional

80: 3589:

Beth F. Scott; James C. Rainey; Andrew W. Hunt, eds. (2000). "World War II".

2919: 1651:

Chrysler's Jeep Division debuted the twin-engined, 670 hp (500 kW)

1016:

built from 1966 to 1971, marking the first time 4WD was used in a production

863:

4x4 variants were also produced by the hundreds of thousands, as well as the

5310: 5250: 5190: 5157: 5059: 5044: 5004: 4999: 4979: 4959: 4904: 4872: 4867: 4862: 4857: 4852: 4847: 4842: 4837: 4832: 4743: 4720: 4616: 4573: 2473: 1965: 1759: 1722: 1589: 1554: 1548: 1261: 1148: 1144: 1101: 1085: 1073: 1013: 999: 957: 844: 622: 602: 573: 565: 521: 468: 327: 3444: 497:, which was subsequently built. The development also incorporated Bramah's 376:

cause additional traction loss. In the viscous coupling differentials, the

3917:"All-Wheel-Drive Revisited: AMC's 1980 Eagle pioneered the cross-over SUV" 1914:

Jeep Grand Cherokee, Commander (except models equipped with Quadra-Trac I)

1713:

Q4 (central viscous coupling, epicyclic unit and Torsen rear differential)

5548: 5543: 5518: 5255: 4984: 4974: 4964: 4949: 4924: 4768: 4753: 4715: 4687: 4631: 4621: 4558: 4085: 4038: 3296: 2768:: S40, S60, S80, V50, V70, XC70, XC90 (Visco system until 2003; then all 2599: 2477: 2469: 2465: 2203: 2162: 2144: 2131: 2121: 1544: 1400: 1335: 1328: 1324: 1203: 1177: 1136: 1036: 464:

The 1893 Diplock Steam Locomotive was the world's first 4WD land vehicle.

381: 318:

The differential does this by distributing angular force (in the form of

3133: 2944:

Andreev, Alexandr F.; Kabanau, Viachaslau; Vantsevich, Vladimir (2010).

2566:: Escape, Freestyle, Edge, Fusion, Five Hundred (Freestyle, FiveHundred 1543:, which is popular with defense forces around the globe, and 10-wheeled 5195: 5185: 5152: 5127: 5122: 4989: 4954: 4773: 4669: 4626: 4611: 4563: 2498: 2494: 2490: 2250: 2180: 2176: 2171: 2167: 2158: 2154: 2149: 2140: 2136: 2126: 1935: 1738: 1597: 1516: 1501: 1427: 1287: 1226: 1124: 940: 661: 3049:

Arsenal of Democracy: The American Automobile Industry in World War II

2219:(Only 2003-2009 model and 2010+ Limited V6 model) Torsen T-3 with lock 1366:

ban on the car. Most controversial was the win pulled off at the 1990

1225:

four-wheel-drive cars were the various road-legal rally cars made for

715:

Dodge developed its first four-wheel-drive truck in 1934 — a military

692: 290: 5205: 3469:

1943 Dodge WC-51 Weapons Carrier, Power & Glory – FourWheeler.com

2778: 2725: 2697: 2436: 2432: 2422: 2384: 2377: 2344: 2337: 2308: 2085: 2051: 2013: 1997: 1905: 1901: 1866: 1815: 1795: 1785: 1281: 1188: 1042: 897: 852: 808: 804: 800: 787: 780: 560: 392: 319: 299: 84: 3135:"1929: AEC started to build AWD trucks in conjunction with FWD (UK)" 2728:: SX4, XL7, Aerio, Swift/Cultus based Subaru Justy. (viscous clutch) 1577:

Sahara in 1958. Unlike other 4×4 vehicles, which use a conventional

1165:, had noticed in winter tests in Finland that a vehicle used by the 187: 3423:"The Jefferys Quad and Nash Quad — 4x4 Ancestor to the Willys Jeep" 3342: 2259:

Torsen T-2 (B5.5 model, not latest B6 model with transverse engine)

1157:

also introduced a permanently all-wheel-driven road-going car, the

911:, of which only some 50,000 were built, though being equipped with 418:

Selection lever: All-time 4WD, neutral, and part-time low-range 4WD

17: 5079: 4934: 3343:

The Badger and F.W.D. Four-Wheel Drive Automobiles – The Old Motor

2765: 2649: 2364: 2333: 2314:

Plymouth Trail Duster 1974–1981 – NP203 FullTime 4WD Transfer Case

1672: 1495: 1370:, where the car led from start to finish. Audi's dominance in the 1116:. They ushered a whole new product category of "sport-utility" or 1109: 1091: 1079: 1067: 996: 930: 922: 830: 691: 679: 671: 545: 537: 467: 459: 413: 405: 336: 295: 289: 273: 141: 46: 3633:

Arsenal of Democracy: The American Automobile Industry in World

2113: 1728: 1601: 1154: 819: 4507: 4497:

According to Car and Driver Vol52 No 8, February 2007, page 110

4115:"All-Wheel-Drive Vehicles Grow in Popularity With Car Shoppers" 3202:"The Model D Is Tesla's Most Powerful Car Ever, Plus Autopilot" 2909:"All – Wheel Drive / Four – Wheel Drive Systems and Strategies" 2120:– various iterations of Torsen, the T-3 starting from the 2007 5239: 4809: 4697: 4534: 3359:"FWD Seagrave Model B: One of the First Successful 4x4 Trucks" 2820: 2512: 1434:

share/shared parts between the companies, reducing costs. The

988: 4503: 4192:"The myth of all-wheel-drive and why it can be a deadly trap" 2298:

Dodge Ramcharger 1974–1981 – NP203 FullTime 4WD Transfer Case

3884:

Rallying to win: a complete guide to North American rallying

2973:"Alphabet Soup: 4×4 vs 4WD vs AWD Where's the Differential?" 1684:

conditions and need, making this an all-wheel-drive system.

1012:(FF) full-time all-wheel-drive system to 318 units of their 951:

Equally boxy to the Jeep, and also inline-four powered, the

579:

Designs for four-wheel drive in America first came from the

2311:

cars, R class, and ML class (note some MLs had low range) #

1065:

FIA championship with a Quadra Trac-equipped Jeep in 1972.

763:

built roughly 4,700 four-wheel-drive roadsters, called the

472:

The Lohner–Porsche Mixte Hybrid was both the world's first

3179:"Jeep Grand Cherokee 4WD System Breakthrough – 4x... For?" 2411:(2003–2006) independent front and rear axle coupling, and 3332:

Spyker 60-hp Four-wheel Drive Racing Car – Louwman Museum

2025:

Porsche Cayenne – 38/62 planetary with lockup clutch pack

2006:(locking center and lockers on both front- and rear axle) 1315:

car that actually won a non-World Championship race with

2000:(locking center and rear with up to 10 low range gears). 476:, and the first four-wheel drive without a steam engine. 399:

A fairly recent innovation in automobiles is electronic

2947:

Driveline Systems of Ground Vehicles: Theory and Design

2590:

Borg-Warner ITM 3e magnetic multi-plate clutch coupling

1294:, in 1932, but the cars were notorious for having poor 1147:

body was reinforced for the conversion and had a steel

489:

patented a four-wheel drive system for a steam-powered

1756:(also in rear differential but not front differential) 1596:'power pack' layout, with a transverse engine and the 1290:

created a total of three four-wheel-drive racers, the

979:

in 1963. Not only was it technically innovative, with

254:

On-demand independently powered variable-torque active

4141:"Thirty-percent of new car sales will be AWD by 2015" 3595:. The Air Force Logistics Management Agency. p. 2758:(B6) 4motion (initially viscous coupling, later with 3306: 3304: 1202:

All-Trac Turbo in North America) were produced. The

391:

A third approach to limiting slippage is taken by a

5486: 5400: 5372: 5319: 5171: 5093: 4885: 4823: 4782: 4729: 4696: 4668: 4640: 4602: 4551: 4542: 1861:– permanent four-wheel-drive (1974–1979) two-speed 1810:– permanent four-wheel-drive (1974–1979) two-speed 1780:– permanent four-wheel-drive (1973–1979) two-speed 811:, and the properly civilian GAZ-M-72, based on the 63:

to select low-range or high-range four-wheel drive.

