Khosrow I - Knowledge

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frontiers of both states should make a thorough investigation of such acts and punish them. If these prove unable to check the damage that neighbours are inflicting on each other, it was agreed that the case should be referred to the general of the East on the understanding that if the dispute were not settled within six months and the plaintiff had not recovered his losses, the offender should be liable to the plaintiff for a double indemnity. It was agreed that if the matter were not settled in this way, the injured party should send a deputation to the sovereign of the offender. If within one year the sovereign does not give satisfaction and the plaintiff does not receive the double indemnity due to him, the treaty shall be regarded as broken in respect of this clause.

2013:. This execution created tremendous civil unrest and led to a revolt and massacre of the governor including the capture of Dvin in 572. Justin II took advantage of this revolt and used it as an excuse to stop paying annual payments to Khosrow, effectively putting an end to the 51 year peace treaty that was established ten years earlier. Khosrow, who tried to avoid another war, sent a Christian diplomat named Sebokht to Constantinople in order to try to persuade Justin to change his mind. Justin, however, refused to listen to the diplomat, and prepared to help the Armenians, whom he considered his allies, in their war against Khosrow. A Byzantine army was sent into Sasanian territory and besieged Nisibis in the same year. 843:, sharing women was most likely an overstatement and defamation deriving from Mazdak's decree that loosened marriage rules to help the lower classes. Powerful families saw this as a tactic to weaken their lineage and advantages, which was most likely the case. Kavad used the movement as a political tool to curb the power of the nobility and clergy. With the nobility and clergy weakened, Kavad was able to make reforms with less difficulty. With the reforms roaring by the 520s, he no longer had any use for Mazdak. As a result, he officially withdrew his support from the Mazdakites. A debate was arranged, where not only the Zoroastrian priesthood, but also the Christian and Jewish ones slandered Mazdak and his followers. 2441: 2643: 798:

Mazdakite, the religious sect that Kavad originally supported but now had withdrawn his support from. Although Siyawush was a close friend of Kavad and had helped him escape from imprisonment, the latter did not try to prevent his execution, seemingly with the purpose of restricting Siyawush's immense authority as the head of the Sasanian army, a post which was disliked by the other nobles. Siyawush was executed, and his office was abolished. Despite the breakdown of the negotiations, it was not until 530 that full-scale warfare on the main eastern frontier broke out. In the intervening years, the two sides preferred to wage war by proxy, through

