4257:
airway. The inhalable fraction of particles, defined as the proportion of particles originally in the air that can enter the nose or mouth, depends on external wind speed and direction and on the particle-size distribution by aerodynamic diameter. The thoracic fraction is the proportion of the particles in ambient aerosol that can reach the thorax or chest region. The respirable fraction is the proportion of particles in the air that can reach the alveolar region. To measure the respirable fraction of particles in air, a pre-collector is used with a sampling filter. The pre-collector excludes particles as the airways remove particles from inhaled air. The sampling filter collects the particles for measurement. It is common to use
729:
601:
3738:
7339:
484:
2931:
469:
235:
7301:
3217:>> 1; particles small compared to the mean free path of the suspending gas. In this regime, particles interact with the suspending gas through a series of "ballistic" collisions with gas molecules. As such, they behave similarly to gas molecules, tending to follow streamlines and diffusing rapidly through Brownian motion. The mass flux equation in the free molecular regime is:
41:
7349:
2665:
7330:
7322:
7314:
3092:
250:
2926:{\displaystyle {\frac {\partial {n_{i}}}{\partial {t}}}=-\nabla \cdot n_{i}\mathbf {q} +\nabla \cdot D_{p}\nabla _{i}n_{i}+\left({\frac {\partial {n_{i}}}{\partial {t}}}\right)_{\mathrm {growth} }+\left({\frac {\partial {n_{i}}}{\partial {t}}}\right)_{\mathrm {coag} }-\nabla \cdot \mathbf {q} _{F}n_{i}}
4253:. The location of deposition of aerosol particles within the respiratory system strongly determines the health effects of exposure to such aerosols. This phenomenon led people to invent aerosol samplers that select a subset of the aerosol particles that reach certain parts of the respiratory system.
746:
with the area of each bar representing the proportion of particles in that size bin, usually normalised by dividing the number of particles in a bin by the width of the interval so that the area of each bar is proportionate to the number of particles in the size range that it represents. If the width
3753:
from an aerosol surface, respectively. Condensation of mass causes the mode of the particle-size distributions of the aerosol to increase; conversely, evaporation causes the mode to decrease. Nucleation is the process of forming aerosol mass from the condensation of a gaseous precursor, specifically
741:
describe the sizes of the particles in a polydisperse aerosol. This distribution defines the relative amounts of particles, sorted according to size. One approach to defining the particle size distribution uses a list of the sizes of every particle in a sample. However, this approach proves tedious
732:
The same hypothetical log-normal aerosol distribution plotted, from top to bottom, as a number vs. diameter distribution, a surface area vs. diameter distribution, and a volume vs. diameter distribution. Typical mode names are shown at the top. Each distribution is normalized so that the total area
705:
Aerosols in the 20 μm range show a particularly long persistence time in air conditioned rooms due to their "jet rider" behaviour (move with air jets, gravitationally fall out in slowly moving air); as this aerosol size is most effectively adsorbed in the human nose, the primordial infection
182:
The warming caused by human-produced greenhouse gases has been somewhat offset by the cooling effect of human-produced aerosols. In 2020, regulations on fuel significantly cut sulfur dioxide emissions from international shipping by approximately 80%, leading to an unexpected global geoengineering
4256:
Examples of these subsets of the particle-size distribution of an aerosol, important in occupational health, include the inhalable, thoracic, and respirable fractions. The fraction that can enter each part of the respiratory system depends on the deposition of particles in the upper parts of the
3098:
As particles and droplets in an aerosol collide with one another, they may undergo coalescence or aggregation. This process leads to a change in the aerosol particle-size distribution, with the mode increasing in diameter as total number of particles decreases. On occasion, particles may shatter
1697:
describes the force of resistance on a solid spherical particle in a fluid. However, Stokes' law is only valid when the velocity of the gas at the surface of the particle is zero. For small particles (< 1 μm) that characterize aerosols, however, this assumption fails. To account for this
1403:
of larger particles. Also for a quantity that varies over a large range, as many aerosol sizes do, the width of the distribution implies negative particles sizes, which is not physically realistic. However, the normal distribution can be suitable for some aerosols, such as test aerosols, certain
665:
There is evidence to suggest that anthropogenic aerosols actually offset the effects of greenhouse gases in some areas, which is why the
Northern Hemisphere shows slower surface warming than the Southern Hemisphere, although that just means that the Northern Hemisphere will absorb the heat later
649:
effect is that aerosols scatter and absorb incoming solar radiation. This will mainly lead to a cooling of the surface (solar radiation is scattered back to space) but may also contribute to a warming of the surface (caused by the absorption of incoming solar energy). This will be an additional
295:
Key aerosol groups include sulfates, organic carbon, black carbon, nitrates, mineral dust, and sea salt, they usually clump together to form a complex mixture. Various types of aerosol, classified according to physical form and how they were generated, include dust, fume, mist, smoke and fog.
661:
effects refer to the aerosol interfering with formations that interact directly with radiation. For example, they are able to modify the size of the cloud particles in the lower atmosphere, thereby changing the way clouds reflect and absorb light and therefore modifying the Earth's energy
1583:
153:, primarily from burning oil and coal, affect the behavior of clouds. When aerosols absorb pollutants, it facilitates the deposition of pollutants to the surface of the earth as well as to bodies of water. This has the potential to be damaging to both the environment and human health.
2625:
One can apply the aerodynamic diameter to particulate pollutants or to inhaled drugs to predict where in the respiratory tract such particles deposit. Pharmaceutical companies typically use aerodynamic diameter, not geometric diameter, to characterize particles in inhalable drugs.
3347:
695:. More and more water accumulates on the seed until a visible cloud is formed. In the case of ship tracks, the cloud seeds are stretched over a long narrow path where the wind has blown the ship's exhaust, so the resulting clouds resemble long strings over the ocean.
179:. More and more water accumulates on the seed until a visible cloud is formed. In the case of ship tracks, the cloud seeds are stretched over a long narrow path where the wind has blown the ship's exhaust, so the resulting clouds resemble long strings over the ocean.
3788:. This process causes the diameter at the mode of particle-size distribution to increase with constant number concentration. With sufficiently high supersaturation and no suitable surfaces, particles may condense in the absence of a pre-existing surface, known as
259:
Aerosol is defined as a suspension system of solid or liquid particles in a gas. An aerosol includes both the particles and the suspending gas, which is usually air. Meteorologists usually refer to them as particle matter - PM2.5 or PM10, depending on their size.
713:
Aerosol particles with an effective diameter smaller than 10 μm can enter the bronchi, while the ones with an effective diameter smaller than 2.5 μm can enter as far as the gas exchange region in the lungs, which can be hazardous to human health.
497:
Several types of atmospheric aerosol have a significant effect on Earth's climate: volcanic, desert dust, sea-salt, that originating from biogenic sources and human-made. Volcanic aerosol forms in the stratosphere after an eruption as droplets of
143:
Several types of atmospheric aerosol have a significant effect on Earth's climate: volcanic, desert dust, sea-salt, that originating from biogenic sources and human-made. Volcanic aerosol forms in the stratosphere after an eruption as droplets of
3528:
2620:
356:
to characterize the properties of various shapes of solid particles, some very irregular. The equivalent diameter is the diameter of a spherical particle with the same value of some physical property as the irregular particle. The
3403:<< 1. In this regime, the particles are big compared to the mean free path of the suspending gas, meaning that the suspending gas acts as a continuous fluid flowing round the particle. The molecular flux in this regime is:
742:
to ascertain in aerosols with millions of particles and awkward to use. Another approach splits the size range into intervals and finds the number (or proportion) of particles in each interval. These data can be presented in a
2638:
explains the evolution of complete aerosol populations. The concentrations of particles will change over time as a result of many processes. External processes that move particles outside a volume of gas under study include
4034:
1386:
1277:
502:
that can prevail for up to two years, and reflect sunlight, lowering temperature. Desert dust, mineral particles blown to high altitudes, absorb heat and may be responsible for inhibiting storm cloud formation. Human-made
148:
that can prevail for up to two years, and reflect sunlight, lowering temperature. Desert dust, mineral particles blown to high altitudes, absorb heat and may be responsible for inhibiting storm cloud formation. Human-made
3717:
1425:
631:
When aerosols absorb pollutants, it facilitates the deposition of pollutants to the surface of the earth as well as to bodies of water. This has the potential to be damaging to both the environment and human health.
2011:
The terminal velocity can also be derived for other kinds of forces. If Stokes' law holds, then the resistance to motion is directly proportional to speed. The constant of proportionality is the mechanical mobility
3891:
7050:
2088:
2647:
and other external forces that cause particle migration. A second set of processes internal to a given volume of gas include particle formation (nucleation), evaporation, chemical reaction, and coagulation.
7275:
2196:
1093:
1969:
7270:
2488:
3223:
815:
2361:
3603:≈ 1. The forces experienced by a particle are a complex combination of interactions with individual gas molecules and macroscopic interactions. The semi-empirical equation describing mass flux is:
5006:
2398:
The aerodynamic diameter of an irregular particle is defined as the diameter of the spherical particle with a density of 1000 kg/m and the same settling velocity as the irregular particle.
1764:
5554:
Landgrebe, James D.; Pratsinis, Sotiris E. (1990). "A discrete-sectional model for particulate production by gas-phase chemical reaction and aerosol coagulation in the free-molecular regime".
1164:
4645:
514:, solid and liquid, can be described as aerosols, a distinction is commonly made between such dispersions (i.e. clouds) containing activated drops and crystals, and aerosol particles. The
3157:
4522:
Yuan, Tianle; Song, Hua; Oreopoulos, Lazaros; Wood, Robert; Bian, Huisheng; Breen, Katherine; Chin, Mian; Yu, Hongbin; Barahona, Donifan; Meyer, Kerry; Platnick, Steven (2024-05-30).
666:
through ocean currents bringing warmer waters from the South. On a global scale however, aerosol cooling decreases greenhouse-gases-induced heating without offsetting it completely.
962:
698:
The warming caused by human-produced greenhouse gases has been somewhat offset by the cooling effect of human-produced aerosols. In 2020, regulations on fuel significantly cut
3080:
876:
1651:
5030:
Hunziker, Patrick (2020-12-16). "Minimizing exposure to respiratory droplets, 'jet riders' and aerosols in air-conditioned hospital rooms by a 'Shield-and-Sink' strategy".
3729:
is the mass flux in the continuum regime. This formula is called the Fuchs-Sutugin interpolation formula. These equations do not take into account the heat release effect.
3014:
2524:
2299:
is applied to Stokes' law. It is defined as the ratio of the resistive force of the irregular particle to that of a spherical particle with the same volume and velocity:
3180:
999:
1609:
2005:
3921:
3043:
2971:
2387:
2289:
2260:
1874:
1819:
1797:
930:
903:
848:
2231:
7288:
4285:
3409:
4309:
3204:
2991:
2536:
1845:
6983:
5051:
Kesavanathan, Jana; Swift, David L. (1998). "Human Nasal
Passage Particle Deposition: The Effect of Particle Size, Flow Rate, and Anatomical Factors".
3950:
1292:
1183:
5720:
Yu, Mingzhou; Lin, Jianzhong (2009). "Taylor-expansion moment method for agglomerate coagulation due to
Brownian motion in the entire size regime".
3609:
7222:
5667:
Yu, Mingzhou; Lin, Jianzhong; Chan, Tatleung (2008). "A New Moment Method for
Solving the Coagulation Equation for Particles in Brownian Motion".
1578:{\displaystyle \mathrm {d} f={\frac {1}{d_{p}\sigma {\sqrt {2\pi }}}}e^{-{\frac {(ln(d_{p})-{\bar {d_{p}}})^{2}}{2\sigma ^{2}}}}\mathrm {d} d_{p}}
1661:
The log-normal distribution has no negative values, can cover a wide range of values, and fits many observed size distributions reasonably well.
600:
7265:
6019:
6000:
5962:
4655:
4503:
4425:
3099:
apart into numerous smaller particles; however, this process usually occurs primarily in particles too large for consideration as aerosols.
737:
For a monodisperse aerosol, a single number—the particle diameter—suffices to describe the size of the particles. However, more complicated
728:
6553:
6365:
7325:
4820:"Indicators of Global Climate Change 2022: annual update of large-scale indicators of the state of the climate system and human influence"
4589:"Minimising exposure to respiratory droplets, 'jet riders' and aerosols in air-conditioned hospital rooms by a 'Shield-and-Sink' strategy"
3822:
6518:
6411:
6081:
5630:
Marchisio, Daniele L.; Fox, Rodney O. (2005). "Solution of population balance equations using the direct quadrature method of moments".