3639:. Wayne State University Press. pp. 152–153. 3052:. Wayne State University Press. pp. 147–148. 2462:PSK front axle coupling, rear differential locking 1865:203 transfer case, center differential with 50:50 1814:203 transfer case, center differential with 50:50 1784:203 transfer case, center differential with 50:50 975:, introduced a revolutionary 4WD wagon called the 648:also has a history in four-wheel drive. After the 30:Several terms redirect here. For other uses, see 4413:"Ferrari FF The inside scoop on Ferrari's new FF" 4240:The 4-Wheel Drives: Racing's Formula for Failure? 4037:. Autoweek (archived at amxfiles). Archived from 3017:"4WD vs 2WD: The Differences Between 4×4 And 4×2" 1076:, world's first 4WD in a production GT sports car 2439:) front axle coupling, rear differential locking 1511:Volvo introduced the Model 646 four-wheel-drive 1206:system was later available on serial production 676:The 1936–1944 Kurogane Type 95 scout car (Japan) 222:the inclusion or exclusion of a low-range gear. 3716:The Ordnance Department: procurement and supply 3592:The Logistics of War – a historical perspective 3393:. Society of Automotive Engineers. p. 76. 2883:vehicles had not yet become common at that time 1180:to improve Audi's conservative image. The Audi 514:k. u. k. Hofwagenfabrik Ludwig Lohner & Co. 1975:across the otherwise open center differential. 1897:was optional for the rear hypoid differential. 4519: 1644:. (This is similar to the system used on the 1233:made from 1984 to 1986. In 1989, niche maker 1135:The Eagles were popular (particularly in the 783:is also a result of Mercedes 4x4 technology. 652:had built a four-wheel-driven vehicle called 8: 4469:"Ford – Cars, SUVs, Trucks & Crossovers" 3382: 3380: 2304:GMC Yukon Denali, XL Denali, Sierra Denali # 2071:-double pinion 50/50 with lockup clutch pack 1741:-double pinion 50/50 with lockup clutch pack 1632:Nissan Motors has developed a system called 1327:and three years later in Formula 1 with the 1237:created a mid-engined four-wheel drive, the 1184:system became a feature on production cars. 881:million 4x4 driven vehicles during the war, 572:(the former Nationaal Automobiel Museum) in 4064:. Publications International. p. 532. 3740:(Fourth ed.). Routledge. p. 431. 3537:1946–1948 Dodge Power Wagon – HowStuffWorks 3464: 3462: 3172: 3170: 2634:: AWD variants VT series (viscous traction) 1834:four-wheel drive with two-speed dual range 1660:direction from the other. It also has dual 4548: 4526: 4512: 4504: 4382:"2009 Ford Escape Hybrid Review and Specs" 3774:4 Wheel Drive & Sport Utility Magazine 2916:Seoul 2000 FISITA World Automotive Congres 1100:American Motors introduced the innovative 827:World War II – a leap in AWD proliferation 493:, including four-wheel steering and three 27:Type of drivetrain with four driven wheels 2700:low powered automatic transmission models 2225:(only manual models) Torsen T-3 with lock 1198:Special Vehicle Celica GT-Four (known as 1088:wagon, the most popular model in the line 380:of high shaft speed differences causes a 248:On-demand synchro variable-torque passive 4930:Cabriolet / Convertible / Drophead coupe 4108: 4106: 3687:Winnington-Ball, Geoff (10 March 2002). 3516:. MotorBooks International. p. 55. 3489:. MotorBooks International. p. 21. 3147:"The First Century of GMC Truck History" 2596:IMJ magnetic multi-plate clutch coupling 1705:Center differential with mechanical lock 843:vehicles had not found their place. The 251:On-demand synchro variable-torque active 5276:Homogeneous charge compression ignition 4254:"The 2011 Le Mans 24 Hours Regulations" 3919:. Automotive Industries. Archived from 3770:"1963 Jeep Wagoneer – Landmark Vehicle" 2995: 2993: 2902: 2900: 2896: 2873: 1911:Hummer H2, H3 40/60 planetary with lock 1608:had more user-friendly linked systems. 1452: 590:has a four-wheel-drive vehicle, named " 508:designed and built a four-wheel-driven 3975:"A Breed of 4-by-4 Hatched on the Fly" 3713:Thomson, Harry C.; Mayo, Lida (2003). 2194:initially Torsen T-2, current have T-3 2192:Bentley Continental Flying Spur (2005) 1657:North American International Auto Show 907:' closest equivalent to the jeep, the 684:The 1938–1945 GAZ-61 four-wheel drive 282:is an AWD that powers the front via a 4166:"Do You Really Need AWD in the Snow?" 3721:Center of Military History, U.S. Army 3660:Taylor, Peter Shawn (19 April 2016). 3421:Redgap, Curtis; Watson, Bill (2010). 3278:. Ultimate Car Page. 19 November 2007 556:front-engine, four-wheel-drive layout 302:differentials for both front and rear 139:capital 'X' – as "4 X 2" or "6 X 4". 7: 4355:Melissen, Wouter (1 December 2004). 3510:DeLorenzo, Matt (15 February 2014). 3071: 3069: 2353:– Ford's full-time shift-on-the-fly 1161:, in 1980. Audi's chassis engineer, 935:A first-generation Dodge Power Wagon 642:total of 41,674 units made by 1928. 594:", from 1905 in unrestored storage. 2734:– from 2005 (third generation only) 2678:automatic with manual lockup switch 2662:: Milan, Montego, Mariner (Montego 1519:followed suit in the U.S. in 1987. 1143:was added to the line. The Eagle's 759:Starting in 1936, Japanese company 190:drive-train systems that include a 3737:Light and Heavy Vehicle Technology 3177:Sheppard, Tom (1 September 2005). 2357:(I-4WD) on the 2011 Explorer with 1474:Heavy-duty International Workstar 1045:introduced the category-expanding 696:1940 GAZ-64 jeep-like car (Russia) 25: 4940:Coupé de Ville / Sedanca de Ville 4411:Horrell, Paul (25 January 2011). 4190:Peter, Cheney (22 October 2015). 