1822: 2569:, between the beginning of Śarvavarman's reign in 560/565 and the end of Khosrow's reign in 579. When the game was sent to Iran it came with a letter which read: "As your name is the King of Kings, all your emperorship over us connotes that your wise men should be wiser than ours. Either you send us an explanation of this game of chess or send revenue and tribute us." Khosrow's grand vizier successfully solved the riddle and figured out how to play chess. In response the wise vizier created the game backgammon and sent it to the Indian court with the same message. The Indian king was not able to solve the riddle and was forced to pay tribute. 622: 66: 2618:. And an atmosphere of vivid reflection and discussion at the early Sasanian court in the third century AD is reflected in such accounts. The foundation of the Academy of Gondishapur introduced the studies of philosophy, medicine, physics, poetry, rhetoric, and astronomy into the Sasanian court. According to some historical accounts, this famous learning center was built in order to provide a place for incoming Greek refugees to study and share their knowledge. Gundeshapur became the focal point of the combination of Greek and Indian sciences along with Iranian and 1158: 811: 2406: 2345: 1871: 1732:. Edessa was now a much more important city than Antioch was, and the garrison which occupied the city was able to resist the siege. The Iranians were forced to retreat from Edessa, but were able to forge a five-year truce with the Byzantine Empire in 545. Three years into the five-year truce (548), rebellion against Sasanian control broke out in Lazica. In response, a Byzantine army was sent to support the people of Lazica, effectively ending the established truce and thus continuing the Lazic Wars. 854:, Kavad had Mazdak and his supporters sent to Khosrow, who had his supporters killed by burying their heads in a walled orchard, with only their feet being visible. Khosrow then summoned Mazdak to look at his garden, saying the following; "You will find trees there that no-one has ever seen and no-one ever heard of even from the mouth of the ancient sages." Mazdak, seeing his followers corpses, screamed and passed out. He was afterwards executed by Khosrow, who had his feet fastened on a 751: 2232: 2387: 2578: 2131: 967:, who along with other members of the Iranian aristocracy, became involved in a conspiracy in which they tried to overthrow Khosrow and make Kavad, the son of Khosrow's brother Jamasp, the shah of Iran. Upon learning of the plot, Khosrow executed all his brothers and their offspring, along with Bawi and the other aristocrats who were involved. Khosrow also ordered the execution of Kavad, who was still a child, and was away from the court, being raised by 2360: 1744:, but in reality the latter would stop by Dara, and with the aid of his large crew, he would seize the city. However, this plan was prevented by a former adviser of Belisarius named George, who demanded that if Izadgushasp should enter the city he should have only twenty members of his crew with him. Izadgushasp then left the city and continued his journey to Constantinople, where he was amicably welcomed by Justinian, who gave him some gifts. 1678: 2208:." Khosrow was thus forced to have Gregory relieved and incarcerated, yet the Mihranids deemed Khosrow's choice insufficient. A son of Gregory's paternal uncle, Mihran, asked Khosrow to execute Gregory for "bringing dishonor to our lineage". The latter was in a good position to make such request, due to recently having defeated the Hephthalites in the east; Gregory was eventually executed. 1633: 2082:, a high-ranking military officer in 578. Khosrow invaded Armenia once again feeling that he had the upper hand, and was initially successful. Soon after, the tables turned and the Byzantines gained a lot of local support. This made the Sasanians attempt another truce. However, sometime later, Khosrow, with an army consisting of 12,000 Iranian soldiers including a combined of 2631: 790:, Proclus, opposed the move, due to the concern of Khosrow possibly later try to take over the Byzantine throne. The Byzantines instead made a counter-proposal to adopt Khosrow not as a Roman, but a barbarian. In the end the negotiations did not come to a consensus. Khosrow reportedly felt insulted by the Byzantines, and his attitude deteriorated towards them. 1521:) invaded Mundhir's territory and carried off rich booty. Khosrow complained to Justinian about this incident, and requested that the stolen riches be returned to him, including payment for the Arabs that had been killed during the attack. His request was, however, ignored. This incident, along with the support by an emissary from the 2524:, the first hospital that introduced a concept of segregating wards according to pathology. Greek pharmacology fused with Iranian and Indian traditions resulted in significant advances in medicine. According to historian Richard Frye, this great influx of knowledge created a renaissance during, and proceeding Khosrow's reign. 1894:. When he reached the place, he was met by a Turkic delegate of Sinjibu that presented him gifts. There Khosrow asserted his authority and military potency, and persuaded the Turks to make an alliance with him. The alliance contained a treaty that made it obligatory for Faghanish to be sent to the Sasanian court in 2371: 2196:, who had showily disowned Zoroastrianism in front of other troops massed at a feast in 518. This resulted in discontent amongst members of the court, who pressured Khosrow to deal with an apostate from such a powerful and influential family, stating that "It is a great dishonor for the religion of the 2484:

different religion or people. And having examined "the good customs and laws of our ancestors as well as those of the foreigners, we have not declined to adopt anything which was good nor to avoid anything which was bad. Affection for our forebears did not lead us to accept customs which were not good.