2022:
7283:
7260:
6439:
6099:
3804:, usually in the context of forming a cloud droplet (such as natural cloud seeding by aerosols from trees in a forest). Following the
3046:
3784:
There are two types of nucleation processes. Gases preferentially condense onto surfaces of pre-existing aerosol particles, known as
2107:
1668:, applied to coarsely dispersed dusts and sprays; the Nukiyama–Tanasawa distribution, for sprays of extremely broad size ranges; the
1015:
7072:
6958:
6452:
6447:
5981:
3342:{\displaystyle I={\frac {\pi a^{2}}{k_{b}}}\left({\frac {P_{\infty }}{T_{\infty }}}-{\frac {P_{A}}{T_{A}}}\right)\cdot C_{A}\alpha }
1894:
2418:
1702:, always greater than 1. Including this factor, one finds the relation between the resisting force on a particle and its velocity:
7252:
4524:"Abrupt reduction in shipping emission as an inadvertent geoengineering termination shock produces substantial radiative warming"
3392:
is mass accommodation coefficient. The derivation of this equation assumes constant pressure and constant diffusion coefficient.
7333:
352:
colloidal systems, exhibit a range of particle sizes. Liquid droplets are almost always nearly spherical, but scientists use an
6998:
6735:
6125:
4369:
4135:
757:
702:
emissions from international shipping by approximately 80%, leading to an unexpected global geoengineering termination shock.
547:
86:
5901:
5386:"Particle Morphology and Density Characterization by Combined Mobility and Aerodynamic Diameter Measurements. Part 1: Theory"
4147:
4129:
2305:
309:
4159:
7308:
6613:
4312:
replaced the older standards for particulate matter based on Total
Suspended Particulate with another standard based on PM
4165:
1708:
368:) is defined as the diameter of a sphere of the same volume as that of the irregular particle. Also commonly used is the
7382:
6784:
6533:
6513:
6265:
4349:
1699:
4944:"Anthropogenic Aerosols, Greenhouse Gases, and the Uptake, Transport, and Storage of Excess Heat in the Climate System"
7402:
6889:
6543:
4940:
Anthropogenic
Aerosols, Greenhouse Gases, and the Uptake, Transport, and Storage of Excess Heat in the Climate System
4176:
4153:
4298:
particles which pass through a size-selective inlet with a 50% efficiency cut-off at 2.5 μm aerodynamic diameter
4290:
particles which pass through a size-selective inlet with a 50% efficiency cut-off at 10 μm aerodynamic diameter
1108:
604:
Aerosols have a cooling effect that is small compared to the radiative forcing (warming effect) of greenhouse gases.
7217:
7140:
6548:
6378:
6208:
5875:
5632:
5094:
McNeill VF (June 2022). "Airborne
Transmission of SARS-CoV-2: Evidence and Implications for Engineering Controls".
738:
3117:
7020:
6978:
6940:
6505:
6299:
4123:
3924:
4141:
2401:
Neglecting the slip correction, the particle settles at the terminal velocity proportional to the square of the
26:
This article is about a suspension of particulates in a gas. For details on atmospheric particulate matter, see
7015:
6538:
6479:
6390:
1673:
317:), defined as the mass of particulate matter per unit volume, in units such as μg/m. Also commonly used is the
636:
7392:
7227:
6993:
6523:
6074:
6039:
1416:
253:
34:
3792:. This results in the addition of very small, rapidly growing particles to the particle-size distribution.
2659:(GDE) characterizes the evolution of the number density of particles in an aerosol due to these processes.
487:
Overview of large clouds of aerosols around Earth (green: smoke, blue: salt, yellow: dust, white: sulfuric)
7377:
7186:
6576:
5007:"Changing the sky: FSU researchers examine how aerosols from ships affect cloud formation, climate change"
4819:
4188:
4182:
4078:
to the general dynamic equation (GDE); common methods used to solve the general dynamic equation include:
191:
60:
330:
Particle size has a major influence on particle properties, and the aerosol particle radius or diameter (
7156:
6988:
6864:
6772:
6462:
6355:
6155:
2652:
300:
7317:
935:
586:
The presence of aerosols in the Earth's atmosphere can influence its climate, as well as human health.
4993:
3056:
348:
aerosol, producible in the laboratory, contains particles of uniform size. Most aerosols, however, as
6963:
6618:
6314:
5729:
5676:
5641:
5602:
5563:
5453:
5397:
5060:
5031:
4955:
4834:
4535:
4413:
4339:
4246:
4214:
3776:
The addition of additional vapor to the system may lower the equilibrium vapor pressure according to
1665:
1174:
855:
454:
304:
273:
4867:
4459:
4171:
2295:
To account for the effect of the shape of non-spherical particles, a correction factor known as the
1620:
7030:
6968:
6935:
6874:
6806:
6671:
6666:
6644:
6218:
4258:
1392:
748:
523:
515:
413:
261:
5446:
Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences
3111:
of the particle define three different dynamical regimes that govern the behaviour of an aerosol:
2997:
7407:
7343:
7304:
7237:
7212:
7207:
7025:
6902:
6696:
6568:
6332:
6203:
6130:
6067:
5702:
5485:
5119:
4818:
Forster, Piers M.; Smith, Christopher J.; Walsh, Tristram; Lamb, William F.; et al. (2023).
4250:
4242:
2499:
1612:
5441:
5036:
4417:
4406:
7387:
7372:
7232:
7092:
6912:
6821:
6789:
6706:
6659:
6586:
6558:
6327:
6322:
6120:
6015:
5996:
5977:
5958:
5477:
5469:
5111:
5076:
4651:
4626:
4608:
4569:
4551:
4499:
4421:
3813:
3809:
3165:
2094:
1881:
968:
651:
617:
530:
483:
245:
particles at 2,000× magnification. Most of the particles in this aerosol are nearly spherical.
117:
5107:
1594:
7397:
7338:
7176:
7077:
7035:
7003:
6897:
6851:
6811:
6718:
6686:
6654:
6639:
6623:
6598:
6383:
6337:
5768:
5737:
5692:
5684:
5649:
5610:
5571:
5536:
5461:
5405:
5103:
5068:
4973:
4963:
4842:
4616:
4600:
4559:
4543:
4491:
4075:
3759:
3523:{\displaystyle I_{cont}\sim {\frac {4\pi aM_{A}D_{AB}}{RT}}\left(P_{A\infty }-P_{AS}\right)}
3049:
1980:
613:
327:), the number of particles per unit volume, in units such as number per m or number per cm.
209:
4308:
corresponds to the "high-risk respirable convention" as defined in ISO 7708:1995, 7.1. The
3899:
3021:
2949:
2372:
2267:
2238:
1852:
1804:
1775:
908:
881:
826:
7412:
7040:
6950:
6916:
6801:
6755:
6681:
6608:
6528:
6431:
6373:
6228:
6043:
4266:
3941:
3805:
3773:
Chemical reactions may increase the partial pressure of a gas or lower its vapor pressure.
2937:
2644:
2615:{\displaystyle d_{a}=d_{e}\left({\frac {\rho _{p}}{\rho _{0}\chi }}\right)^{\frac {1}{2}}}
2207:
1690:
1654:
1395:
usually does not suitably describe particle size distributions in aerosols because of the
504:
440:
238:
150:
5164:
Jillavenkatesa, A; Dapkunas, SJ; Lin-Sien, Lum (2001). "Particle Size
Characterization".
3777:
2093:
A particle traveling at any reasonable initial velocity approaches its terminal velocity
1676:, applied to powdered materials; and for cloud droplets, the Khrgian–Mazin distribution.
5733:
5680:
5645:
5606:
5567:
5457:
5401:
5064:
4959:
4838:
4564:
4539:
4523:
7353:
7087:
6973:
6930:
6924:
6920:
6765:
6750:
6701:
6691:
6603:
6457:
6213:
6184:
4621:
4354:
4204:
4105:
3763:
3370:
are the pressures far from the droplet and at the surface of the droplet respectively,
3189:
3183:
3108:
2976:
1830:
1694:
699:
609:
420:
319:
113:
4893:
4674:
620:
into the atmosphere. These gases represent aerosols and eventually return to earth as
276:, clouds of microscopic particles in air. This term developed analogously to the term
7366:
7107:
7008:
6794:
6723:
6495:
6243:
6107:
5706:
5575:
5540:
5489:
5123:
4272:
Two alternative size-selective criteria, often used in atmospheric monitoring, are PM
4234:
3808:(based on the curvature of liquid droplets), smaller particles need a higher ambient
573:
511:
499:
435:
277:
199:
145:
74:
234:
7128:
7102:
7082:
6906:
6869:
6833:
6469:
6416:
6292:
6248:
6233:
6162:
5880:
Recognition, Evaluation, Control. News and views from
Diamond Environmental Limited
5741:
5653:
4334:
3746:
723:
595:
492:
449:
229:
94:
27:
5927:
5905:
4304:
corresponds to the "thoracic convention" as defined in ISO 7708:1995, Clause 6; PM
3596:
contains all the particles in between the free molecular and continuum regimes or
97:
in air, and not to the particulate matter alone. Examples of natural aerosols are
5138:
395:
instruments, performing research, and testing sampling equipment and air filters;
7065:
7060:
6745:
6740:
6711:
6676:
6649:
6179:
4604:
4588:
4364:
4230:
3750:
2402:
1169:
Assuming spherical aerosol particles, the aerosol surface area per unit volume (
688:
680:
672:
518:
contains aerosols of various types and concentrations, including quantities of:
392:
269:
217:
172:
164:
156:
110:
6053:
4547:
4495:
4029:{\displaystyle \ln {p_{s} \over p_{0}}={\frac {2\sigma M}{RT\rho \cdot r_{p}}}}
1381:{\displaystyle V=\pi /6\int _{0}^{\infty }N(d_{p})d_{p}^{3}\,\mathrm {d} d_{p}}
1272:{\displaystyle S=\pi /2\int _{0}^{\infty }N(d_{p})d_{p}^{2}\,\mathrm {d} d_{p}}
186:
The liquid or solid particles in an aerosol have diameters typically less than
7242:
6859:
6174:
6167:
6150:
6135:
5688:
5615:
5590:
5072:
4847:
4344:
4262:
4226:
3812:
to maintain equilibrium than larger particles do. The following formula gives
3712:{\displaystyle I=I_{cont}\cdot {\frac {1+K_{n}}{1+1.71K_{n}+1.33{K_{n}}^{2}}}}
1664:
Other distributions sometimes used to characterise particle size include: the
692:
477:
424:
341:
187:
176:
121:
5473:
5080:
4612:
4555:
7171:
7123:
7097:
7045:
6879:
6841:
6591:
6581:
6253:
6115:
6090:
5410:
5385:
4490:. Vol. 1005. Washington, DC: American Chemical Society. pp. 1–10.
4359:
2640:
1822:
1669:
1400:
743:
625:
621:
559:
444:
399:
203:
137:
5481:
5465:
5115:
4630:
4573:
4088:
Quadrature method of moments/Taylor-series expansion method of moments, and
468:
5773:
5756:
4261:
for the pre-collector, but other techniques include impactors, horizontal
2634:
The previous discussion focused on single aerosol particles. In contrast,
6816:
6760:
6421:
6270:
6238:
5143:
Earth Observation Data Group, Department of Physics, University of Oxford
4968:
4943:
4241:(the head airways region), deeper within the respiratory tract (from the
2940:+ gas-particle interactions + coagulation + migration by external forces
1885:
1884:
of a particle undergoing gravitational settling in still air. Neglecting
1396:
707:
684:
542:
168:
67:
5527:
Hulburt, H.M.; Katz, S. (1964). "Some problems in particle technology".
4488:
Atmospheric aerosols: Characterization, chemistry, modeling, and climate
3737:
190:. Larger particles with a significant settling speed make the mixture a
6777:
6258:
6145:
6140:
4408:
Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics: From Air Pollution to Climate Change
4329:
4101:
3934:
is the saturation vapor pressure (flat surface of the same liquid) and
551:
281:
242:
125:
40:
20:
5697:
4978:
4917:
3091:
1005:
Therefore, the area under the frequency curve between two sizes a and
507:, primarily from burning oil and coal, affect the behavior of clouds.
7181:
7161:
7055:
6730:
6223:
5591:"Description of Aerosol Dynamics by the Quadrature Method of Moments"
5440:
Spracklen, Dominick V; Bonn, Boris; Carslaw, Kenneth S (2008-12-28).
4868:"Atmospheric Aerosols: What Are They, and Why Are They So Important?"