4086:"Celica All Trac and Gt-Four FAQ" 3830:"1978–1979 Jeep Wagoneer Limited" 3559:from the original on 18 July 2016 3276:"Lohner–Porsche Mixte Voiturette" 3003:, SAE International, October 2013 2022:(also known as Montero or Shogun) 1895:Eaton Automatic Differential Lock 1791:Eaton Automatic Differential Lock 1588:experimented with a twin-engined 915:hubs, only had rear-wheel drive. 242:Full-time variable-torque passive 32:Four-wheel drive (disambiguation) 4442:Abuelsamid, Sam (26 July 2010). 4260:. 6 October 2010. Archived from 3944:"Four-Wheeling Into Your Future" 3768:Foster, Patrick (January 2008). 3200:Davies, Alex (10 October 2014). 2320:Toyota Sienna AWD (−2010 only) # 2237:200/2008/V8 Torsen T-3 with lock 1486:Ford medium-duty 4×4 drive train 1479: 1467: 1455: 1096:A 1981 AMC Eagle AWD convertible 1049:in 1972, an inexpensive compact 865:Canadian Military Pattern trucks 245:Full-time variable-torque active 3390:World history of the automobile 3248:. 27 March 2006. Archived from 3145:Meyer, Donald E. (March 2009). 2831:Four-wheel drive in Formula One 2272:Non-locking center differential 1342:also raced a similar MS84, and 1256:In 2008, Nissan introduced the 352:Limited-slip differential (LSD) 5577:Template:EC car classification 4218:"First Look: 2008 Nissan GT-R" 4060:Consumer's Guide, ed. (2005). 3915:Sherman, Don (February 2001). 3806:. 25 July 2007. Archived from 2907:Mohan, Sankar (12 June 2000). 2213:Range Rover 3rd Gen. 2002–2009 1557:is a related term applying to 1264:. The AWD system requires two 835:The 1940–1945 Willys U.S. Jeep 1: 4302:"Volvo BM 646 Backhoe/Loader" 4216:Loh, Edward (December 2007). 3662:"The Trucks that Beat Hitler" 3230:Diplock 4WD Locomotive Patent 3105:"4WD vs AWD: What's the Diff" 2402:2010 Mitsubishi Outlander GT 2390:Mitsubishi GTO MR/3000GT VR-4 2383:Mercedes-Benz 1st generation 322:) evenly, while distributing 40:Four by four (disambiguation) 4475:(in Spanish). Archived from 4062:History of the American Auto 3942:Rettie, John (August 1987). 3887:. W.W. Norton. p. 150. 3297:History of 4WD Sport – OF4WD 3242:"History of Hybrid Vehicles" 2971:Dykes, Alex (17 June 2013). 2047:electronic stability control 1311:built the front-engined P99 981:independent front suspension 939:Willys introduced the model 650:Daimler Motoren Gesellschaft 3084:. Consumer Reports Magazine 2684:AWD variants (a version of 2485:Multi-plate clutch coupling 2394:Mitsubishi Lancer Evolution 2340:) Right and left axle shaft 2301:Dodge Magnum, Charger AWD # 2127:80, 90 & Coupé (Typ 89) 1828:(2007–present) – automatic 1687:The 4RM system used in the 1450:for model years 2005–2009. 1382:ban on AWD system in 1998. 1029:American Motors Corporation 5644: 5266:Gasoline / petrol 5030:Roadster / Spider / Spyder 4307:. Volvo AB. Archived from 3973:Sass, Rob (9 March 2008). 2413:Active Center Differential 2076:Torsen center differential 1794:was optional for the rear 1725:(central viscous coupling) 1229:homologation, such as the 847:, originally developed by 520:car that used an electric 349: 267: 167: 59:) is a 4WD vehicle with a 29: 5562: 5406:(engine / drive) 3856:"1967–1977 Jeep Wagoneer" 3630:Hyde, Charles K. (2013). 3447:. Marmon-Herrington. 2009 3046:Hyde, Charles K. (2013). 2950:. CRC Press. p. 34. 2836:Limited slip differential 2740:AWD (2011 and newer only) 2359:Terrain Management System 2247:Volkswagen Passenger Cars 2231:Surf Torsen T-3 with lock 2208:Toyota Land Cruiser Prado 1492:In construction equipment 1462:GM 4×4 medium-duty trucks 1260:featuring a rear-mounted 1063:Press-on-Regardless Rally 807:, as well as the postwar 702:Marmon-Herrington Company 581:Twyford Motor Car Company 210:SAE recommended practices 79:, is a two-axled vehicle 5618:All-wheel-drive vehicles 5045:Sedan delivery/Panel van 3999:Padgett, Martin (2004). 3387:Eckermann, Erik (2001). 1981:(1998–2006) – automatic 1851:(1995–2010) – automatic 927:A 1945 Willys CJ-2A Jeep 886:constant-velocity joints 769:Second Sino-Japanese War 5613:Four-wheel drive layout 5306:Liquified petroleum gas 5118:Driverless (autonomous) 4035:"1980–88 AMC Eagle 4wd" 3445:"History of Innovation" 2781:(TM) system. Note: the 2622:Land Rover Freelander 2 2452:Nissan A31 Cefiro SE4 ( 2328:Multiple-clutch systems 1844:multi-disc differential 1401:Audi R18 e-tron quattro 851:, but mass-produced by 588:Reynolds-Alberta Museum 452:split of the 2WD mode. 5211:Compressed natural gas 5138:Personal rapid transit 4332:. 1940. Archived from 4005:. Zenith. p. 26. 3734:Nunney, M J J (2012). 3181:. Four Wheeler Network 3111:. Motor Trend Magazine 2545:ITM3e) (on 2007 model) 2355:Intelligent 4WD System 2188:Bentley Continental GT 2016:all-wheel-drive system 2010:Mercedes-Benz GL-Class 1700:Systems by design type 1508: 1309:Ferguson Research Ltd. 1097: 1089: 1077: 985:automatic transmission 936: 928: 836: 697: 689: 677: 601:Auto Company (FWD) of 551: 543: 477: 465: 419: 411: 342: 303: 287: 280:Lamborghini Murciélago 239:Full-time fixed torque 147: 64: 5477:Dual motor-four-wheel 5075:Town (Coupé de Ville) 4238:Henry, Allan (1975). 3881:Calvin, Jean (1974). 3800:"1966–1971 Jensen FF" 3689:"CMP Softskin Trucks" 3549:"Serial Number Guide" 2977:thetruthaboutcars.com 2851:Sport utility vehicle 2618:and SRT8 NVG 249, 247 2243:(only 2005–07 Models) 2198:Chevrolet Trailblazer 2004:Mercedes-Benz G-Class 1961:Land Rover Freelander 1499: 1399:. One example is the 1221:Some of the earliest 1095: 1083: 1071: 934: 926: 834: 777:Mercedes-Benz G-Class 695: 683: 675: 656:, also equipped with 549: 541: 487:Bramah Joseph Diplock 471: 463: 417: 409: 373:viscous coupling unit 361:Locking differentials 340: 293: 284:viscous coupling unit 277: 145: 83:capable of providing 50: 5488:Engine configuration 4479:on 30 September 2010 4357:"Citroën 2CV Sahara" 4314:on 22 December 2015. 