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During his reign the Silk Road between ancient China, India and the western world was promoted and possibly even created. Richard Frye argues that Khosrow's rationale behind his numerous wars with the Byzantine empire as well as the eastern Hephthalites was to establish the Sasanian dominance on this

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out of interest, which they reluctantly allowed him, with the condition that he would leave for his domains afterwards. There he held chariot races, where he made the Blue Faction—which was supported by Justinian—lose against the rival Greens. Khosrow extracted tribute from Apamea and other Byzantine

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Khosrow promoted honest government officials based on trust and honesty, rather than corrupt nobles and magi. The small landowning deghans were favored over the high nobles because they tended to be more trustworthy and owed their loyalty to the Shah for their position in the bureaucracy. The rise of

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We examined the customs of our forebears, but, concerned with the discovery of the truth, we studied the customs and conducts of the Romans and Indians and accepted those among them which seemed reasonable and praiseworthy, not merely likeable. We have not rejected anyone because they belonged to a

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11. If a city causes damage to or destroys the property of a city of the other side not in legitimate hostilities and with a regular military force but by guile and theft (for there are such godless men who do these things to provide a pretext for war), it was agreed that the judges stationed on the

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10. A large force, beyond what is adequate to defend the town, shall not be stationed at Daras, and the general of the East shall not have his headquarters there, in order that this not lead to incursions against or injury to the Persians. It was agreed that if some such should happen, the commander

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7. Those who complain that they have suffered some hurt at the hands of subjects of the other state shall settle the dispute equitably, meeting at the border either in person or through their own representatives before the officials of both states, and in this manner the guilty party shall make good

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Major reforms to the military made the Iranian army capable of fighting sustained wars, battling on multiple fronts, and deploy itself faster. Prior to Khosrow's reign, much like other aspects of the empire, the military was dependent on the feudal lords of the great families to provide soldiers and

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Khosrow's tax reforms have been praised by several scholars, the most notable of whom is F. Altheim. The tax reforms, which were started under Kavad I and completely implemented by Khosrow, greatly strengthened the royal court. Prior to Khosrow and Kavad's reigns, a majority of the land was owned by

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and the power of the Shahanshah. The army too was reorganized and tied to the central government rather than local nobility allowing greater organization, faster mobilization and a far greater cavalry corps. Reforms in taxation provided the empire with stability and a much stronger economy, allowing

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acted as the diplomats of the negotiations, accused the latter of purposely sabotaging the negotiations. Further accusations were made towards Siyawush, which included the reverence of new deities and having his dead wife buried, which was a violation of Iranian laws. Siyawush was thus most likely a

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6. If anyone during the period of hostilities defected either from the Romans to the Persians or from the Persians to the Romans and if he should give himself up and wish to return to his home, he shall not be prevented from so doing and no obstacle shall be put in his way. But those who in time of

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Sasanian bullae showing the four spahbeds show that horses were still fully armoured during this period and heavy cavalry tactics were still used by the Sasanian cavalry. It is highly likely that the stirrup had been introduced to the Sasanian cavalry two centuries before Khosrow's reforms (and are

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With the outbreak of the Mazdakite revolution, there was a great uprising of peasants and lower-class citizens who grabbed large portions of land under egalitarian values. As a result of this there was great confusion on land possession and ownership. Khosrow surveyed all the land within the empire

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Khosrow I accepted refugees coming from the Eastern Roman Empire when Justinian closed the neo-Platonist schools in Athens in 529. He was greatly interested in Indian philosophy, science, mathematics, and medicine. He sent multiple embassies and gifts to the Indian court and requested them to send

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entered the field and captured many Sasanian settlements. The revolt came to an end when Khosrow gave amnesty to Armenia and brought them back into the Sasanian empire. Peace negotiations were once again brought back up, but abruptly ended with the death of Khosrow in 579, who was succeeded by his

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In 568 a Turkic embassy was sent to Byzantine to propose an alliance and two pronged attack on the Sasanian Empire. Fortunately for the Sasanians, nothing ever came from this proposal. Later in 569/570, Sinjibu attacked and pillaged Sasanian border lands, but a treaty was soon signed. Khosrow then

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Because the tax did not vary, the treasury could easily estimate the year's revenue. Prior to Khosrow's tax reforms, taxes were collected based on the yield that the land had produced. The new system calculated and averaged taxation based on the water rights for each piece of property. Lands which

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in the Sasanian Empire. Upon his ascent to the throne, Khosrow did not restore power to the feudal nobility or the magi, but centralized his government. Khosrow's reign is considered to be one of the most successful within the Sasanian Empire. The peace agreement between Rome and Iran in 531 gave