4460:"Atmospheric Aerosols: What Are They, and Why Are They So Important?"
4238:
1405:
534:
213:
71:
4994:
https://www.ipcc.ch/report/sixth-assessment-report-working-group-i/
3886:{\displaystyle RH={\frac {p_{s}}{p_{0}}}\times 100\%=S\times 100\%}
1009:
represents the total fraction of the particles in that size range:
249:
7191:
7133:
6474:
6406:
6304:
6196:
5364:
Baron, P. A. & Willeke, K. (2001). "Gas and Particle Motion".
4209:
3927:
above a particle at equilibrium (around a curved liquid droplet),
3755:
3736:
3090:
1409:
727:
676:
599:
538:
482:
473:
467:
403:
248:
233:
160:
129:
64:
39:
6036:
3770:
Lowering the temperature of the system lowers the vapor pressure.
2083:{\displaystyle B={\frac {V}{F_{D}}}={\frac {C_{c}}{3\pi \eta d}}}
7166:
6287:
6275:
6191:
5442:"Boreal forests, aerosols and the impacts on clouds and climate"
579:
133:
106:
102:
44:
6063:
3589:
are the pressures at infinite and at the surface respectively.
2191:{\displaystyle V(t)=V_{f}-(V_{f}-V_{0})e^{-{\frac {t}{\tau }}}}
1098:
It can also be formulated in terms of the total number density
1088:{\displaystyle f_{ab}=\int _{a}^{b}f(d_{p})\,\mathrm {d} d_{p}}
1964:{\displaystyle V_{TS}={\frac {\rho _{p}d^{2}gC_{c}}{18\eta }}}
98:
82:
78:
48:
16:
Suspension of fine solid particles or liquid droplets in a gas
5366:
Aerosol Measurement: Principles, Techniques, and Applications
2483:{\displaystyle V_{TS}={\frac {\rho _{0}d_{a}^{2}g}{18\eta }}}
6059:
3758:. Net condensation of the vapor requires supersaturation, a
1282:
And the third moment gives the total volume concentration (
3082:
is the particle velocity associated with an external force
387:
People generate aerosols for various purposes, including:
194:, but the distinction is not clear. In everyday language,
3944:
for saturation vapor pressure above a curved surface is:
810:{\displaystyle \mathrm {d} f=f(d_{p})\,\mathrm {d} d_{p}}
3575:
is the temperature (in absolute units like kelvin), and
1391:
The particle size distribution can be approximated. The
654:
and therefore contributing to the global climate change.
5786:
5784:
5423:
5421:
4119:
Some available in situ measurement techniques include:
2356:{\displaystyle \chi ={\frac {F_{D}}{3\pi \eta Vd_{e}}}}
6048:
5974:
Smoke, Dust and Haze: Fundamentals of Aerosol Behavior
5308:
5306:
5221:
5219:
5189:
5187:
5096:
Annual Review of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering
4753:
4751:
4486:
Kommalapati, Raghava R.; Valsaraj, Kalliat T. (2009).
3206:
is the diameter of the particle. For particles in the
878:
is the fraction of particles having diameters between
724:
Particulates § Size, shape, and solubility matter
5335:
5333:
5206:
5204:
5202:
4702:
4700:
4647:
Surgical Technology – E-Book: Principles and Practice
4439:
4437:
3953:
3902:
3825:
3612:
3412:
3226:
3192:
3168:
3120:
3059:
3024:
3000:
2979:
2952:
2668:
2539:
2502:
2421:
2375:
2308:
2270:
2241:
2210:
2110:
2025:
1983:
1897:
1855:
1833:
1807:
1778:
1711:
1623:
1597:
1428:
1295:
1186:
1111:
1018:
971:
938:
911:
884:
858:
829:
760:
299:
There are several measures of aerosol concentration.
4387:
4385:
1672:, occasionally applied to atmospheric aerosols; the
288:
contain particles introduced directly into the gas;
140:, and medical treatments for respiratory illnesses.
7251:
7200:
7149:
7116:
6949:
6888:
6850:
6832:
6632:
6567:
6504:
6430:
6399:
6364:
6348:
6313:
6106:
5976:(2nd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press.
4942:Irving, D. B.; Wijffels, S.; Church, J. A. (2019).
1759:{\displaystyle F_{D}={\frac {3\pi \eta Vd}{C_{c}}}}
337:) is a key property used to characterise aerosols.
4405:
4028:
3915:
3885:
3711:
3522:
3341:
3198:
3174:
3151:
3074:
3037:
3008:
2985:
2965:
2925:
2614:
2518:
2482:
2381:
2355:
2283:
2254:
2225:
2190:
2082:
2007:is the terminal settling velocity of the particle.
1999:
1963:
1868:
1839:
1813:
1791:
1758:
1645:
1603:
1577:
1380:
1271:
1158:
1087:
993:
956:
924:
897:
870:
842:
809:
683:released by ships into the still ocean air. Water
167:released by ships into the still ocean air. Water
6012:Aerosols, An Industrial and Environmental Science
4320:(also known as fine particulate matter) in 1997.
526:materials: fine dust, sea salt, or water droplets
4718:
2973:is number density of particles of size category
710:, such aerosols may contribute to the pandemic.
241:made with a Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM):
5953:Colbeck, Ian; Lazaridis, Mihalis, eds. (2014).
4918:"Fifth Assessment Report - Climate Change 2013"
3800:Water coats particles in aerosols, making them
3559:is the diffusion coefficient between particles
5379:
5377:
5375:
2530:This equation gives the aerodynamic diameter:
1799:is the resisting force on a spherical particle
1159:{\displaystyle dN=N(d_{p})\,\mathrm {d} d_{p}}
6075:
4481:
4479:
4477:
4310:United States Environmental Protection Agency
2526:= standard particle density (1000 kg/m).
8:
5955:Aerosol Science: Technology and Applications
4316:in 1987 and then introduced standards for PM
3152:{\displaystyle K_{n}={\frac {2\lambda }{d}}}
2101:-folding time equal to the relaxation time:
608:Volcanic eruptions release large amounts of
109:. Examples of human caused aerosols include
85:. Aerosols can be generated from natural or
5514:
4462:. NASA Langley Research Center. 22 Apr 2008
284:system with water as the dispersed medium.
6082:
6068:
6060:
1685:Terminal velocity of a particle in a fluid
459:Vibrating orifice aerosol generator (VOAG)
431:Some devices for generating aerosols are:
409:for dispersal and agricultural application
6049:American Association for Aerosol Research
5772:
5696:
5614:
5409:
5035:
4977:
4967:
4846:
4620:
4563:
4017:
3987:
3976:
3966:
3960:
3952:
3907:
3901:
3851:
3841:
3835:
3824:
3700:
3693:
3688:
3675:
3654:
3641:
3623:
3611:
3506:
3490:
3461:
3451:
3435:
3417:
3411:
3330:
3310:
3300:
3294:
3283:
3273:
3267:
3254:
3243:
3233:
3225:
3191:
3167:
3134:
3125:
3119:
3066:
3061:
3058:
3029:
3023:
3001:
2999:
2978:
2957:
2951:
2917:
2907:
2902:
2876:
2875:
2863:
2851:
2846:
2840:
2810:
2809:
2797:
2785:
2780:
2774:
2760:
2750:
2740:
2722:
2716:
2692:
2680:
2675:
2669:
2667:
2601:
2585:
2574:
2568:
2557:
2544:
2538:
2510:
2501:
2460:
2455:
2445:
2438:
2426:
2420:
2374:
2344:
2321:
2315:
2307:
2275:
2269:
2246:
2240:
2209:
2176:
2172:
2159:
2146:
2130:
2109:
2058:
2052:
2041:
2032:
2024:
1988:
1982:
1944:
1931:
1921:
1914:
1902:
1896:
1860:
1854:
1832:
1806:
1783:
1777:
1748:
1725:
1716:
1710:
1631:
1625:
1624:
1622:
1596:
1569:
1560:
1549:
1534:
1518:
1512:
1511:
1499:
1480:
1476:
1459:
1450:
1440:
1429:
1427:
1372:
1363:
1362:
1356:
1351:
1338:
1322:
1317:
1305:
1294:
1263:
1254:
1253:
1247:
1242:
1229:
1213:
1208:
1196:
1185:
1150:
1141:
1140:
1131:
1110:
1079:
1070:
1069:
1060:
1044:
1039:
1023:
1017:
982:
970:
948:
939:
937:
916:
910:
889:
883:
860:
859:
857:
834:
828:
801:
792:
791:
782:
761:
759:
369:
292:form through gas-to-particle conversion.
5876:"Particulate pollution – PM10 and PM2.5"
5556:Journal of Colloid and Interface Science
5108:10.1146/annurev-chembioeng-092220-111631
4070:Solution to the general dynamic equation
2936:Change in time = Convective transport +
406:, and other consumer products in sprays;
202:that delivers a consumer product from a
7223:Pollutant release and transfer register
6037:International Aerosol Research Assembly
4861:
4859:
4381:
1693:(<1), true for most aerosol motion,
550:products of combustion such as: smoke,
5995:(2nd ed.). Wiley - Interscience.
4833:(6). Copernicus Programme: 2295–2327.
4675:"Aerosols: Tiny Particles, Big Impact"
4669:
4667:
4528:Communications Earth & Environment
4160:Micro-Orifice Uniform Deposit Impactor
3548:is the molecular mass of the particle
639:in two ways, directly and indirectly.
5862:
5850:
5838:
5826:
5814:
5802:
5790:
5427:
5351:
5324:
5312:
5297:
5285:
5273:
5261:
5249:
5237:
5225:
5193:
5178:
4769:
4757:
4742:
4730:
4706:
4644:Fuller, Joanna Kotcher (2017-01-31).
4412:(2nd ed.). Hoboken, New Jersey:
4391:
3766:. This can happen for three reasons:
7:
7313:
6554:Electromagnetic radiation and health
5757:"Modelling of Particulate Processes"
5502:
5339:
5210:
4805:
4793:
4781:
4691:
4517:
4515:
4454:
4452:
4443:
3745:Aerosol partitioning theory governs
1876:is the Cunningham correction factor.
7329:
7321:
6412:Radium and radon in the environment
5957:. John Wiley & Sons - Science.
4200:Remote sensing approaches include:
687:collect around the tiny particles (
628:on the environment and human life.
596:Particulates § Climate effects
171:collect around the tiny particles (
6056:(see chapters on aerosol sampling)
6054:NIOSH Manual of Analytical Methods
4189:Centrifugal Particle Mass Analyser
3880:
3865:
3494:
3284:
3274:
2895:
2886:
2883:
2880:
2877:
2860:
2843:
2826:
2823:
2820:
2817:
2814:
2811:
2794:
2777:
2747:
2730:
2706:
2689:
2672:
1561:
1430:
1364:
1323:
1255:
1214:
1142:
1071:
940:
861:
793:
762:
212:by means of small droplets in the
93:commonly refers to the mixture of
14:
957:{\displaystyle \mathrm {d} d_{p}}
7347:
7337:
7328:
7320:
7312:
7300:
7299:
5761:KONA Powder and Particle Journal
4587:Hunziker, Patrick (2021-10-01).
4177:Electrical low pressure impactor
4154:Wide range particle spectrometer
3075:{\displaystyle \mathbf {q} _{F}}
3062:
3002:
2903:
2723:
2657:Aerosol General Dynamic Equation
1880:This allows us to calculate the
850:is the diameter of the particles
472:Aerosol pollution over northern
6126:Atmospheric dispersion modeling
4370:Stratospheric aerosol injection
4136:Electrical aerosol spectrometer
4100:Aerosol can either be measured
2233:is the particle speed at time t
1698:failure, one can introduce the
1419:gives the number frequency as:
871:{\displaystyle \,\mathrm {d} f}
562:in various forms, for example:
558:Aerosols can be found in urban
264:presumably first used the term
5742:10.1016/j.jaerosci.2009.03.001
5669:Aerosol Science and Technology
5654:10.1016/j.jaerosci.2004.07.009
5595:Aerosol Science and Technology
5390:Aerosol Science and Technology
5053:Aerosol Science and Technology
4892:Highwood, Ellie (2018-09-05).
4183:Aerosol particle mass-analyser
4148:Aerodynamic aerosol classifier
4130:Differential mobility analyzer
3537:is the radius of the particle
2643:, gravitational settling, and
2220:
2214:
2165:
2139:
2120:
2114:
1646:{\displaystyle {\bar {d_{p}}}}
1637:
1531:
1524:
1505:
1492:
1483:
1344:
1331:
1235:
1222:
1137:
1124:
1066:
1053:
988:
975:
788:
775:
1:
6614:Electrical resistance heating
5037:10.1101/2020.12.08.20233056v1
5011:Florida State University News
4404:Seinfeld J, Pandis S (1998).