3719:. Washington, D.C.: 3486:Four-Wheeler's Bible 3154:gmheritagecenter.com 2672:(current generation) 2670:Mitsubishi Outlander 2409:Mitsubishi Outlander 1955:Land Rover Discovery 1906:Torsen1 differential 1655:concept at the 2005 1559:all-terrain vehicles 1378:eventually led to a 1008:applied the Formula 761:Tokyu Kurogane Kogyo 633:About 11,500 of the 233:Part-time nonsynchro 75:("four by four") or 36:4×4 (disambiguation) 5494:internal combustion 5296:Internal combustion 5103:All-terrain vehicle 5025:Retractable hardtop 4361:Ultimatecarpage.com 4330:bcoy1cpb.pacdat.net 4033:Foster, Patrick R. 3668:. Postmedia Network 3363:Fourwheeler Network 3312:"1903 Spyker 60 HP" 3252:on 4 September 2009 3082:ConsumerReports.com 3078:"2WD vs AWD vs 4WD" 3027:on 21 February 2009 2925:on 22 December 2015 2789:. A version of the 2616:Jeep Grand Cherokee 2429:Nissan Skyline GT-R 2317:Toyota Highlander # 2235:Toyota Land Cruiser 2058:Toyota Land Cruiser 1942:Land Rover Defender 1824:(1997–present) and 1788:split and lock. An 1547:made famous by the 1390:24 Hours of Le Mans 1359:Nissan Skyline GT-R 1303:Miller Gulf Special 1114:automobile platform 790:, developed in the 658:four-wheel steering 576:, the Netherlands. 130:or the rear two in 5628:British inventions 5623:English inventions 4196:The Globe and Mail 3979:The New York Times 3365:. Extreme Ventures 3131:Automotive History 2295:Chrysler 300C AWD# 2263:Volkswagen Phaeton 2069:Volkswagen Touareg 1922:Jeep Cherokee (XJ) 1838:transfer case and 1509: 1397:Le Mans prototypes 1352:British Grand Prix 1323:raced cars in the 1319:in 1961. In 1968, 1123:The Eagle's thick 1098: 1090: 1078: 1039:'s buyout of AMC. 937: 929: 837: 698: 690: 678: 552: 544: 478: 466: 420: 412: 343: 311:. This allows one 304: 288: 148: 65: 38:, and 5598:Off-road vehicles 5585: 5584: 4881: 4880: 4650:Compact executive 4071:978-0-7853-9874-5 4012:978-0-7603-1863-8 3948:Popular Mechanics 3894:978-0-87880-017-9 3747:978-0-7506-8037-0 3693:Maple Leaf Up.net 3646:978-0-8143-3952-7 3606:978-1-4289-9378-5 3523:978-1-62788-084-8 3496:978-1-61673-088-8 3400:978-0-7680-0800-5 3059:978-0-8143-3952-7 2957:978-1-4398-1728-5 2881:Front-wheel drive 2756:Volkswagen Passat 2752:Volkswagen Tiguan 2539:Chrysler Pacifica 2533:Chevrolet Equinox 2285:between 2001 and 2257:Volkswagen Passat 2223:Toyota FJ Cruiser 2020:Mitsubishi Pajero 1990:reduction gearing 1979:Lincoln Navigator 1826:Expedition EL/Max 1808:Dodge Power Wagon 1613:A. J. M. Chadwick 1551:in World War II. 1235:Panther Westwinds 903:By contrast, the 845:World War II Jeep 607:front-wheel-drive 506:Ferdinand Porsche 369:multiplate clutch 346:Limiting slippage 286:if the rear slips 236:Part-time synchro 128:front-wheel drive 116:SAE International 112:vehicle platforms 100:"all-wheel drive" 16:(Redirected from 5635: 5497: 5456:Front-four-wheel 5407: 5270:direct injection 5181:Alternative fuel 4995:Multi-stop truck 4549: 4528: 4521: 4514: 4505: 4498: 4495: 4489: 4488: 4486: 4484: 4473:FordVehicles.com 4465: 4459: 4458: 4456: 4454: 4439: 4433: 4432: 4430: 4428: 4419:. Archived from 4408: 4402: 4401: 4399: 4397: 4388:. Archived from 4378: 4372: 4371: 4369: 4367: 4352: 4346: 4345: 4343: 4341: 4336:on 21 March 2012 4322: 4316: 4315: 4313: 4306: 4298: 4292: 4291: 4280: 4274: 4273: 4271: 4269: 4250: 4244: 4243: 4235: 4229: 4228: 4226: 4224: 4213: 4207: 4206: 4204: 4202: 4187: 4181: 4180: 4178: 4176: 4170:Consumer Reports 4162: 4156: 4155: 4153: 4151: 4136: 4130: 4129: 4127: 4125: 4110: 4101: 4100: 4098: 4096: 4082: 4076: 4075: 4057: 4051: 4050: 4048: 4046: 4041:on 30 April 2008 4030: 4024: 4023: 4021: 4019: 3996: 3990: 3989: 3987: 3985: 3970: 3964: 3963: 3961: 3959: 3939: 3933: 3932: 3930: 3928: 3912: 3906: 3905: 3903: 3901: 3878: 3872: 3871: 3869: 3867: 3862:. 29 August 2007 3852: 3846: 3845: 3843: 3841: 3836:. 29 August 2007 3826: 3820: 3819: 3817: 3815: 3796: 3790: 3789: 3787: 3785: 3776:. Archived from 3765: 3759: 3758: 3756: 3754: 3731: 3725: 3724: 3710: 3704: 3703: 3701: 3699: 3684: 3678: 3677: 3675: 3673: 3657: 3651: 3650: 3636: 3627: 3621: 3620: 3615: 3613: 3586: 3580: 3575: 3569: 3568: 3566: 3564: 3545: 3539: 3534: 3528: 3527: 3507: 3501: 3500: 3477: 3471: 3466: 3457: 3456: 3454: 3452: 3441: 3435: 3434: 3432: 3430: 3418: 3412: 3411: 3409: 3407: 3384: 3375: 3374: 3372: 3370: 3351: 3345: 3340: 3334: 3329: 3323: 3322: 3320: 3318: 3308: 3299: 3294: 3288: 3287: 3285: 3283: 3272: 3266: 3261: 3259: 3257: 3238: 3232: 3227: 3221: 3220: 3214: 3212: 3197: 3191: 3190: 3188: 3186: 3174: 3165: 3164: 3162: 3160: 3151: 3142: 3136: 3127: 3121: 3120: 3118: 3116: 3103:Williams, Mark. 3100: 3094: 3093: 3091: 3089: 3076:Collard, Chris. 3073: 3064: 3063: 3043: 3037: 3036: 3034: 3032: 3023:. Archived from 3012: 3006: 3004: 2997: 2988: 2987: 2985: 2983: 2968: 2962: 2961: 2941: 2935: 2934: 2932: 2930: 2924: 2918:. Archived from 2913: 2904: 2884: 2878: 2861:Driveline windup 2841:Off-road vehicle 2795:Hyundai Santa Fe 2748:Volkswagen Jetta 2594:Hyundai Veracruz 2584:Hyundai Santa Fe 2528:latest X5 series 2043:traction control 1973:viscous coupling 1517:Case Corporation 1483: 1471: 1459: 1368:Macau Grand Prix 1167:West German Army 880: 879: 875: 872: 813:rear-wheel drive 765:Kurogane Type 95 755: 754: 750: 747: 728: 727: 723: 720: 620: 619: 615: 611:Along with the 1 599:Four Wheel Drive 558:, was the Dutch 510:electric vehicle 401:traction control 324:angular velocity 132:rear-wheel drive 69:four-wheel drive 21: 5643: 5642: 5638: 5637: 5636: 5634: 5633: 5632: 5588: 5587: 5586: 5581: 5558: 5529:Single-cylinder 5491: 5490: 5482: 5470:Rear-four-wheel 5421:Front mid-front 5405: 5404: 5396: 5374:Engine position 5368: 5315: 5301:Liquid nitrogen 5167: 5095: 5089: 4877: 4819: 4778: 4725: 4711:Crossover (CUV) 4692: 4664: 4636: 4598: 4538: 4532: 4502: 4501: 4496: 4492: 4482: 4480: 4467: 