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forts, while demanding the return of the two other forts the Byzantines had captured in Sasanian Armenia. Justinian at first agreed, but soon changed his mind, causing the agreement to be broken off. In summer 532, however, a new embassy by Hermogenes and Rufinus managed to persuade Khosrow for a

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5. It is agreed that Saracen and all other barbarian merchants of either state shall not travel by strange roads but shall go by Nisibis and Daras, and shall not cross into foreign territory without official permission. But if they dare anything contrary to the agreement (that is to say, if they

2602:. As to the development of non-religious knowledge and research in Iran and apart from historical evidence given on such traditions in the preceding Iranian Empires, there are reports on systematic activities initiated by the Sasanian court as early as in the first decades of Sasanian rule. The 1776:

4. Ambassadors and all others using the public post to deliver messages, both those traveling to Roman and those to Persian territory, shall be honoured each according to his status and rank and shall receive the appropriate attention. They shall be sent back without delay, but shall be able to

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took control of the Yemenite throne and created an independent nation. After Abraha's death one of his sons, Ma'd-Karib, went into exile while his half-brother took the throne. After being denied by Justinian, Ma'd-Karib sought help from Khosrow, who sent a small fleet and army under commander

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Khosrow I was known for his character, virtues and knowledge. During his ambitious reign, he continued his father's project of making major social, military, and economic reforms, promoting the welfare of the people, increasing state revenues, establishing a professional army, and founding or

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Although Khosrow's achievements were highly successful and helped centralize the empire, they did not last long after his death. The local officials and great noble families resented the fact that their power had been stripped away from them and began to quickly regain power after his death.

2181:, whom he wanted to defend against the Zoroastrian priests. Nevertheless, Aba was accused of working with the Byzantines, which was a serious allegation due to the war that had begun in 540. Consequently, in 542, Aba was dismissed from his post, but was only exiled instead of being executed. 1060:

The hallmark of Khosrow's bureaucratic reform was the creation of a new social class. Before, the Sasanian Empire consisted of only three social classes, magi, nobles and peasants/commoners. Khosrow added a fourth class to this hierarchy between the nobles and the peasants, called the

960:, where Khosrow summoned the priests and urged Kawus to make confessions and ask for forgiveness, so that he could be released. Kawus refused, preferring death, forcing Khosrow to have him killed. Khosrow reportedly "cursed the fortunes" for "forcing him to kill a brother like Kawus." 2149:. Since the 5th century, the Sasanian monarchs had been made aware of the significance of the religious minorities in the realm, and as a result tried to homogenize them into a structure of administration where according to legal principles, all would be treated straightforwardly as 956:. Unlike Khosrow, he was a Mazdakite (or at least had strong Mazdakite sympathies), and thus had their support as the candidate for the throne. Kawus asserted to be the legitimate heir of the throne due to his older age. He was, however, defeated by Khosrow's forces and taken to 1747:

In 549 the previous truce between Justinian and Khosrow was disregarded and full war broke out once again between Iranians and Romans. The last major decisive battle of the Lazic wars came in 556 when Byzantine general Martin defeated a massive Sasanian force led by an Iranian

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8. Henceforth, the Persians shall not complain to the Romans about the fortification of Daras. But in future neither state shall fortify or protect with a wall any place along the frontier, so that no occasion for dispute shall arise from such an act and the treaty be broken.

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and killed its commander Arsaces in battle. Demoralized by the death of their commander, the residents sent their bishop to parley with Khosrow. Feigning to accept the plea of the bishop, Khosrow took advantage of the occasion and captured the city, which was shortly sacked.

971:. Khosrow sent orders to kill Kavad, but Adergoudounbades disobeyed and brought him up in secret, until he was betrayed to the shah in 541 by his own son, Bahram. Khosrow had him executed, but Kavad, or someone claiming to be him, managed to flee to the Byzantine Empire. 1039:

indiscriminately and began to tax all land under a single program. Tax revenues that previously went to the local noble family now went to the central government treasury. The fixed tax that Khosrow implemented created a more stable form of income for the treasury.