4225:Particles can deposit in the
4166:Condensation particle counter
3388:is mean thermal velocity and
2291:is the initial particle speed
751:, the frequency function is:
116:, mist from the discharge at
6266:Persistent organic pollutant
5902:"Particulate Matter (PM-10)"
5576:10.1016/0021-9797(90)90445-T
5541:10.1016/0009-2509(64)85047-8
5529:Chemical Engineering Science
5005:Wellock, Bill (2024-01-17).
4992:GIEC AR6 WG1 - Figure SPM.2
4948:Geophysical Research Letters
4898:Royal Meteorological Society
4719:Colbeck & Lazaridis 2014
4650:. Elsevier Health Sciences.
4350:Deposition (Aerosol physics)
4050:surface tension of droplet,
3741:Condensation and evaporation
3009:{\displaystyle \mathbf {q} }
1700:Cunningham correction factor
1615:of the size distribution and
7276:Least polluted cities by PM
5972:Friedlander, S. K. (2000).
4605:10.1136/bmjopen-2020-047772
4085:Modal/sectional method, and
3571:is the ideal gas constant,
3377:is the Boltzmann constant,
2519:{\displaystyle \ \rho _{0}}
2389:is the dynamic shape factor
2262:is the final particle speed
1670:power function distribution
739:particle-size distributions
635:Aerosols interact with the
383:Generation and applications
7431:
7218:Pollution haven hypothesis
7141:Brain health and pollution
6379:Ecological light pollution
6209:Internal combustion engine
5991:Hinds, William C. (1999).
5722:Journal of Aerosol Science
5633:Journal of Aerosol Science
4548:10.1038/s43247-024-01442-3
4496:10.1021/bk-2009-1005.ch001
4142:Aerodynamic particle sizer
3186:of the suspending gas and
1666:Rosin-Rammler distribution
721:
593:
490:
359:equivalent volume diameter
227:
32:
25:
18:
7297:
7021:Nonpoint source pollution
6941:War and environmental law
6300:Volatile organic compound
6097:
5689:10.1080/02786820802232972
5616:10.1080/02786829708965471
5073:10.1080/02786829808965537
4848:10.5194/essd-15-2295-2023
4827:Earth System Science Data
4679:earthobservatory.nasa.gov
4124:Aerosol mass spectrometer
3938:is the saturation ratio.
3925:saturation vapor pressure
1173:) is given by the second
1001:is the frequency function
691:) from exhaust to form a
412:for medical treatment of
175:) from exhaust to form a
6480:Marine mammals and sonar
6391:Radio spectrum pollution
6010:Hidy, George M. (1984).
5166:NIST Special Publication
3786:heterogeneous nucleation
3356:is the particle radius,
3175:{\displaystyle \lambda }
3016:is the particle velocity
1847:is the particle velocity
1674:exponential distribution
994:{\displaystyle f(d_{p})}
19:Not to be confused with
7326:WikiProject Environment
7284:Most polluted countries
7228:Polluter pays principle
6959:Agricultural wastewater
6014:. Academic Press, Inc.
5589:McGraw, Robert (1997).
5411:10.1080/027868290903907
4221:Size selective sampling
4196:Remote sensing approach
1604:{\displaystyle \sigma }
1417:log-normal distribution
582:or fumes in car exhaust
340:Aerosols vary in their
35:Aerosol spray dispenser
33:For the spray can, see
7344:Environment portal
6577:Agricultural pollution
5755:Kraft, Murkus (2005).
5466:10.1098/rsta.2008.0201
5384:DeCarlo, P.F. (2004).
5145:. University of Oxford
4894:"Aerosols and Climate"
4030:
3917:
3887:
3790:homogeneous nucleation
3742:
3713:
3524:
3343:
3200:
3176:
3153:
3095:
3076:
3039:
3010:
2987:
2967:
2927:
2616:
2520:
2484:
2383:
2357:
2285:
2256:
2227:
2192:
2084:
2001:
2000:{\displaystyle V_{TS}}
1965:
1870:
1841:
1815:
1793:
1760:
1689:For low values of the
1647:
1605:
1579:
1382:
1273:
1160:
1089:
995:
958:
926:
899:
872:
844:
811:
734:
605:
488:
480:
256:
246:
126:perfume from atomizers
52:
6999:Industrial wastewater
6865:Clutter (advertising)
6773:Municipal solid waste
6619:Soil guideline values
6463:Sustainable transport
6356:Information pollution
6156:Open burning of waste
5774:10.14356/kona.2005007
4414:John Wiley & Sons
4074:There are no general
4031:
3918:
3916:{\displaystyle p_{s}}
3888:
3740:
3714:
3525:
3395:Particles are in the
3344:
3208:free molecular regime
3201:
3177:
3154:
3094:
3077:
3040:
3038:{\displaystyle D_{p}}
3011:
2988:
2968:
2966:{\displaystyle n_{i}}
2928:
2653:differential equation
2617:
2521:
2485:
2384:
2382:{\displaystyle \chi }
2358:
2286:
2284:{\displaystyle V_{0}}
2257:
2255:{\displaystyle V_{f}}
2228:
2193:
2085:
2002:
1966:
1871:
1869:{\displaystyle C_{c}}
1842:
1816:
1814:{\displaystyle \eta }
1794:
1792:{\displaystyle F_{D}}
1761:
1648:
1606:
1580:
1415:A more widely chosen
1383:
1274:
1161:
1090:
996:
959:
927:
925:{\displaystyle d_{p}}
900:
898:{\displaystyle d_{p}}
873:
845:
843:{\displaystyle d_{p}}
812:
731:
679:that form around the
637:Earth's energy budget
624:, having a number of
603:
486:
471:
391:as test aerosols for
301:Environmental science
252:
237:
163:that form around the
43:
7271:Most polluted cities
6964:Biological pollution
6875:Overhead power lines
5139:"Volcanic Emissions"
4969:10.1029/2019GL082015
4340:Aerosol transmission
4247:terminal bronchioles
4215:Imaging spectroscopy
4066:molar gas constant.
3951:
3900:
3823:
3610:
3410:
3381:is the temperature,
3224:
3190:
3166:
3118:
3057:
3022:
2998:
2977:
2950:
2666:
2537:
2500:
2419:
2394:Aerodynamic diameter
2373:
2306:
2297:dynamic shape factor
2268:
2239:
2226:{\displaystyle V(t)}
2208:
2108:
2023:
1981:
1895:
1853:
1831:
1805:
1776:
1709:
1621:
1595:
1426:
1293:
1286:) of the particles:
1184:
1109:
1016:
969:
936:
909:
882:
856:
827:
758:
455:Electronic cigarette
370:aerodynamic diameter
320:number concentration
305:environmental health
272:to describe an aero-
7383:Colloidal chemistry
7334:WikiProject Ecology
7031:Ocean acidification
6936:Unexploded ordnance
6807:Post-consumer waste
6667:Foam food container
6645:Biodegradable waste
6219:Global distillation
5928:"Basic Information"
5908:on 1 September 2012
5734:2009JAerS..40..549Y
5681:2008AerST..42..705Y
5646:2005JAerS..36...43M
5607:1997AerST..27..255M
5568:1990JCIS..139...63L
5458:2008RSPTA.366.4613S
5452:(1885): 4613–4626.
5402:2004AerST..38.1185D
5065:1998AerST..28..457K
4960:2019GeoRL..46.4894I
4839:2023ESSD...15.2295F
4540:2024ComEE...5..281Y
4259:cyclonic separation
4091:Monte Carlo method.
4054:density of liquid,
2465:
1393:normal distribution
1361:
1327:
1252:
1218:
1049:
516:atmosphere of Earth
414:respiratory disease
354:equivalent diameter
262:Frederick G. Donnan
216:, sometimes called
210:Diseases can spread
183:termination shock.
7403:Physical chemistry
7354:Ecology portal
7238:Waste minimisation
7213:Industrial ecology
7208:Cleaner production
7026:Nutrient pollution
6903:Herbicidal warfare
6697:Construction waste
6333:Introduced species
6204:Indoor air quality
6131:Chlorofluorocarbon
6042:2020-01-21 at the
5993:Aerosol Technology
4721:, p. Ch. 1.1.
4681:. 2 November 2010.
4026:
3913:
3883:
3743:
3709:
3520:
3339:
3196:
3172:
3149:
3096:
3072:
3035:
3006:
2983:
2963:
2938:brownian diffusion
2923:
2612:
2516:
2480:
2451:
2379:
2353:
2281:
2252:
2223:
2188:
2080:
1997:
1961:
1888:effects, we find:
1866:
1837:
1811:
1789:
1756:
1643:
1613:standard deviation
1601:
1575:
1399:associated with a
1378:
1347:
1313:
1269:
1238:
1204:
1156:
1085:
1035:
991:
954:
922:
895:
868:
840:
807:
735:
606:
533:materials: smoke,
489:
481:
423:systems and other
310:mass concentration
290:secondary aerosols
257:
247:
198:often refers to a
138:sprayed pesticides
118:hydroelectric dams
53:
7360:
7359:
7233:Pollution control
6913:Nuclear holocaust
6822:Thermal treatment
6790:Plastic pollution
6707:Mercury poisoning
6660:Battery recycling
6559:Radioactive waste
6328:Genetic pollution
6323:Biological hazard
6121:Air quality index
6021:978-0-12-412336-6
6002:978-0-471-19410-1
5964:978-1-119-97792-6
5396:(12): 1185–1205.
5252:, pp. 104–5.
5181:, pp. 75–77.
4733:, pp. 10–11.
4657:978-0-323-43056-2
4505:978-0-8412-2482-7
4427:978-0-471-17816-3
4265:, and large pore
4062:temperature, and
4024:
3982:
3857:
3814:relative humidity
3810:relative humidity
3762:greater than its
3707:
3594:transition regime
3479:
3316:
3289:
3260:
3199:{\displaystyle d}
3147:
2986:{\displaystyle i}
2869:
2803:
2698:
2609:
2595:
2505:
2478:
2351:
2184:
2078:
2047:
2016:) of a particle:
1959:
1882:terminal velocity
1840:{\displaystyle V}
1754:
1640:
1556:
1527:
1470:
1467:
718:Size distribution
652:greenhouse effect
618:hydrochloric acid
464:In the atmosphere
254:Aerosol spray can
200:dispensing system
7420:
7352:
7351:
7350:
7342:
7341:
7332:
7331:
7324:
7323:
7316:
7315:
7303:
7302:
7177:Legacy pollution
7036:Oil exploitation
6898:Chemical warfare
6812:Waste management
6719:Industrial waste
6687:Biomedical waste
6655:Electronic waste
6640:Advertising mail
6624:Phytoremediation
6599:Land degradation
6384:Overillumination
6338:Invasive species
6084:
6077:
6070:
6061:
6025:
6006:
5987:
5968:
5939:
5938:
5936:
5934:
5924:
5918:
5917:
5915:
5913:
5904:. Archived from
5898:
5892:
5891:
5889:
5887:
5872:
5866:
5860:
5854:
5848:
5842:
5836:
5830:
5824:
5818:
5812:
5806:
5800:
5794:
5788:
5779:
5778:
5776:
5752:
5746:
5745:
5717:
5711:
5710:
5700:
5664:
5658:
5657:
5627:
5621:
5620:
5618:
5586:
5580:
5579:
5551:
5545:
5544:
5524:
5518:
5515:Friedlander 2000
5512:
5506:
5500:
5494:
5493:
5437:
5431:
5425:
5416:
5415:
5413:
5381:
5370:
5369:
5361:
5355:
5349:
5343:
5337:
5328:
5322:
5316:
5310:
5301:
5295:
5289:
5283:
5277:
5271:
5265:
5264:, p. 44-49.
5259:
5253:
5247:
5241:
5235:
5229:
5223:
5214:
5208:
5197:
5191:
5182:
5176:
5170:
5169:
5161:
5155:
5154:
5152:
5150:
5134:
5128:
5127:
5091:
5085:
5084:
5048:
5042:
5041:
5039:
5027:
5021:
5020:
5018:
5017:
5002:
4996:
4990:
4984:
4983:
4981:
4971:
4954:(9): 4894–4903.