4466: 4462: 4452: 4450: 4441: 4440: 4436: 4426: 4424: 4410: 4409: 4405: 4395: 4393: 4392:on 1 March 2009 4380: 4379: 4375: 4365: 4363: 4354: 4353: 4349: 4339: 4337: 4324: 4323: 4319: 4311: 4304: 4300: 4299: 4295: 4282: 4281: 4277: 4267: 4265: 4264:on 13 June 2010 4252: 4251: 4247: 4237: 4236: 4232: 4222: 4220: 4215: 4214: 4210: 4200: 4198: 4189: 4188: 4184: 4174: 4172: 4164: 4163: 4159: 4149: 4147: 4138: 4137: 4133: 4123: 4121: 4112: 4111: 4104: 4094: 4092: 4084: 4083: 4079: 4072: 4059: 4058: 4054: 4044: 4042: 4032: 4031: 4027: 4017: 4015: 4013: 3998: 3997: 3993: 3983: 3981: 3972: 3971: 3967: 3957: 3955: 3941: 3940: 3936: 3926: 3924: 3914: 3913: 3909: 3899: 3897: 3895: 3880: 3879: 3875: 3865: 3863: 3860:How Stuff Works 3854: 3853: 3849: 3839: 3837: 3834:How Stuff Works 3828: 3827: 3823: 3813: 3811: 3810:on 12 June 2011 3804:How Stuff Works 3798: 3797: 3793: 3783: 3781: 3780:on 20 July 2010 3767: 3766: 3762: 3752: 3750: 3748: 3733: 3732: 3728: 3712: 3711: 3707: 3697: 3695: 3686: 3685: 3681: 3671: 3669: 3659: 3658: 3654: 3647: 3634: 3629: 3628: 3624: 3611: 3609: 3607: 3588: 3587: 3583: 3576: 3572: 3562: 3560: 3547: 3546: 3542: 3535: 3531: 3524: 3513:Dodge 100 Years 3509: 3508: 3504: 3497: 3479: 3478: 3474: 3467: 3460: 3450: 3448: 3443: 3442: 3438: 3428: 3426: 3420: 3419: 3415: 3405: 3403: 3401: 3386: 3385: 3378: 3368: 3366: 3353: 3352: 3348: 3341: 3337: 3330: 3326: 3316: 3314: 3310: 3309: 3302: 3295: 3291: 3281: 3279: 3274: 3273: 3269: 3255: 3253: 3240: 3239: 3235: 3228: 3224: 3210: 3208: 3199: 3198: 3194: 3184: 3182: 3176: 3175: 3168: 3158: 3156: 3149: 3144: 3143: 3139: 3128: 3124: 3114: 3112: 3102: 3101: 3097: 3087: 3085: 3075: 3074: 3067: 3060: 3045: 3044: 3040: 3030: 3028: 3014: 3013: 3009: 2999: 2998: 2991: 2981: 2979: 2970: 2969: 2965: 2958: 2943: 2942: 2938: 2928: 2926: 2922: 2911: 2906: 2905: 2898: 2893: 2888: 2887: 2879: 2875: 2870: 2865: 2816: 2807: 2783:Haldex Traction 2770:Haldex Traction 2760:Haldex Traction 2744:Volkswagen Golf 2692:Pontiac Torrent 2664:Haldex Traction 2654:Control Trac II 2626:Haldex Traction 2580:, HR-V, Element 2572:Control Trac II 2570:based) (Escape 2568:Haldex Traction 2524:latest 5 series 2520:latest 3 Series 2507:Haldex Traction 2487: 2437:ATTESA E-TS-PRO 2330: 2274: 2078: 1936:Full size Jeeps 1869:split and lock. 1842:locking center 1822:Ford Expedition 1818:split and lock. 1707: 1702: 1669:hybrid vehicles 1625:introduced the 1567: 1565:Unusual systems 1525: 1494: 1487: 1484: 1475: 1472: 1463: 1460: 1424:Ford Super Duty 1413: 1411:In heavy trucks 1372:Trans-Am Series 1279: 1274: 1247: 1084:A 1987 AWD AMC 1026: 921: 877: 873: 870: 868: 857:Dodge WC series 849:American Bantam 841:all-wheel-drive 829: 752: 748: 745: 743: 725: 721: 718: 716: 670: 617: 613: 612: 610: 536: 491:traction engine 483: 458: 425: 423:Operating modes 354: 348: 272: 266: 261: 212: 202:variant of the 186:, 4×4, 6×6, or 176:six-wheel drive 172: 166: 153: 134:. Similarly, a 124: 108: 55:(pictured is a 43: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 5641: 5639: 5631: 5630: 5625: 5620: 5615: 5610: 5605: 5600: 5590: 5589: 5583: 5582: 5580: 5579: 5574: 5569: 5563: 5560: 5559: 5557: 5556: 5551: 5546: 5541: 5536: 5531: 5526: 5521: 5516: 5511: 5506: 5500: 5498: 5484: 5483: 5481: 5480: 5473: 5466: 5463:Mid-four-wheel 5459: 5452: 5445: 5438: 5431: 5424: 5417: 5410: 5408: 5398: 5397: 5395: 5394: 5389: 5384: 5378: 5376: 5370: 5369: 5367: 5366: 5361: 5356: 5351: 5346: 5341: 5336: 5331: 5325: 5323: 5317: 5316: 5314: 5313: 5308: 5303: 5298: 5293: 5288: 5278: 5273: 5263: 5258: 5253: 5248: 5243: 5233: 5227: 5218: 5213: 5208: 5203: 5198: 5193: 5188: 5183: 5177: 5175: 5169: 5168: 5166: 5165: 5160: 5155: 5150: 5145: 5140: 5135: 5130: 5125: 5120: 5115: 5110: 5105: 5099: 5097: 5091: 5090: 5088: 5087: 5082: 5077: 5072: 5067: 5062: 5057: 5052: 5050:Shooting brake 5047: 5042: 5040:Saloon / Sedan 5037: 5032: 5027: 5022: 5017: 5012: 5007: 5002: 4997: 4992: 4987: 4982: 4977: 4972: 4967: 4962: 4957: 4952: 4947: 4942: 4937: 4932: 4927: 4922: 4917: 4912: 4907: 4902: 4897: 4891: 4889: 4883: 4882: 4879: 4878: 4876: 4875: 4870: 4865: 4860: 4855: 4850: 4845: 4840: 4835: 4829: 4827: 4821: 4820: 4818: 4817: 4812: 4807: 4802: 4797: 4792: 4786: 4784: 4780: 4779: 4777: 4776: 4771: 4766: 4761: 4756: 4751: 4746: 4741: 4735: 4733: 4727: 4726: 4724: 4723: 4718: 4713: 4708: 4702: 4700: 4694: 4693: 4691: 4690: 4685: 4680: 4674: 4672: 4666: 4665: 4663: 4662: 4657: 4652: 4646: 4644: 4638: 4637: 4635: 4634: 4629: 4624: 4619: 4614: 4608: 4606: 4600: 4599: 4597: 4596: 4591: 4586: 4581: 4576: 4571: 4566: 4561: 4555: 4553: 4546: 4544:Classification 4540: 4539: 4533: 4531: 4530: 4523: 4516: 4508: 4500: 4499: 4490: 4460: 4434: 4403: 4373: 4347: 4317: 4293: 4275: 4245: 4230: 4208: 4182: 4157: 4139:Shunk, Chris. 4131: 4102: 4077: 4070: 4052: 4025: 4011: 3991: 3965: 3934: 3907: 3893: 3873: 3847: 3821: 3791: 3760: 3746: 3726: 3705: 3679: 3652: 3645: 3622: 3605: 3581: 3570: 3540: 3529: 3522: 3502: 3495: 3472: 3458: 3436: 3413: 3399: 3376: 3357:(8 May 2016). 