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Sasanian monarchs only persecuted other religions when it was in their urgent political interests to do. This also applied to Khosrow, who, in the words of Eberhard Sauer, had to "walk a fine line". Khosrow himself used the church considerably, and was fond of its

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The reduction of power of the great families improved the empire. This was because previously, each great family ruled a large chunk of land and had their own king. The name Shahanshah, meaning King of Kings, derived from the fact that there were many

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rebuilding many cities, palaces, and much infrastructure. He was interested in literature and philosophy, and under his reign, art and science flourished in Iran. He was the most distinguished of the Sasanian kings, and his name became, like that of

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The military reform focused more on organization and training of troops. The cavalry was still the most important aspect of the Iranian military, with foot archers being less important, and mass peasant forces being on the bottom of the spectrum.

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used a slightly different method of taxation based on the amount of producing trees that the land contained. These tax reforms of Khosrow were the stepping stone which enabled subsequent reforms in the bureaucracy and the military to take place.

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12. Here you might find prayers to God and imprecations to the effect that may God be gracious and ever an ally to him who abides by the peace, but if anyone with deceit wishes to alter any of the agreements, may God be his adversary and enemy.

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Khosrow is known to have ordered many public works projects during his long reign, such bridges, roads, dams and walls. To protect the frontiers of Iran, Khosrow had a sequence of walls built (and fortified) around his empire, much like the

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Sometime later, Khosrow, who was keen to wrest Dara from Byzantine control, and would do so even if he risked to break the truce they had made regarding Mesopotamia, tried to capture it by tricking them; he sent one of highest officials,

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Justinian was ultimately responsible for Sasanian maritime presence in Yemen. By not providing the Yemenite Arabs support, Khosrow was able to help Ma'd-Karib and subsequently established Yemen as a principality of the Sasanian Empire.

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Khosrow the chance to consolidate power and focus his attention on internal improvement. His reforms and military campaigns marked a renaissance of the Sasanian Empire, which spread philosophic beliefs as well as trade goods from the

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in the central and southwest region, and Central Asia in the east. This new quadripartition of the Empire not only created a more efficient military system but also " of a vast, multiregional, multicultural, and multiracial empire".

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extra each year. Part of treaty also included that the Byzantine envoys were to be hostages of Khosrow as an assurance that the Byzantines would honor the agreement. However, before departing, Khosrow went to the port of Antioch,

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cavalry. Each family would provide their own army and equipment when called by the Shahanshah. This system was replaced with the emergence of the lower deghan nobility class, who was paid and provided by the central government.

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The internal reforms under Khosrow were much more important than those on the exterior frontier. The subsequent reforms resulted in the rise of a bureaucratic state at the expense of the great noble families, strengthening the

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9. The forces of one state shall not attack or make war upon a people or any other territory subject to the other, but without inflicting or suffering injury shall remain where they are so that they too might enjoy the peace.

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kings in Sasanian Iran with the Shahanshah as the ruler of them all. Their fall meant their power was redirected to the central government and all taxes now went to the central government rather than to the local nobility.

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of southern Arabia. The local Arab leader blunted the attack, and appealed to the Sasanians for aid, while the Ethiopians subsequently turned towards the Byzantines for help. The Ethiopians sent another force across the

2334:, and a street program modelled on Antioch. The Christian population was granted freedom of religion and burial. The city was known informally as Rumagan ("Town of the Greeks"), which later became ar-Rumiyya under the 871: 2223:−banished from Iran. This was due to the royal anxieties regarding the chance of religious rogues to upset the political structure, which had recently occurred during Kavad and Khosrow's reigns by the Mazdakites. 1766:

Persians shall not allow the Huns or Alans or other barbarians access to the Roman Empire, nor shall the Romans either in that area or on any other part of the Persian frontier send an army against the Persians.