4938:
4932:
4931:
4929:
4928:
4914:
4908:
4907:
4905:
4904:
4889:
4883:
4882:
4880:
4878:
4863:
4854:
4852:
4850:
4824:
4815:
4809:
4803:
4797:
4791:
4785:
4779:
4773:
4767:
4761:
4755:
4746:
4740:
4734:
4728:
4722:
4716:
4710:
4704:
4695:
4689:
4683:
4682:
4671:
4662:
4661:
4641:
4635:
4634:
4624:
4584:
4578:
4577:
4567:
4519:
4510:
4509:
4483:
4472:
4471:
4469:
4467:
4456:
4447:
4441:
4432:
4431:
4411:
4401:
4395:
4389:
4267:membrane filters
4046:droplet radius,
4035:
4033:
4032:
4027:
4025:
4023:
4022:
4021:
3999:
3988:
3983:
3981:
3980:
3971:
3970:
3961:
3922:
3920:
3919:
3914:
3912:
3911:
3892:
3890:
3889:
3884:
3858:
3856:
3855:
3846:
3845:
3836:
3816:at equilibrium:
3760:partial pressure
3718:
3716:
3715:
3710:
3708:
3706:
3705:
3704:
3699:
3698:
3697:
3680:
3679:
3660:
3659:
3658:
3642:
3637:
3636:
3529:
3527:
3526:
3521:
3519:
3515:
3514:
3513:
3498:
3497:
3480:
3478:
3470:
3469:
3468:
3456:
3455:
3436:
3431:
3430:
3397:continuum regime
3348:
3346:
3345:
3340:
3335:
3334:
3322:
3318:
3317:
3315:
3314:
3305:
3304:
3295:
3290:
3288:
3287:
3278:
3277:
3268:
3261:
3259:
3258:
3249:
3248:
3247:
3234:
3205:
3203:
3202:
3197:
3181:
3179:
3178:
3173:
3158:
3156:
3155:
3150:
3148:
3143:
3135:
3130:
3129:
3103:Dynamics regimes
3081:
3079:
3078:
3073:
3071:
3070:
3065:
3045:is the particle
3044:
3042:
3041:
3036:
3034:
3033:
3015:
3013:
3012:
3007:
3005:
2992:
2990:
2989:
2984:
2972:
2970:
2969:
2964:
2962:
2961:
2932:
2930:
2929:
2924:
2922:
2921:
2912:
2911:
2906:
2891:
2890:
2889:
2874:
2870:
2868:
2867:
2858:
2857:
2856:
2855:
2841:
2831:
2830:
2829:
2808:
2804:
2802:
2801:
2792:
2791:
2790:
2789:
2775:
2765:
2764:
2755:
2754:
2745:
2744:
2726:
2721:
2720:
2699:
2697:
2696:
2687:
2686:
2685:
2684:
2670:
2645:electric charges
2636:aerosol dynamics
2621:
2619:
2618:
2613:
2611:
2610:
2602:
2600:
2596:
2594:
2590:
2589:
2579:
2578:
2569:
2562:
2561:
2549:
2548:
2525:
2523:
2522:
2517:
2515:
2514:
2503:
2489:
2487:
2486:
2481:
2479:
2477:
2469:
2464:
2459:
2450:
2449:
2439:
2434:
2433:
2388:
2386:
2385:
2380:
2362:
2360:
2359:
2354:
2352:
2350:
2349:
2348:
2326:
2325:
2316:
2290:
2288:
2287:
2282:
2280:
2279:
2261:
2259:
2258:
2253:
2251:
2250:
2232:
2230:
2229:
2224:
2197:
2195:
2194:
2189:
2187:
2186:
2185:
2177:
2164:
2163:
2151:
2150:
2135:
2134:
2089:
2087:
2086:
2081:
2079:
2077:
2063:
2062:
2053:
2048:
2046:
2045:
2033:
2006:
2004:
2003:
1998:
1996:
1995:
1970:
1968:
1967:
1962:
1960:
1958:
1950:
1949:
1948:
1936:
1935:
1926:
1925:
1915:
1910:
1909:
1875:
1873:
1872:
1867:
1865:
1864:
1846:
1844:
1843:
1838:
1820:
1818:
1817:
1812:
1798:
1796:
1795:
1790:
1788:
1787:
1765:
1763:
1762:
1757:
1755:
1753:
1752:
1743:
1726:
1721:
1720:
1652:
1650:
1649:
1644:
1642:
1641:
1636:
1635:
1626:
1610:
1608:
1607:
1602:
1584:
1582:
1581:
1576:
1574:
1573:
1564:
1559:
1558:
1557:
1555:
1554:
1553:
1540:
1539:
1538:
1529:
1528:
1523:
1522:
1513:
1504:
1503:
1481:
1471:
1469:
1468:
1460:
1455:
1454:
1441:
1433:
1387:
1385:
1384:
1379:
1377:
1376:
1367:
1360:
1355:
1343:
1342:
1326:
1321:
1309:
1278:
1276:
1275:
1270:
1268:
1267:
1258:
1251:
1246:
1234:
1233:
1217:
1212:
1200:
1165:
1163:
1162:
1157:
1155:
1154:
1145:
1136:
1135:
1094:
1092:
1091:
1086:
1084:
1083:
1074:
1065:
1064:
1048:
1043:
1031:
1030:
1000:
998:
997:
992:
987:
986:
963:
961:
960:
955:
953:
952:
943:
931:
929:
928:
923:
921:
920:
904:
902:
901:
896:
894:
893:
877:
875:
874:
869:
864:
849:
847:
846:
841:
839:
838:
816:
814:
813:
808:
806:
805:
796:
787:
786:
765:
614:hydrogen sulfide
505:sulfate aerosols
286:Primary aerosols
151:sulfate aerosols
7430:
7429:
7423:
7422:
7421:
7419:
7418:
7417:
7363:
7362:
7361:
7356:
7348:
7346:
7336:
7293:
7279:
7247:
7196:
7145:
7112:
7051:Pharmaceuticals
7041:Oil exploration
6945:
6917:Nuclear fallout
6884:
6846:
6828:
6802:Packaging waste
6756:Deep sea mining
6682:Hazardous waste
6628:
6609:Open defecation
6563:
6529:Nuclear fallout
6524:Nuclear fission
6500:
6426:
6395:
6366:Electromagnetic
6360:
6344:
6309:
6229:Ozone depletion
6102:
6093:
6088:
6044:Wayback Machine
6033:
6028:
6022:
6009:
6003:
5990:
5984:
5971:
5965:
5952:
5948:
5943:
5942:
5932:
5930:
5926:
5925:
5921:
5911:
5909:
5900:
5899:
5895:
5885:
5883:
5874:
5873:
5869:
5861:
5857:
5849:
5845:
5837:
5833:
5825:
5821:
5813:
5809:
5801:
5797:
5789:
5782:
5754:
5753:
5749:
5719:
5718:
5714:
5666:
5665:
5661:
5629:
5628:
5624:
5588:
5587:
5583:
5553:
5552:
5548:
5526:
5525:
5521:
5513:
5509:
5501:
5497:
5439:
5438:
5434:
5426:
5419:
5383:
5382:
5373:
5363:
5362:
5358:
5350:
5346:
5338:
5331:
5323:
5319:
5311:
5304:
5296:
5292:
5284:
5280:
5272:
5268:
5260:
5256:
5248:
5244:
5236:
5232:
5224:
5217:
5209:
5200:
5192:
5185:
5177:
5173:
5163:
5162:
5158:
5148:
5146:
5137:Grainger, Don.
5136:
5135:
5131:
5093:
5092:
5088:
5050:
5049:
5045:
5029:
5028:
5024:
5015:
5013:
5004:
5003:
4999:
4991:
4987:
4941:
4939:
4935:
4926:
4924:
4916:
4915:
4911:
4902:
4900:
4891:
4890:
4886:
4876:
4874:
4865:
4864:
4857:
4822:
4817:
4816:
4812:
4804:
4800:
4792:
4788:
4780:
4776:
4768:
4764:
4756:
4749:
4741:
4737:
4729:
4725:
4717:
4713:
4705:
4698:
4690:
4686:
4673:
4672:
4665:
4658:
4643:
4642:
4638:
4599:(10): e047772.
4586:
4585:
4581:
4521:
4520:
4513:
4506:
4485:
4484:
4475:
4465:
4463:
4458:
4457:
4450:
4442:
4435:
4428:
4403:
4402:
4398:
4390:
4383:
4378:
4326:
4319:
4315:
4307:
4303:
4295:
4283:
4279:
4275:
4251:alveolar region
4223:
4198:
4117:
4098:
4072:
4044:
4013:
4000:
3989:
3972:
3962:
3949:
3948:
3942:Kelvin equation
3933:
3903:
3898:
3897:
3847:
3837:
3821:
3820:
3806:Kelvin equation
3798:
3735:
3728:
3689:
3687:
3671:
3661:
3650:
3643:
3619:
3608:
3607:
3601:
3587:
3580:
3557:
3546:
3502:
3486:
3485:
3481:
3471:
3457:
3447:
3437:
3413:
3408:
3407:
3402:
3386:
3375:
3368:
3362:
3326:
3306:
3296:
3279:
3269:
3266:
3262:
3250:
3239:
3235:
3222:
3221:
3215:
3188:
3187:
3164:
3163:
3136:
3121:
3116:
3115:
3105:
3089:
3060:
3055:
3054:
3047:Stokes-Einstein
3025:
3020:
3019:
2996:
2995:
2975:
2974:
2953:
2948:
2947:
2913:
2901:
2859:
2847:
2842:
2836:
2835:
2793:
2781:
2776:
2770:
2769:
2756:
2746:
2736:
2712:
2688:
2676:
2671:
2664:
2663:
2632:
2581:
2580:
2570:
2564:
2563:
2553:
2540:
2535:
2534:
2506:
2498:
2497:
2470:
2441:
2440:
2422:
2417:
2416:
2410:
2396:
2371:
2370:
2340:
2327:
2317:
2304:
2303:
2271:
2266:
2265:
2242:
2237:
2236:
2206:
2205:
2168:
2155:
2142:
2126:
2106:
2105:
2064:
2054:
2037:
2021:
2020:
1984:
1979:
1978:
1951:
1940:
1927:
1917:
1916:
1898:
1893:
1892:
1856:
1851:
1850:
1829:
1828:
1821:is the dynamic
1803:
1802:
1779:
1774:
1773:
1744:
1727:
1712:
1707:
1706:
1691:Reynolds number
1687:
1682:
1655:arithmetic mean
1627:
1619:
1618:
1593:
1592:
1565:
1545:
1541:
1530:
1514:
1495:
1482:
1472:
1446:
1445:
1424:
1423:
1368:
1334:
1291:
1290:
1259:
1225:
1182:
1181:
1146:
1127:
1107:
1106:
1075:
1056:
1019:
1014:
1013:
978:
967:
966:
944:
934:
933:
912:
907:
906:
885:
880:
879:
854:
853:
830:
825:
824:
797:
778:
756:
755:
726:
720:
650:element to the
626:adverse effects
598:
592:
569:Cigarette smoke
495:
466:
441:Atomizer nozzle
385:
377:
366:
335:
239:Photomicrograph
232:
226:
122:irrigation mist
38:
31:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
7428:
7427:
7424:
7416:
7415:
7410:
7405:
7400:
7395:
7393:Fluid dynamics
7390:
7385:
7380:
7375:
7365:
7364:
7358:
7357:
7298:
7295:
7294:
7292:
7291:
7286:
7281:
7277:
7273:
7268:
7266:Law by country
7263:
7257:
7255:
7249:
7248:
7246:
7245:
7240:
7235:
7230:
7225:
7220:
7215:
7210:
7204:
7202:
7198:
7197:
7195:
7194:
7189:
7184:
7179:
7174:
7169:
7164:
7159:
7153:
7151:
7147:
7146:
7144:
7143:
7138:
7137:
7136:
7131:
7120:
7118:
7114:
7113:
7111:
7110:
7105:
7100:
7095:
7090:
7088:Surface runoff
7085:
7080:
7075:
7070:
7069:
7068:
7063:
7053:
7048:
7043:
7038:
7033:
7028:
7023:
7018:
7013:
7012:
7011:
7001:
6996:
6991:
6986:
6981:
6976:
6974:Eutrophication
6971:
6966:
6961:
6955:
6953:
6947:
6946:
6944:
6943:
6938:
6933:
6931:Scorched earth
6928:
6925:nuclear winter
6921:nuclear famine
6910:
6900:
6894:
6892:
6886:
6885:
6883:
6882:
6877:
6872:
6867:
6862:
6856:
6854:
6848:
6847:
6845:
6844:
6838:
6836:
6830:
6829:
6827:
6826:
6825:
6824:
6819:
6809:
6804:
6799:
6798:
6797:
6787:
6782:
6781:
6780:
6770:
6769:
6768:
6766:Uranium mining
6763:
6758:
6753:
6751:Surface mining
6748:
6743:
6733:
6728:
6727:
6726:
6716:
6715:
6714:
6709:
6704:
6702:Lead poisoning
6699:
6694:
6692:Chemical waste
6689:
6679:
6674:
6669:
6664:
6663:
6662:
6652:
6647:
6642:
6636:
6634:
6630:
6629:
6627:
6626:
6621:
6616:
6611:
6606:
6604:Bioremediation
6601:
6596:
6595:
6594:
6589:
6584:
6573:
6571:
6565:
6564:
6562:
6561:
6556:
6551:
6546:
6541:
6536:
6531:
6526:
6521:
6519:Bioremediation
6516:
6510:
6508:
6502:
6501:
6499:
6498:
6493:
6490:
6487:
6484:
6483:
6482:
6472:
6467:
6466:
6465:
6460:
6455:
6450:
6445:
6440:Transportation
6436:
6434:
6428:
6427:
6425:
6424:
6419:
6414:
6409:
6403:
6401:
6397:
6396:
6394:
6393:
6388:
6387:
6386:
6381:
6370:
6368:
6362:
6361:
6359:
6358:
6352:
6350:
6346:
6345:
6343:
6342:
6341:
6340:
6330:
6325:
6319:
6317:
6311:
6310:
6308:
6307:
6302:
6297:
6296:
6295:
6285:
6284:
6283:
6273:
6268:
6263:
6262:
6261:
6256:
6251:
6246:
6241:
6231:
6226:
6221:
6216:
6214:Global dimming
6211:
6206:
6201:
6200:
6199:
6189:
6188:
6187:
6185:Diesel exhaust
6177:
6172:
6171:
6170:
6160:
6159:
6158:
6153:
6148:
6143:
6133:
6128:
6123:
6118:
6112:
6110:
6104:
6103:
6098:
6095:
6094:
6089:
6087:
6086:
6079:
6072:
6064:
6058:
6057:
6051:
6046:
6032:
6031:External links
6029:
6027:
6026:
6020:
6007:
6001:
5988:
5982:
5969:
5963:
5949:
5947:
5944:
5941:
5940:
5919:
5893:
5867:
5865:, p. 252.