3346: 3335: 3324: 3300: 3289: 3267: 3246:HybridCars.com 3233: 3222: 3192: 3166: 3137: 3122: 3109:MotorTrend.com 3095: 3065: 3058: 3038: 3015:Walczak, Jim. 3007: 2989: 2963: 2956: 2936: 2895: 2894: 2892: 2889: 2886: 2885: 2872: 2871: 2869: 2866: 2864: 2863: 2858: 2853: 2848: 2843: 2838: 2833: 2828: 2823: 2817: 2815: 2812: 2806: 2803: 2799:Hyundai Tucson 2774: 2773: 2763: 2741: 2735: 2729: 2723: 2701: 2695: 2689: 2679: 2673: 2667: 2657: 2647: 2641: 2635: 2629: 2619: 2613: 2603: 2597: 2591: 2588:Hyundai Tucson 2581: 2575: 2561: 2556: 2546: 2536: 2530: 2510: 2486: 2483: 2482: 2481: 2463: 2457: 2450: 2443:Nissan Skyline 2440: 2426: 2416: 2406: 2400: 2391: 2388: 2381: 2371: 2368: 2362: 2348: 2341: 2329: 2326: 2322: 2321: 2318: 2315: 2312: 2305: 2302: 2299: 2296: 2293: 2290: 2273: 2270: 2269: 2268: 2267: 2266: 2260: 2244: 2241:Toyota Sequoia 2238: 2232: 2226: 2220: 2217:Toyota 4Runner 2214: 2211: 2210:120 Torsen T-3 2201: 2195: 2185: 2184: 2183: 2174: 2165: 2152: 2147: 2134: 2129: 2111: 2110: 2109: 2100: 2095: 2094:and Sportwagon 2092:156 Crosswagon 2077: 2074: 2073: 2072: 2066: 2063:Toyota Sequoia 2060: 2055: 2049: 2035: 2032: 2026: 2023: 2017: 2007: 2001: 1996:Mercedes-Benz 1994: 1993: 1992: 1976: 1969: 1963: 1958: 1952: 1939: 1933: 1915: 1912: 1909: 1898: 1870: 1856: 1846: 1819: 1805: 1802:Ford Escort RS 1799: 1757: 1742: 1736: 1726: 1720: 1717:Alfa Romeo 155 1714: 1711:Alfa Romeo 164 1706: 1703: 1701: 1698: 1653:Jeep Hurricane 1617:B. T. E. Warne 1600:in the engine 1573:developed the 1566: 1563: 1524: 1521: 1513:backhoe loader 1505:backhoe loader 1493: 1490: 1489: 1488: 1485: 1478: 1476: 1473: 1466: 1464: 1461: 1454: 1440:General Motors 1412: 1409: 1394:hybrid-powered 1346:entered their 1278: 1275: 1273: 1270: 1246: 1243: 1239:Panther Solo 2 1212:Toyota Corolla 1163:Jörg Bensinger 1025: 1022: 983:and the first 968:in the 1970s. 920: 917: 861:Chevrolet G506 828: 825: 737:was the first 669: 666: 654:Dernburg-Wagen 570:Louwman Museum 535: 532: 527:Lohner–Porsche 482: 479: 474:hybrid vehicle 457: 454: 449: 448: 444: 440: 436: 433: 424: 421: 350:Main article: 347: 344: 268:Main article: 265: 262: 260: 257: 256: 255: 252: 249: 246: 243: 240: 237: 234: 211: 208: 168:Main article: 165: 162: 152: 149: 123: 120: 107: 104: 71:, also called 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5640: 5629: 5626: 5624: 5621: 5619: 5616: 5614: 5611: 5609: 5606: 5604: 5601: 5599: 5596: 5595: 5593: 5578: 5575: 5573: 5570: 5568: 5565: 5564: 5561: 5555: 5552: 5550: 5547: 5545: 5542: 5540: 5537: 5535: 5532: 5530: 5527: 5525: 5524:Reciprocating 5522: 5520: 5517: 5515: 5512: 5510: 5507: 5505: 5502: 5501: 5499: 5495: 5489: 5485: 5478: 5474: 5471: 5467: 5464: 5460: 5457: 5453: 5450: 5446: 5443: 5442:Rear mid-rear 5439: 5436: 5432: 5429: 5425: 5422: 5418: 5415: 5412: 5411: 5409: 5403: 5399: 5393: 5390: 5388: 5385: 5383: 5380: 5379: 5377: 5375: 5371: 5365: 5362: 5360: 5357: 5355: 5352: 5350: 5347: 5345: 5342: 5340: 5337: 5335: 5332: 5330: 5327: 5326: 5324: 5322: 5318: 5312: 5309: 5307: 5304: 5302: 5299: 5297: 5294: 5292: 5289: 5286: 5282: 5279: 5277: 5274: 5271: 5267: 5264: 5262: 5259: 5257: 5254: 5252: 5249: 5247: 5244: 5241: 5237: 5234: 5231: 5228: 5226: 5222: 5219: 5217: 5214: 5212: 5209: 5207: 5204: 5202: 5199: 5197: 5194: 5192: 5189: 5187: 5184: 5182: 5179: 5178: 5176: 5174: 5170: 5164: 5161: 5159: 5156: 5154: 5151: 5149: 5146: 5144: 5141: 5139: 5136: 5134: 5131: 5129: 5126: 5124: 5121: 5119: 5116: 5114: 5111: 5109: 5106: 5104: 5101: 5100: 5098: 5092: 5086: 5083: 5081: 5078: 5076: 5073: 5071: 5068: 5066: 5063: 5061: 5058: 5056: 5055:Station wagon 5053: 5051: 5048: 5046: 5043: 5041: 5038: 5036: 5033: 5031: 5028: 5026: 5023: 5021: 5018: 5016: 5013: 5011: 5008: 5006: 5003: 5001: 4998: 4996: 4993: 4991: 4988: 4986: 4983: 4981: 4978: 4976: 4973: 4971: 4968: 4966: 4963: 4961: 4958: 4956: 4953: 4951: 4948: 4946: 4945:Coupé utility 4943: 4941: 4938: 4936: 4933: 4931: 4928: 4926: 4923: 4921: 4918: 4916: 4913: 4911: 4908: 4906: 4903: 4901: 4898: 4896: 4893: 4892: 4890: 4888: 4884: 4874: 4871: 4869: 4866: 4864: 4861: 4859: 4856: 4854: 4851: 4849: 4846: 4844: 4841: 4839: 4836: 4834: 4831: 4830: 4828: 4826: 4822: 4816: 4813: 4811: 4808: 4806: 4803: 4801: 4798: 4796: 4793: 4791: 4788: 4787: 4785: 4781: 4775: 4772: 4770: 4767: 4765: 4762: 4760: 4759:Sport compact 4757: 4755: 4752: 4750: 4747: 4745: 4742: 4740: 4737: 4736: 4734: 4732: 4728: 4722: 4719: 4717: 4714: 4712: 4709: 4707: 4704: 4703: 4701: 4699: 4695: 4689: 4686: 4684: 4681: 4679: 4676: 4675: 4673: 4671: 4670:Minivan / MPV 4667: 4661: 4658: 4656: 4653: 4651: 4648: 4647: 4645: 4643: 4639: 4633: 4630: 4628: 4625: 4623: 4620: 4618: 4615: 4613: 4610: 4609: 4607: 4605: 4601: 4595: 4592: 4590: 4587: 4585: 4582: 4580: 4577: 4575: 4572: 4570: 4567: 4565: 4562: 4560: 4557: 4556: 4554: 4550: 4547: 4545: 4541: 4536: 4529: 4524: 4522: 4517: 4515: 4510: 4509: 4506: 4494: 4491: 4478: 4474: 4470: 4464: 4461: 4449: 4445: 4438: 4435: 4423:on 9 May 2011 4422: 4418: 4414: 4407: 4404: 4391: 4387: 4383: 4377: 4374: 4362: 4358: 4351: 4348: 4335: 4331: 4327: 4321: 4318: 4310: 4303: 4297: 4294: 4289: 4285: 4279: 4276: 4263: 4259: 4255: 4249: 4246: 4241: 4234: 4231: 4219: 4212: 4209: 4197: 4193: 4186: 4183: 4171: 4167: 4161: 4158: 4146: 4142: 4135: 4132: 4120: 4116: 4113:Kranz, Rick. 4109: 4107: 4103: 4091: 4087: 4081: 4078: 4073: 4067: 4063: 4056: 4053: 4040: 4036: 4029: 4026: 4014: 4008: 4004: 4003: 3995: 3992: 3980: 3976: 3969: 3966: 3953: 3949: 3945: 3938: 3935: 3923:on 1 May 2013 3922: 3918: 3911: 3908: 3896: 3890: 3886: 3885: 3877: 3874: 3861: 3857: 3851: 3848: 3835: 3831: 3825: 3822: 3809: 3805: 3801: 3795: 3792: 3779: 3775: 3771: 3764: 3761: 3749: 3743: 3739: 3738: 3730: 3727: 3722: 3718: 3717: 3709: 3706: 3694: 3690: 3683: 3680: 3667: 3666:National Post 3663: 3656: 3653: 3648: 3642: 3638: 3637: 3626: 3623: 3619: 3608: 3602: 3598: 3594: 3593: 3585: 3582: 3579: 3574: 3571: 3558: 3554: 3550: 3544: 3541: 3538: 3533: 3530: 3525: 3519: 3515: 3514: 3506: 3503: 3498: 3492: 3488: 3487: 3482: 3476: 3473: 3470: 3465: 3463: 3459: 3446: 3440: 3437: 3424: 3417: 3414: 3402: 3396: 3392: 3391: 3383: 3381: 3377: 3364: 3360: 3356: 3350: 3347: 3344: 3339: 3336: 3333: 3328: 3325: 3313: 3307: 3305: 3301: 3298: 3293: 3290: 3277: 3271: 3268: 3264: 3263:See year 1898 3251: 3247: 3243: 3237: 3234: 3231: 3226: 3223: 3219: 3207: 3203: 3196: 3193: 3180: 3173: 3171: 3167: 3155: 3148: 3141: 3138: 3134: 3132: 3129:Allisons.org 