5855:
5853:, p. 250.
5843:
5841:, p. 254.
5831:
5829:, p. 246.
5819:
5817:, p. 244.
5807:
5805:, p. 249.
5795:
5793:, p. 233.
5780:
5747:
5728:(6): 549–562.
5712:
5675:(9): 705–713.
5659:
5622:
5601:(2): 255–265.
5581:
5546:
5535:(8): 555–574.
5519:
5507:
5495:
5432:
5430:, p. 288.
5417:
5371:
5356:
5354:, p. 260.
5344:
5329:
5317:
5302:
5300:, p. 115.
5290:
5278:
5266:
5254:
5242:
5230:
5215:
5198:
5183:
5171:
5156:
5129:
5102:(1): 123–140.
5086:
5059:(5): 457–463.
5043:
5022:
4997:
4985:
4933:
4909:
4884:
4855:
4810:
4808:, p. 278.
4798:
4796:, p. 274.
4786:
4784:, p. 255.
4774:
4772:, p. 428.
4762:
4747:
4735:
4723:
4711:
4696:
4684:
4663:
4656:
4636:
4579:
4511:
4504:
4473:
4448:
4446:, p. 254.
4433:
4426:
4396:
4380:
4379:
4377:
4374:
4373:
4372:
4367:
4362:
4357:
4355:Global dimming
4352:
4347:
4342:
4337:
4332:
4325:
4322:
4317:
4313:
4305:
4301:
4293:
4284:is defined by
4281:
4277:
4273:
4222:
4219:
4218:
4217:
4212:
4207:
4205:Sun photometer
4197:
4194:
4193:
4192:
4186:
4180:
4174:
4172:Epiphaniometer
4169:
4163:
4157:
4151:
4145:
4139:
4133:
4127:
4116:
4110:
4106:remote sensing
4097:
4094:
4093:
4092:
4089:
4086:
4083:
4071:
4068:
4042:
4037:
4036:
4020:
4016:
4012:
4009:
4006:
4003:
3998:
3995:
3992:
3986:
3979:
3975:
3969:
3965:
3959:
3956:
3931:
3910:
3906:
3894:
3893:
3882:
3879:
3876:
3873:
3870:
3867:
3864:
3861:
3854:
3850:
3844:
3840:
3834:
3831:
3828:
3797:
3794:
3782:
3781:
3774:
3771:
3764:vapor pressure
3734:
3731:
3726:
3720:
3719:
3703:
3696:
3692:
3686:
3683:
3678:
3674:
3670:
3667:
3664:
3657:
3653:
3649:
3646:
3640:
3635:
3632:
3629:
3626:
3622:
3618:
3615:
3599:
3585:
3578:
3555:
3544:
3531:
3530:
3518:
3512:
3509:
3505:
3501:
3496:
3493:
3489:
3484:
3477:
3474:
3467:
3464:
3460:
3454:
3450:
3446:
3443:
3440:
3434:
3429:
3426:
3423:
3420:
3416:
3400:
3384:
3373:
3366:
3360:
3350:
3349:
3338:
3333:
3329:
3325:
3321:
3313:
3309:
3303:
3299:
3293:
3286:
3282:
3276:
3272:
3265:
3257:
3253:
3246:
3242:
3238:
3232:
3229:
3213:
3195:
3184:mean free path
3171:
3160:
3159:
3146:
3142:
3139:
3133:
3128:
3124:
3109:Knudsen number
3104:
3101:
3088:
3085:
3084:
3083:
3069:
3064:
3052:
3032:
3028:
3017:
3004:
2993:
2982:
2960:
2956:
2934:
2933:
2920:
2916:
2910:
2905:
2900:
2897:
2894:
2888:
2885:
2882:
2879:
2873:
2866:
2862:
2854:
2850:
2845:
2839:
2834:
2828:
2825:
2822:
2819:
2816:
2813:
2807:
2800:
2796:
2788:
2784:
2779:
2773:
2768:
2763:
2759:
2753:
2749:
2743:
2739:
2735:
2732:
2729:
2725:
2719:
2715:
2711:
2708:
2705:
2702:
2695:
2691:
2683:
2679:
2674:
2631:
2628:
2623:
2622:
2608:
2605:
2599:
2593:
2588:
2584:
2577:
2573:
2567:
2560:
2556:
2552:
2547:
2543:
2528:
2527:
2513:
2509:
2491:
2490:
2476:
2473:
2468:
2463:
2458:
2454:
2448:
2444:
2437:
2432:
2429:
2425:
2408:
2395:
2392:
2391:
2390:
2378:
2364:
2363:
2347:
2343:
2339:
2336:
2333:
2330:
2324:
2320:
2314:
2311:
2293:
2292:
2278:
2274:
2263:
2249:
2245:
2234:
2222:
2219:
2216:
2213:
2199:
2198:
2183:
2180:
2175:
2171:
2167:
2162:
2158:
2154:
2149:
2145:
2141:
2138:
2133:
2129:
2125:
2122:
2119:
2116:
2113:
2091:
2090:
2076:
2073:
2070:
2067:
2061:
2057:
2051:
2044:
2040:
2036:
2031:
2028:
2009:
2008:
1994:
1991:
1987:
1972:
1971:
1957:
1954:
1947:
1943:
1939:
1934:
1930:
1924:
1920:
1913:
1908:
1905:
1901:
1878:
1877:
1863:
1859:
1848:
1836:
1826:
1810:
1800:
1786:
1782:
1767:
1766:
1751:
1747:
1742:
1739:
1736:
1733:
1730:
1724:
1719:
1715:
1686:
1683:
1681:
1678:
1659:
1658:
1639:
1634:
1630:
1616:
1600:
1586:
1585:
1572:
1568:
1563:
1552:
1548:
1544:
1537:
1533:
1526:
1521:
1517:
1510:
1507:
1502:
1498:
1494:
1491:
1488:
1485:
1479:
1475:
1466:
1463:
1458:
1453:
1449:
1444:
1439:
1436:
1432:
1389:
1388:
1375:
1371:
1366:
1359:
1354:
1350:
1346:
1341:
1337:
1333:
1330:
1325:
1320:
1316:
1312:
1308:
1304:
1301:
1298:
1280:
1279:
1266:
1262:
1257:
1250:
1245:
1241:
1237:
1232:
1228:
1224:
1221:
1216:
1211:
1207:
1203:
1199:
1195:
1192:
1189:
1167:
1166:
1153:
1149:
1144:
1139:
1134:
1130:
1126:
1123:
1120:
1117:
1114:
1096:
1095:
1082:
1078:
1073:
1068:
1063:
1059:
1055:
1052:
1047:
1042:
1038:
1034:
1029:
1026:
1022:
1003:
1002:
990:
985:
981:
977:
974:
964:
951:
947:
942:
919:
915:
892:
888:
867:
863:
851:
837:
833:
818:
817:
804:
800:
795:
790:
785:
781:
777:
774:
771:
768:
764:
719:
716:
700:sulfur dioxide
670:
669:
668:
667:
663:
655:
610:sulphuric acid
591:
588:
584:
583:
577:
570:
567:
556:
555:
545:
527:
491:Main article:
465:
462:
461:
460:
457:
452:
447:
438:
429:
428:
421:fuel injection
417:
410:
407:
396:
384:
381:
375:
364:
333:
307:often use the
225:
222:
114:air pollutants
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
7426:
7425:
7414:
7411:
7409:
7406:
7404:
7401:
7399:
7396:
7394:
7391:
7389:
7386:
7384:
7381:
7379:
7378:Air pollution
7376:
7374:
7371:
7370:
7368:
7355:
7345:
7340:
7335:
7327:
7319:
7310:
7306:
7296:
7290:
7287:
7285:
7282:
7280:
7274:
7272:
7269:
7267:
7264:
7262:
7259:
7258:
7256:
7254:
7250:
7244:
7241:
7239:
7236:
7234:
7231:
7229:
7226:
7224:
7221:
7219:
7216:
7214:
7211:
7209:
7206:
7205:
7203:
7199:
7193:
7190:
7188:
7185:
7183:
7180:
7178:
7175:
7173:
7170:
7168:
7165:
7163:
7160:
7158:
7155:
7154:
7152:
7148:
7142:
7139:
7135:
7132:
7130:
7127:
7126:
7125:
7122:
7121:
7119:
7115:
7109:
7108:Water quality
7106:
7104:
7101:
7099:
7096:
7094:
7091:
7089:
7086:
7084:
7081:
7079:
7076:
7074:
7071:
7067:
7064:
7062:
7059:
7058:
7057:
7054:
7052:
7049:
7047:
7044:
7042:
7039:
7037:
7034:
7032:
7029:
7027:
7024:
7022:
7019:
7017:
7014:
7010:
7007:
7006:
7005:
7002:
7000:
6997:
6995:
6992:
6990:
6987:
6985:
6982:
6980:
6977:
6975:
6972:
6970:
6967:
6965:
6962:
6960:
6957:
6956:
6954:
6952:
6948:
6942:
6939:
6937:
6934:
6932:
6929:
6926:
6922:
6918:
6914:
6911:
6908:
6904:
6901:
6899:
6896:
6895:
6893:
6891:
6887:
6881:
6878:
6876:
6873:
6871:
6870:Traffic signs
6868:
6866:
6863:
6861:
6858:
6857:
6855:
6853:
6849:
6843:
6840:
6839:
6837:
6835:
6831:
6823:
6820:
6818:
6815:
6814:
6813:
6810:
6808:
6805:
6803:
6800:
6796:
6795:Microplastics
6793:
6792:
6791:
6788:
6786:
6785:Nanomaterials
6783:
6779:
6776:
6775:
6774:
6771:
6767:
6764:
6762:
6759:
6757:
6754:
6752:
6749:
6747:
6744:
6742:
6739:
6738:
6737:
6734:
6732:
6729:
6725:
6724:Lead smelting
6722:
6721:
6720:
6717:
6713:
6710:
6708:
6705:
6703:
6700:
6698:
6695:
6693:
6690:
6688:
6685:
6684:
6683:
6680:
6678:
6675:
6673:
6670:
6668:
6665:
6661:
6658:
6657:
6656:
6653:
6651:
6648:
6646:
6643:
6641:
6638:
6637:
6635:
6631:
6625:
6622:
6620:
6617:
6615:
6612:
6610:
6607:
6605:
6602:
6600:
6597:
6593:
6590:
6588:
6585:
6583:
6580:
6579:
6578:
6575:
6574:
6572:
6570:
6566:
6560:
6557:
6555:
6552:
6550:
6547:
6545:
6544:Radioactivity
6542:
6540:
6537:
6535:
6532:
6530:
6527:
6525:
6522:
6520:
6517:
6515:
6512:
6511:
6509:
6507:
6503:
6497:
6496:Noise control
6494:
6491:
6488:
6485:
6481:
6478:
6477:
6476:
6473:
6471:
6468:
6464:
6461:
6459:
6456:
6454:
6451:
6449:
6446:
6443:
6442:
6441:
6438:
6437:
6435:
6433:
6429:
6423:
6420:
6418:
6415:
6413:
6410:
6408:
6405:
6404:
6402:
6398:
6392:
6389:
6385:
6382:
6380:
6377:
6376:
6375:
6372:
6371:
6369:
6367:
6363:
6357:
6354:
6353:
6351:
6347:
6339:
6336:
6335:
6334:
6331:
6329:
6326:
6324:
6321:
6320:
6318:
6316:
6312:
6306:
6303:
6301:
6298:
6294:
6291:
6290:
6289:
6286:
6282:
6279:
6278:
6277:
6274:
6272:
6269:
6267:
6264:
6260:
6257:
6255:
6252:
6250:
6247:
6245:
6244:Metal working
6242:
6240:
6237:
6236:
6235:
6232:
6230:
6227:
6225:
6222:
6220:
6217:
6215:
6212:
6210:
6207:
6205:
6202:
6198:
6195:
6194:
6193:
6190:
6186:
6183:
6182:
6181:
6178:
6176:
6173:
6169:
6166:
6165:
6164:
6161:
6157:
6154:
6152:
6149:
6147:
6144:
6142:
6139:
6138:
6137:
6134:
6132:
6129:
6127:
6124:
6122:
6119:
6117:
6114:
6113:
6111:
6109:
6105:
6101:
6096:
6092:
6085:
6080:
6078:
6073:
6071:
6066:
6065:
6062:
6055:
6052:
6050:
6047:
6045:
6041:
6038:
6035:
6034:
6030:
6023:
6017:
6013:
6008:
6004:
5998:
5994:
5989:
5985:
5983:0-19-512999-7
5979:
5975:
5970:
5966:
5960:
5956:
5951:
5950:
5945:
5929:
5923:
5920:
5907:
5903:
5897:
5894:
5881:
5877:
5871:
5868:
5864:
5859:
5856:
5852:
5847:
5844:
5840:
5835:
5832:
5828:
5823:
5820:
5816:
5811:
5808:
5804:
5799:
5796:
5792:
5787:
5785:
5781:
5775:
5770:
5766:
5762:
5758:
5751:
5748:
5743:
5739:
5735:
5731:
5727:
5723:
5716:
5713:
5708:
5704:
5699:
5694:
5690:
5686:
5682:
5678:
5674:
5670:
5663:
5660:
5655:
5651:
5647:
5643:
5639:
5635:
5634:
5626:
5623:
5617:
5612:
5608:
5604:
5600:
5596:
5592:
5585:
5582:
5577:
5573:
5569:
5565:
5561:
5557:
5550:
5547:
5542:
5538:
5534:
5530:
5523:
5520:
5516:
5511:
5508:
5505:, p. 62.
5504:
5499:
5496:
5491:
5487:
5483:
5479:
5475:
5471:
5467:
5463:
5459:
5455:
5451:
5447:
5443:
5436:
5433:
5429:
5424:
5422:
5418:
5412:
5407:
5403:
5399:
5395:
5391:
5387:
5380:
5378:
5376:
5372:
5367:
5360:
5357:
5353:
5348:
5345:
5342:, p. 60.
5341:
5336:
5334:
5330:
5327:, p. 54.
5326:
5321:
5318:
5315:, p. 53.
5314:
5309:
5307:
5303:
5299:
5294:
5291:
5288:, p. 47.
5287:
5282:
5279:
5276:, p. 49.
5275:
5270:
5267:
5263:
5258:
5255:
5251:
5246:
5243:
5240:, p. 91.
5239:
5234:
5231:
5228:, p. 90.
5227:
5222:
5220:
5216:
5213:, p. 58.
5212:
5207:
5205:
5203:
5199:
5196:, p. 79.
5195:
5190:
5188:
5184:
5180:
5175:
5172:
5167:
5160:
5157:
5144:
5140:
5133:
5130:
5125:
5121:
5117:
5113:
5109:
5105:
5101:
5097:
5090:
5087:
5082:
5078:
5074:
5070:
5066:
5062:
5058:
5054:
5047:
5044:
5038:
5033:
5026:
5023:
5012:
5008:
5001:
4998:
4995:
4989:
4986:
4980:
4975:
4970:
4965:
4961:
4957:
4953:
4949:
4945:
4937:
4934:
4923:
4919:
4913:
4910:
4899:
4895:
4888:
4885:
4873:
4869:
4862:
4860:
4856:
4849:
4844:
4840:
4836:
4832:
4828:
4821:
4814:
4811:
4807:
4802:
4799:
4795:
4790:
4787:
4783:
4778:
4775:
4771:
4766:
4763:
4760:, p. 51.
4759:
4754:
4752:
4748:
4745:, p. 10.
4744:
4739:
4736:
4732:
4727:
4724:
4720:
4715:
4712:
4708:
4703:
4701:
4697:
4693:
4688:
4685:
4680:
4676:
4670:
4668:
4664:
4659:
4653:
4649:
4648:
4640:
4637:
4632:
4628:
4623:
4618:
4614:
4610:
4606:
4602:
4598:
4594:
4590:
4583:
4580:
4575:
4571:
4566:
4561:
4557:
4553:
4549:
4545:
4541:
4537:
4533:
4529:
4525:
4518:
4516:
4512:
4507:
4501:
4497:
4493:
4489:
4482:
4480:
4478:
4474:
4461:
4455:
4453:
4449:
4445:
4440:
4438:
4434:
4429:
4423:
4419:
4415:
4410:
4409:
4400:
4397:
4393:
4388:
4386:
4382:
4375:
4371:
4368:
4366:
4363:
4361:
4358:
4356:
4353:
4351:
4348:
4346:
4343:
4341:
4338:
4336:
4333:
4331:
4328:
4327:
4323:
4321:
4311:
4299:
4291:
4287:
4270:
4268:
4264:
4260:
4254:
4252:
4249:), or in the
4248:
4244:
4240:
4236:
4232:
4228:
4220:
4216:
4213:
4211:
4208:
4206:
4203:
4202:
4201:
4195:
4190:
4187:
4184:
4181:
4178:
4175:
4173:
4170:
4167:
4164:
4161:
4158:
4155:
4152:
4149:
4146:
4143:
4140:
4137:
4134:
4131:
4128:
4125:
4122:
4121:
4120:
4114:
4111:
4109:
4107:
4103:
4095:
4090:
4087:
4084:
4082:Moment method
4081:
4080:
4079:
4077:
4069:
4067:
4065:
4061:
4057:
4053:
4049:
4045:
4018:
4014:
4010:
4007:
4004:
4001:
3996:
3993:
3990:
3984:
3977:
3973:
3967:
3963:
3957:
3954:
3947:
3946:
3945:
3943:
3939:
3937:
3930:
3926:
3908:
3904:
3877:
3874:
3871:
3868:
3862:
3859:
3852:
3848:
3842:
3838:
3832:
3829:
3826:
3819:
3818:
3817:
3815:
3811:
3807:
3803:
3795:
3793:
3791:
3787:
3779:
3775:
3772:
3769:
3768:
3767:
3765:
3761:
3757:
3752:
3748:
3739:
3732:
3730:
3725:
3701:
3694:
3690:
3684:
3681:
3676:
3672:
3668:
3665:
3662:
3655:
3651:
3647:
3644:
3638:
3633:
3630:
3627:
3624:
3620:
3616:
3613:
3606:
3605:
3604:
3602:
3595:
3590:
3588:
3581:
3574:
3570:
3566:
3562:
3558:
3551:
3547:
3540:
3536:
3516:
3510:
3507:
3503:
3499:
3491:
3487:
3482:
3475:
3472:
3465:
3462:
3458:
3452:
3448:
3444:
3441:
3438:
3432:
3427:
3424:
3421:
3418:
3414:
3406:
3405:
3404:
3398:
3393:
3391:
3387:
3380:
3376:
3369:
3359:
3355:
3336:
3331:
3327:
3323:
3319:
3311:
3307:
3301:
3297:
3291:
3280:
3270:
3263:
3255:
3251:
3244:
3240:
3236:
3230:
3227:
3220:
3219:
3218:
3216:
3209:
3193:
3185:
3169:
3144:
3140:
3137:
3131:
3126:
3122:
3114:
3113:
3112:
3110:
3102:
3100:
3093:
3086:
3067:
3053:
3051:
3048:
3030:
3026:
3018:
2994:
2980:
2958:
2954:
2946:
2945:
2944:
2941:
2939:
2918:
2914:
2908:
2898:
2892:
2871:
2864:
2852:
2848:
2837:
2832:
2805:
2798:
2786:
2782:
2771:
2766:
2761:
2757:
2751:
2741:
2737:
2733:
2727:
2717:
2713:
2709:
2703:
2700:
2693:
2681:
2677:
2662:
2661:
2660:
2658:
2654:
2649:
2646:
2642:
2637:
2629:
2627:
2606:
2603:
2597:
2591:
2586:
2582:
2575:
2571:
2565:
2558:
2554:
2550:
2545:
2541:
2533:
2532:
2531:
2511:
2507:
2496:
2495:
2494:
2474:
2471:
2466:
2461:
2456:
2452:
2446:
2442:
2435:
2430:
2427:
2423:
2415:
2414:
2413:
2411:
2404:
2399:
2393:
2376:
2369:
2368:
2367:
2345:
2341:
2337:
2334:
2331:
2328:
2322:
2318:
2312:
2309:
2302:
2301:
2300:
2298:
2276:
2272:
2264:
2247:
2243:
2235:
2217:
2211:
2204:
2203:
2202:
2181:
2178:
2173:
2169:
2160:
2156:
2152:
2147:
2143:
2136:
2131:
2127:
2123:
2117:
2111:
2104:
2103:
2102:
2100:
2096:
2095:exponentially
2074:
2071:
2068:
2065:
2059:
2055:
2049:
2042:
2038:
2034:
2029:
2026:
2019:
2018:
2017:
2015:
1992:
1989:
1985:
1977:
1976:
1975:
1955:
1952:
1945:
1941:
1937:
1932:
1928:
1922:
1918:
1911:
1906:
1903:
1899:
1891:
1890:
1889:
1887:
1883:
1861:
1857:
1849:
1834:
1827:
1824:
1808:
1801:
1784:
1780:
1772:
1771:
1770:
1749:
1745:
1740:
1737:
1734:
1731:
1728:
1722:
1717:
1713:
1705:
1704:
1703:
1701:
1696:
1692:
1684:
1679:
1677:
1675:
1671:
1667:
1662:
1656:
1632:
1628:
1617:
1614:
1598:
1591:
1590:
1589:
1570:
1566:
1550:
1546:
1542:
1535:
1519:
1515:
1508:
1500:
1496:
1489:
1486:
1477:
1473:
1464:
1461:
1456:
1451:
1447:
1442:
1437:
1434:
1422:
1421:
1420:
1418:
1413:
1411:
1407:
1402:
1398:
1394:
1373:
1369:
1357:
1352:
1348:
1339:
1335:
1328:
1318:
1314:
1310:
1306:
1302:
1299:
1296:
1289:
1288:
1287:
1285:
1264:
1260:
1248:
1243:
1239:
1230:
1226:
1219:
1209:
1205:
1201:
1197:
1193:
1190:
1187:
1180:
1179:
1178:
1176:
1172:
1151:
1147:
1132:
1128:
1121:
1118:
1115:
1112:
1105:
1104:
1103:
1101:
1080:
1076:
1061:
1057:
1050:
1045:
1040:
1036:
1032:
1027:
1024:
1020:
1012:
1011:
1010:
1008:
983:
979:
972:
965:
949:
945:
917:
913:
890:
886:
865:
852:
835:
831:
823:
822:
821:
802:
798:
783:
779:
772:
769:
766:
754:
753:
752:
750:
749:tends to zero
745:
740:
730:
725:
717:
715:
711:
709:
703:
701:
696:
694:
690:
686:
682:
678:
674:
664:
660:
656:
653:
648:
644:
643:
642:
641:
640:
638:
633:
629:
627:
623:
619:
615:
611:
602:
597:
589:
587:
581:
578:
575:
574:aerosol spray
571:
568:
565:
564:
563:
561:
553:
549:
548:anthropogenic
546:
544:
540:
536:
532:
528:
525:
521:
520:
519:
517:
513:
510:Although all
508:
506:
501:
500:sulfuric acid
494:
485:
479:
475:
470:
463:
458:
456:
453:
451:
448:
446:
442:
439:
437:
436:Aerosol spray
434:
433:
432:
426:
422:
418:
415:
411:
408:
405:
401:
397:
394:
390:
389:
388:
382:
380:
378:
371:
367:
360:
355:
351:
347:
343:
338:
336:
328:
326:
322:
321:
316:
312:
311:
306:
302:
297:
293:
291:
287:
283:
279:
275:
271:
267:
263:
255:
251:
244:
240:
236:
231:
223:
221:
219:
215:
211:
207:
205:
201:
197:
193:
189:
184:
180:
178:
174:
170:
166:
162:
158:
154:
152:
147:
146:sulfuric acid
141:
139:
135:
131:
127:
123:
119:
115:
112:
108:
104:
100:
96:
92:
88:
84:
80:
76:
73:
69:
66:
62:
58:
50:
46:
42:
36:
29:
22:
7187:Point source
7129:Heavy metals
7103:Urban runoff
7083:Sulfur water
7061:Septic tanks
6907:Agent Orange
6761:Mining waste
6587:Manure waste
6417:Volcanic ash
6293:Black carbon
6280:
6249:Oil refining
6234:Particulates
6163:Construction
6011:
5992:
5973:
5954:
5933:23 September
5931:. Retrieved
5922:
5912:23 September
5910:. Retrieved
5906:the original
5896:
5886:23 September
5884:. Retrieved
5882:. 2010-12-10
5879:
5870:
5858:
5846:
5834:
5822:
5810:
5798:
5764:
5760:
5750:
5725:
5721:
5715:
5672:
5668:
5662:
5640:(1): 43–73.