3126: 3123: 3110: 3106: 3099: 3096: 3083: 3079: 3072: 3070: 3066: 3061: 3055: 3051: 3050: 3042: 3039: 3026: 3022: 3018: 3011: 3008: 3002: 2996: 2994: 2990: 2978: 2974: 2967: 2964: 2959: 2953: 2949: 2948: 2940: 2937: 2921: 2917: 2910: 2903: 2901: 2897: 2890: 2882: 2877: 2874: 2867: 2862: 2859: 2857: 2856:Transfer case 2854: 2852: 2849: 2847: 2846:Rock crawling 2844: 2842: 2839: 2837: 2834: 2832: 2829: 2827: 2824: 2822: 2819: 2818: 2813: 2811: 2804: 2802: 2800: 2796: 2792: 2788: 2784: 2780: 2771: 2767: 2764: 2761: 2757: 2753: 2749: 2745: 2742: 2739: 2738:Toyota Sienna 2736: 2733: 2730: 2727: 2724: 2721: 2717: 2713: 2709: 2705: 2704:Subaru Legacy 2702: 2699: 2696: 2693: 2690: 2687: 2683: 2680: 2677: 2676:Nissan Murano 2674: 2671: 2668: 2665: 2661: 2658: 2655: 2651: 2648: 2645: 2642: 2639: 2636: 2633: 2630: 2627: 2623: 2620: 2617: 2614: 2611: 2610:Freedom Drive 2607: 2604: 2601: 2598: 2595: 2592: 2589: 2585: 2582: 2579: 2576: 2573: 2569: 2565: 2562: 2560: 2559:Dodge Caliber 2557: 2554: 2550: 2547: 2544: 2540: 2537: 2534: 2531: 2529: 2525: 2521: 2517: 2514: 2511: 2508: 2504: 2500: 2496: 2492: 2489: 2488: 2484: 2479: 2475: 2471: 2467: 2464: 2461: 2458: 2455: 2451: 2448: 2444: 2441: 2438: 2434: 2430: 2427: 2424: 2420: 2417: 2414: 2410: 2407: 2405: 2401: 2399: 2395: 2392: 2389: 2386: 2382: 2379: 2375: 2372: 2369: 2366: 2363: 2360: 2356: 2352: 2351:Ford Explorer 2349: 2346: 2342: 2339: 2335: 2332: 2331: 2327: 2325: 2319: 2316: 2313: 2310: 2306: 2303: 2300: 2297: 2294: 2291: 2288: 2284: 2280: 2276: 2275: 2271: 2264: 2261: 2258: 2255: 2254: 2252: 2248: 2245: 2242: 2239: 2236: 2233: 2230: 2227: 2224: 2221: 2218: 2215: 2212: 2209: 2205: 2202: 2200:SS Torsen T-3 2199: 2196: 2193: 2189: 2186: 2182: 2178: 2175: 2173: 2169: 2166: 2164: 2160: 2156: 2153: 2151: 2148: 2146: 2142: 2138: 2135: 2133: 2132:100 & 200 2130: 2128: 2125: 2124: 2123: 2119: 2115: 2112: 2108: 2104: 2101: 2099: 2096: 2093: 2090: 2089: 2087: 2083: 2080: 2079: 2075: 2070: 2067: 2064: 2061: 2059: 2056: 2053: 2050: 2048: 2044: 2040: 2036: 2033: 2030: 2027: 2024: 2021: 2018: 2015: 2011: 2008: 2005: 2002: 1999: 1995: 1991: 1987: 1986: 1984: 1980: 1977: 1974: 1971:Lexus RX300 - 1970: 1967: 1964: 1962: 1959: 1956: 1953: 1950: 1947: 1943: 1940: 1937: 1934: 1931: 1927: 1926:Dodge Durango 1923: 1919: 1916: 1913: 1910: 1907: 1903: 1899: 1896: 1892: 1888: 1884: 1880: 1877: 1874: 1871: 1868: 1864: 1860: 1859:Ford F-Series 1857: 1854: 1850: 1849:Ford Explorer 1847: 1845: 1841: 1837: 1833: 1832: 1827: 1823: 1820: 1817: 1813: 1809: 1806: 1803: 1800: 1798:differential. 1797: 1793: 1792: 1787: 1783: 1779: 1775: 1771: 1767: 1764: 1761: 1758: 1755: 1751: 1747: 1743: 1740: 1737: 1734: 1730: 1727: 1724: 1721: 1718: 1715: 1712: 1709: 1708: 1704: 1699: 1697: 1694: 1690: 1685: 1682: 1677: 1674: 1670: 1665: 1663: 1658: 1654: 1649: 1648:Hybrid AWD.) 1647: 1643: 1639: 1635: 1630: 1628: 1627:Suzuki Escudo 1624: 1623:Suzuki Motors 1620: 1618: 1614: 1609: 1607: 1603: 1599: 1595: 1591: 1587: 1583: 1580: 1579:transfer case 1576: 1572: 1564: 1562: 1560: 1556: 1552: 1550: 1546: 1542: 1538: 1532: 1530: 1522: 1520: 1518: 1514: 1506: 1503: 1498: 1491: 1482: 1477: 1470: 1465: 1458: 1453: 1451: 1449: 1445: 1441: 1437: 1433: 1429: 1425: 1421: 1417: 1410: 1408: 1406: 1402: 1398: 1395: 1391: 1388: 1383: 1381: 1377: 1376:Super Touring 1373: 1369: 1365: 1360: 1355: 1353: 1349: 1345: 1341: 1337: 1334: 1330: 1326: 1322: 1318: 1317:Stirling Moss 1314: 1310: 1306: 1304: 1299: 1297: 1293: 1289: 1285: 1283: 1276: 1271: 1269: 1267: 1263: 1259: 1254: 1252: 1244: 1242: 1240: 1236: 1232: 1228: 1224: 1219: 1217: 1216:Toyota Previa 1213: 1209: 1205: 1201: 1200:Toyota Celica 1197: 1194: 1190: 1185: 1183: 1179: 1175: 1172: 1168: 1164: 1160: 1156: 1152: 1150: 1146: 1142: 1138: 1133: 1131: 1126: 1121: 1119: 1118:crossover SUV 1115: 1111: 1107: 1103: 1094: 1087: 1082: 1075: 1070: 1066: 1064: 1060: 1056: 1052: 1051:station wagon 1048: 1044: 1040: 1038: 1034: 1030: 1023: 1021: 1019: 1015: 1011: 1007: 1003: 1001: 998: 994: 991:. The luxury 990: 986: 982: 978: 974: 969: 967: 963: 962:Maurice Wilks 959: 954: 949: 947: 942: 933: 925: 918: 916: 914: 910: 909:VW Kübelwagen 906: 901: 899: 895: 890: 887: 882: 866: 862: 858: 854: 850: 846: 842: 833: 826: 824: 821: 817: 814: 810: 806: 803:and the 1943 802: 798: 793: 789: 784: 782: 778: 772: 770: 766: 762: 757: 740: 736: 735:transfer case 732: 713: 710: 707: 703: 700:The American 694: 687: 682: 674: 667: 665: 663: 659: 655: 651: 647: 643: 640: 636: 631: 628: 624: 608: 604: 600: 595: 593: 589: 584: 582: 577: 575: 571: 567: 563: 562: 557: 548: 540: 533: 531: 529: 528: 523: 519: 518:series hybrid 515: 511: 507: 503: 500: 499:Pedrail wheel 496: 495:differentials 492: 488: 480: 475: 470: 462: 455: 453: 445: 441: 437: 434: 431: 430: 429: 422: 416: 408: 404: 402: 397: 394: 389: 387: 383: 379: 374: 370: 365: 362: 358: 353: 345: 339: 335: 331: 329: 325: 321: 316: 314: 310: 301: 297: 292: 285: 281: 276: 271: 264:Differentials 263: 258: 253: 250: 247: 244: 241: 238: 235: 232: 231: 230: 227: 223: 219: 215: 209: 207: 205: 204:Tesla Model S 201: 196: 193: 189: 185: 181: 177: 171: 170:AWD (vehicle) 163: 161: 159: 158:transfer case 150: 144: 140: 137: 133: 129: 121: 119: 117: 113: 105: 103: 101: 96: 94: 90: 89:transfer case 86: 82: 78: 74: 70: 62: 61:transfer case 58: 54: 53:Jeep Wrangler 49: 45: 41: 37: 33: 19: 5364:Twelve-wheel 5343: 5321:Drive wheels 5094:Specialized 5015:Pickup truck 4920:Cabrio coach 4764:Sports sedan 4739:Grand tourer 4493: 4483:26 September 4481:. 