5637:
5631:
5625:
5598:
5594:
5584:
5562:(1): 63–86.
5559:
5555:
5549:
5532:
5528:
5522:
5510:
5498:
5449:
5445:
5435:
5393:
5389:
5365:
5359:
5347:
5320:
5293:
5281:
5269:
5257:
5245:
5233:
5174:
5165:
5159:
5147:. Retrieved
5142:
5132:
5099:
5095:
5089:
5056:
5052:
5046:
5025:
5014:. Retrieved
5010:
5000:
4988:
4951:
4947:
4936:
4925:. Retrieved
4921:
4912:
4901:. Retrieved
4897:
4887:
4875:. Retrieved
4871:
4866:Allen, Bob.
4830:
4826:
4813:
4801:
4789:
4777:
4765:
4738:
4726:
4714:
4709:, p. 8.
4694:, p. 5.
4687:
4678:
4646:
4639:
4596:
4592:
4582:
4531:
4527:
4487:
4464:. Retrieved
4407:
4399:
4394:, p. 3.
4335:Aeroplankton
4297:
4289:
4271:
4255:
4224:
4199:
4118:
4115:observations
4112:
4108:techniques.
4099:
4073:
4063:
4059:
4058:molar mass,
4055:
4051:
4047:
4040:
4038:
3940:
3935:
3928:
3895:
3801:
3799:
3789:
3785:
3783:
3778:Raoult's law
3747:condensation
3744:
3733:Partitioning
3723:
3721:
3597:
3593:
3591:
3583:
3576:
3572:
3568:
3564:
3560:
3553:
3549:
3542:
3538:
3534:
3532:
3396:
3394:
3389:
3382:
3378:
3371:
3364:
3357:
3353:
3351:
3211:
3207:
3161:
3106:
3097:
2942:
2935:
2656:
2650:
2635:
2633:
2624:
2529:
2492:
2406:
2400:
2397:
2365:
2296:
2294:
2200:
2098:
2092:
2013:
2010:
1973:
1879:
1768:
1688:
1663:
1660:
1587:
1414:
1390:
1283:
1281:
1170:
1168:
1099:
1097:
1006:
1004:
819:
747:of the bins
736:
712:
704:
697:
671:
658:
646:
634:
630:
607:
585:
557:
512:hydrometeors
509:
496:
493:Particulates
450:Electrospray
430:
386:
373:
362:
358:
353:
350:polydisperse
349:
346:monodisperse
345:
339:
331:
329:
324:
318:
314:
308:
298:
294:
289:
285:
265:
258:
230:Particulates
208:
195:
185:
181:
155:
142:
95:particulates
90:
87:human causes
56:
54:
51:are aerosols
28:particulates
7157:Area source
7066:Pit latrine
6989:Groundwater
6746:Gold mining
6741:Coal mining
6712:Toxic waste
6677:Green waste
6650:Brown waste
6633:Solid waste
6180:Exhaust gas
4922:www.ipcc.ch
4466:27 December
4365:Monoterpene
4263:elutriators
3751:evaporation
3087:Coagulation
3050:diffusivity
2655:called the
2403:aerodynamic
1695:Stokes' law
1408:grains and
673:Ship tracks
427:technology.
398:to deliver
393:calibrating
270:World War I
224:Definitions
218:bioaerosols
157:Ship tracks
111:particulate
89:. The term
81:or another
7367:Categories
7309:by country
7305:Categories
7243:Zero waste
7124:Pollutants
7078:Stagnation
7016:Monitoring
6984:Freshwater
6860:Air travel
6672:Food waste
6592:Pesticides
6582:Herbicides
6486:Industrial
6315:Biological
6175:Demolition
6168:Renovation
6151:Joss paper
6136:Combustion
5863:Hinds 1999
5851:Hinds 1999
5839:Hinds 1999
5827:Hinds 1999
5815:Hinds 1999
5803:Hinds 1999
5791:Hinds 1999
5698:10397/9612
5428:Hinds 1999
5352:Hinds 1999
5325:Hinds 1999
5313:Hinds 1999
5298:Hinds 1999
5286:Hinds 1999
5274:Hinds 1999
5262:Hinds 1999
5250:Hinds 1999
5238:Hinds 1999
5226:Hinds 1999
5194:Hinds 1999
5179:Hinds 1999
5016:2024-07-15
4979:1912/24327
4927:2018-02-07
4903:2019-10-07
4853:Fig. 2(a).
4770:Hinds 1999
4758:Hinds 1999
4743:Hinds 1999
4731:Hinds 1999
4707:Hinds 1999
4534:(1): 281.
4416:. p.
4392:Hinds 1999
4376:References
4345:Bioaerosol
3796:Activation
2405:diameter,
1825:of the gas
722:See also:
693:cloud seed
594:See also:
572:Mist from
560:ecosystems
478:Bangladesh
425:combustion
400:deodorants
342:dispersity
228:See also:
192:suspension
177:cloud seed
61:suspension
7408:Pollution
7201:Responses
7172:Garbology
7098:Turbidity
7046:Oil spill
6979:Firewater
6880:Vandalism
6842:Satellite
6539:Poisoning
6534:Plutonium
6514:Actinides
6506:Radiation
6254:Wood dust
6116:Acid rain
6091:Pollution
5767:: 18–35.
5707:120582575
5503:Hidy 1984
5490:206156442
5474:1364-503X
5340:Hidy 1984
5211:Hidy 1984
5124:247520571
5081:0278-6826
4806:Hidy 1984
4794:Hidy 1984
4782:Hidy 1984
4692:Hidy 1984
4613:2044-6055
4556:2662-4435
4444:Hidy 1984
4360:Nebulizer
4096:Detection
4076:solutions
4011:⋅
4008:ρ
3994:σ
3958:
3881:%
3875:×
3866:%
3860:×
3802:activated
3639:⋅
3500:−
3495:∞
3442:π
3433:∼
3337:α
3324:⋅
3292:−
3285:∞
3275:∞
3237:π
3170:λ
3141:λ
2899:⋅
2896:∇
2893:−
2861:∂
2844:∂
2795:∂
2778:∂
2748:∇
2734:⋅
2731:∇
2710:⋅
2707:∇
2704:−
2690:∂
2673:∂
2641:diffusion
2592:χ
2583:ρ
2572:ρ
2508:ρ
2475:η
2443:ρ
2377:χ
2335:η
2332:π
2310:χ
2182:τ
2174:−
2153:−
2137:−
2072:η
2069:π
1956:η
1919:ρ
1823:viscosity
1809:η
1735:η
1732:π
1657:diameter.
1638:¯
1599:σ
1547:σ
1525:¯
1509:−
1478:−
1465:π
1457:σ
1401:long tail
1324:∞
1315:∫
1303:π
1215:∞
1206:∫
1194:π
1037:∫
744:histogram
685:molecules
622:acid rain
524:inorganic
445:nebulizer
204:spray can
188:1 μm
169:molecules
68:particles
7388:Colloids
7373:Aerosols
7289:Treaties
7261:Diseases
7073:Shipping
6969:Diseases
6817:Landfill
6492:Abstract
6489:Military
6422:Wildfire
6271:Smelting
6239:Asbestos
6040:Archived
5482:18826917
5168:. 960–1.
5116:35300517
4631:34642190
4593:BMJ Open
4574:38826490
4565:11139642
4324:See also
4104:or with
2630:Dynamics
2097:with an
1886:buoyancy
1397:skewness
733:is 1000.
708:COVID-19
706:site in
689:aerosols
659:indirect
645:E.g., a
554:or dusts
543:bacteria
529:natural
522:natural
372:,
278:hydrosol
274:solution
173:aerosols
75:droplets
63:of fine
7398:Liquids
7318:Commons
7093:Thermal
6994:Hypoxia
6778:Garbage
6549:Uranium
6400:Natural
6349:Digital
6281:Aerosol
6259:Welding
6146:Biomass
6141:Biofuel
6100:History
5946:Sources
5730:Bibcode
5677:Bibcode
5642:Bibcode
5603:Bibcode
5564:Bibcode
5454:Bibcode
5398:Bibcode
5061:Bibcode
5032:medRxiv
4956:Bibcode
4835:Bibcode
4622:8520596
4536:Bibcode
4330:Aerogel
4245:to the
4243:trachea
4235:pharynx
4162:(MOUDI)
4113:In situ
4102:in-situ
3923:is the
3749:on and
3182:is the
2943:Where:
2366:where:
2201:where:
1680:Physics
1653:is the
1611:is the
1588:where:
681:exhaust
662:budget.
590:Effects
531:organic
282:colloid
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243:Fly ash
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21:aerosil
7413:Solids
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7162:Debris
7117:Topics
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7009:debris
7004:Marine
6852:Visual
6736:Mining
6731:Litter
6224:Mining
6018:
5999:
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4292:and PM
4276:and PM
4239:larynx
4191:(CPMA)
4179:(ELPI)
4039:where
3896:where
3722:where
3533:where
3399:when K
3352:where
3162:where
2504:
2493:where
1974:where
1769:where
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1406:pollen
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820:where
677:clouds
647:direct
539:spores
535:pollen
404:paints
214:breath
161:clouds
72:liquid
7253:Lists
7192:Waste
7134:Paint
6951:Water
6834:Space
6475:Sonar
6470:Urban
6448:Water
6432:Noise
6407:Ozone
6374:Light
6305:Waste
6197:Smoke
5703:S2CID
5486:S2CID
5120:S2CID
4823:(PDF)
4231:mouth
4210:Lidar
4185:(APM)
4168:(CPC)
4156:(WPS)
4150:(AAC)
4144:(APS)
4138:(EAS)
4132:(DMA)
4126:(AMS)
3756:vapor
552:ashes
541:, or
474:India
416:; and
130:smoke
65:solid
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7167:Dust
7150:Misc
6569:Soil
6458:Rail
6444:Land
6288:Soot
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6192:Haze
6016:ISBN
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5978:ISBN
5959:ISBN
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5914:2012
5888:2012
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5470:ISSN
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5112:PMID
5077:ISSN
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4570:PMID
4552:ISSN
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4468:2014
4422:ISBN
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3669:1.71
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6890:War
6453:Air
6108:Air
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5685:doi
5650:doi
5611:doi
5572:doi
5560:139
5537:doi
5462:doi
5450:366
5406:doi
5104:doi
5069:doi
4974:hdl
4964:doi
4843:doi
4617:PMC
4601:doi
4560:PMC
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4492:doi
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