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Retrieved 2920:the original 2915: 2876: 2826:Dune bashing 2808: 2775: 2606:Jeep Compass 2602:: G35x, M35x 2358: 2354: 2323: 2229:Toyota Hilux 2084:Q4s – with ( 2065:(Multi-mode) 2039:Grand Vitara 1982: 1918:Jeep Liberty 1894: 1883:K Fenderside 1876:Rounded-Line 1875: 1852: 1830: 1790: 1763:Rounded-Line 1762: 1754:viscous lock 1686: 1671:such as the 1666: 1650: 1631: 1621: 1610: 1606:British Army 1584: 1568: 1555:Four-wheeler 1553: 1533: 1529:four by four 1528: 1526: 1510: 1414: 1384: 1363: 1356: 1307: 1300: 1286: 1280: 1266:drive shafts 1255: 1248: 1245:2000–present 1220: 1208:Toyota Camry 1196:Homologation 1186: 1159:Audi Quattro 1153: 1134: 1130:Four Wheeler 1129: 1122: 1099: 1041: 1027: 1004: 970: 950: 938: 902: 891: 883: 838: 792:Soviet Union 785: 773: 758: 738: 714: 711: 699: 653: 646:Daimler-Benz 644: 632: 621:- and 2-ton 606: 596: 585: 578: 559: 553: 525: 513: 504: 484: 450: 426: 398: 390: 378:shear stress 366: 359: 355: 332: 317: 309:differential 305: 270:Differential 228: 224: 220: 216: 213: 197: 192:differential 173: 154: 125: 109: 97: 76: 72: 68: 66: 44: 5603:Car layouts 5514:Four-stroke 5414:Front-front 5354:Eight-wheel 5329:Front-wheel 5261:Natural gas 5246:Fossil fuel 5201:Biogasoline 4887:Body styles 4815:Vintage car 4417:Topgear.com 4386:Edmunds.com 4090:Alltrac.net 3563:15 February 3369:15 February 3115:15 December 3088:15 December 2982:18 December 2929:16 December 2787:Haldex Cars 2732:Toyota RAV4 2682:Porsche 911 2644:Mazdaspeed6 2632:Lamborghini 2624:/LR2 (also 2553:Quadra-Trac 2549:Dodge Nitro 2460:Porsche 959 2454:ATTESA E-TS 2447:ATTESA E-TS 2433:ATTESA E-TS 2423:ATTESA E-TS 2419:Nissan GT-R 2378:ATTESA E-TS 2374:Infiniti FX 2370:Honda Pilot 2150:A5 & S5 2029:Range Rover 1983:ControlTrac 1930:Select-Trac 1863:New Process 1853:ControlTrac 1840:intelligent 1831:ControlTrac 1812:New Process 1782:New Process 1766:K Fleetside 1646:Ford Escape 1638:Nissan Cube 1523:Terminology 1416:Medium-duty 1403:(winner of 1313:Formula One 1277:Road racing 1223:mid-engined 1141:convertible 1055:Quadra Trac 1033:luxury cars 1024:1970s–1990s 973:Kaiser Jeep 966:Range Rover 946:Power Wagon 913:portal gear 905:Axis powers 534:1900s–1920s 386:exponential 106:Definitions 93:gear ranges 57:TJ Wrangler 5608:Drivetrain 5592:Categories 5539:Two-stroke 5435:Front-rear 5428:Rear-front 5344:Four-wheel 5334:Rear-wheel 5173:Propulsion 5163:Voiturette 5148:Flying car 5143:Police car 5108:Amphibious 5020:Quad coupé 4910:Berlinetta 4627:Street rod 4569:Subcompact 4366:21 January 4340:21 January 4268:21 January 4258:lemans.org 4045:21 January 4018:21 January 3984:21 January 3927:21 January 3784:21 January 3753:21 January 3612:21 January 3481:Allen, Jim 3429:6 December 3406:21 January 3355:Allen, Jim 3282:25 October 3256:25 October 3211:11 October 2891:References 2791:BorgWarner 2686:BorgWarner 2640:: MKS, MKZ 2578:Honda CR-V 2543:BorgWarner 2347:& VTM4 2343:Acura MDX 2265:Torsen T-2 2082:Alfa Romeo 1946:Series III 1891:K Suburban 1879:K Wideside 1836:BorgWarner 1778:K Suburban 1770:K Stepside 1693:Purosangue 1689:Ferrari FF 1444:Ram Trucks 1436:Dana S 110 1420:heavy-duty 1321:Team Lotus 1231:Ford RS200 1171:Volkswagen 953:Land Rover 919:1945–1960s 894:Lend-Lease 481:Late 1800s 313:driveshaft 200:dual-motor 81:drivetrain 5449:Rear-rear 5359:Ten-wheel 5349:Six-wheel 5339:Two-wheel 5251:Fuel cell 5191:Biodiesel 5158:Tow truck 5133:Pedal car 5113:Connected 5085:Vis-à-vis 5060:Targa top 5005:Panel van 5000:Notchback 4980:Limousine 4970:Landaulet 4960:Hatchback 4905:Barchetta 4873:S-segment 4868:M-segment 4863:J-segment 4858:F-segment 4853:E-segment 4848:D-segment 4843:C-segment 4838:B-segment 4833:A-segment 4744:Hot hatch 4721:Coupe SUV 4655:Executive 4617:Lead sled 4594:Full-size 4574:Supermini 4223:5 January 3958:5 January 3900:5 January 3840:5 January 3206:Wired.com 3021:about.com 2868:Footnotes 2805:Part-time 2754:4motion, 2750:4motion, 2746:4motion, 2501:quattro, 2493:quattro, 2474:Saab 9-4X 2367:Ridgeline 2336:RL, RDX ( 2307:Mercedes 1966:Lada Niva 1949:V8 models 1900:H1 & 1760:Chevrolet 1723:AMC Eagle 1611:In 1965, 1590:Mini Moke 1549:U.S. Army 1541:Pinzgauer 1515:in 1977. 1432:Big Three 1364:de facto 1262:transaxle 1251:crossover 1187:In 1987, 1149:targa bar 1145:monocoque 1074:Jensen FF 1059:lock hubs 1014:Jensen FF 958:Willys MB 739:part-time 639:Nash Quad 623:Nash Quad 603:Wisconsin 574:the Hague 566:Amsterdam 522:hub motor 328:ring gear 5572:Category 5549:W engine 5534:Straight 5291:Hydrogen 5256:Fuel gas 5221:Electric 5096:vehicles 5035:Runabout 4985:Microvan 4975:Liftback 4965:Kammback 4950:Fastback 4925:Cab over 4915:Brougham 4660:Personal 4632:T-bucket 4622:Lowrider 4589:Mid-size 4396:1 August 4201:3 August 4175:3 August 4150:3 August 4145:autoblog 4124:3 August 4095:7 August 3866:7 August 3814:7 August 3557:Archived 3553:T137.com 3483:(2009). 3425:. Allpar 3031:7 August 2814:See also 2797:and the 2716:Forester 2656:, based) 2600:Infiniti 2574:, based) 2478:Saab XWD 2470:Saab 9-5 2466:Saab 9-3 2279:3-series 2204:Lexus GX 1774:K Blazer 1750:5 series 1746:3 series 1545:GMC CCKW 1507:with 4WD 1338:engine. 1336:Cosworth 1329:Lotus 56 1325:Indy 500 1296:handling 1218:models. 1204:All-Trac 1178:rallying 1137:snowbelt 1037:Chrysler 1010:Ferguson 977:Wagoneer 688:(Russia) 592:Michigan 512:for the 382:dilatant 5544:V (Vee) 5519:H-block 5285:plug-in 5283: ( 5268: ( 5238: ( 5236:Ethanol 5225:battery 5223: ( 5196:Biofuel 5186:Autogas 5153:Taxicab 5128:Gyrocar 5123:Go-kart 5070:Touring 5065:Torpedo 5010:Phaeton 4990:Minibus 4955:Hardtop 4800:Economy 4795:Classic 4790:Antique 4774:Go-kart 4706:Compact 4683:Leisure 4678:Compact 4612:Hot rod 4584:Compact 4552:By size 4119:Edmunds 3954:(8): 58 2772:–based) 2720:Tribeca 2712:Impreza 2708:Outback 2694:(GMPCA) 2666:–based) 2660:Mercury 2638:Lincoln 2535:(GMPCA) 2503:Audi R8 2499:Audi TT 2495:Audi S3 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