858:, and had his men shoot arrows at him. The validity of the story is uncertain; Ferdowsi used much earlier reports of events to write the Shahnameh, and thus the story may report some form of contemporary memory. 1140:) was written. The list comprised a helmet, a gorget, a chain mail shirt, a lamellar coat or cuirass, leg armour, gauntlets, sword, shield, two bows with spare strings, 30 arrows, axe or mace, and horse armour. 1781:

engage in tax-dodging, so-called), they shall be hunted down by the officers of the frontier and handed over for punishment together with the merchandise which they are carrying, whether Assyrian or Roman.

1922:, to estimate the quality of the daughter of the Turkic Khagan. According to Armenian sources her name was Kayen, while Persian sources states that her name was Qaqim-khaqan. After Mihransitad's visit in 1812:

13. The treaty is for fifty years, and the terms of the peace shall be in force for fifty years, the year being reckoned according to the old fashion as ending with the three hundred and sixty-fifth day.

1570:, whose custodians swiftly paid him 2,000 pounds or 910 kilograms of silver to leave the city untouched. After receiving additional pleas by Megas, Khosrow agreed to end his expedition in return for ten 1890:

This was much to the dislike of Khosrow, who considered the Turkic collaboration with the Hephthalites to pose a danger for his rule in the east, and thus marched towards the Sasanian-Turkic border in

835:. Mazdakism not only consisted of theological and cosmological aspects, but also political and social impacts, which was to the disadvantage of the nobility and clergy. According to modern historians 1852:, and broke into several minor kingdoms around the Oxus. The Hephthalite king Ghadfar and what was left of his men fled southward to Sasanian territory, where they took refuge. Meanwhile, the Turkic 1580:

to inform Germanus of Khosrow's demands, the latter approached Beroea, which he had sacked. In June, Khosrow reached Antioch, where he offered its citizens to not attack the city in return for ten

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Khosrow did however deal harshly and swiftly with people with of any belief or practice that ran contrary to Sasanian-mediated Zoroastrian orthodoxy. Aberrance in ceremony and principle exceeded

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3. Roman and Persian merchants of all kinds of goods, as well as similar tradesmen, shall conduct their business according to the established practice through the specified customs posts.

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as the eastern frontier the Sasanians and Turks. However, friendly relations between Turks and Sasanians quickly deteriorated after that. Both Turks and Iranians wanted to dominate the

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culture and political life. Many of his policies and reforms were brought into the Islamic nation in their transformation from a decentralized confederation into a centralized empire.

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made an alliance and in 557 launched a two pronged attack on the Hephthalites, taking advantage of their disorganization and disunity. The Hephthalite Empire was destroyed after the

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2. The Saracen allies of both states shall themselves also abide by these agreements and those of the Persians shall not attack the Romans, nor those of the Romans the Persians.

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states that the "marriage with the daughter of the Turkic khaqan is chronologically impossible", and says that Hormizd was born in 540, thirty years before Khosrow's marriage.

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peace defect and desert from one side to the other shall not be received, but every means shall be used to return them, even against their will, to those from whom they fled.

887:, Kavad became ill and died. Khosrow succeeded him, but due to his domestic position being insecure, he wanted to make peace with the Byzantines, who themselves under Emperor 1495:. His attempt was, however, thwarted when the Byzantines successfully equivocated the problem. Subsequently, Khosrow accused Justinian of trying to bribe the Lakhmid ruler 1898:

and gain the approval of Khosrow for his status as Hephthalite king. Faghanish and his kingdom of Chaghaniyan thus became a vassal of the Sasanian Empire, which set the

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A synthesis of Greek, Iranian, Indian, and Armenian learning traditions took place within the Sasanian Empire. One outcome of this synthesis created what is known as

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With a stable peace agreement with the Byzantines in the west, Khosrow was now able to focus his attention on the eastern Hephthalites and end their domination over

6292: 2219:, he had a party of nobles practicing unorthodoxy executed instantly when he found out about them. According to the book, Khosrow also had another group−supposedly 378:, which led Justin II to insanity. The war lasted till 591, outliving Khosrow. Khosrow's wars were not only based in the west. To the east, in an alliance with the 6988: 680:. They in particular enjoyed such a high status that they were acknowledged as "kin and partners of the Sasanians". The family also held the important position of 2557:

of the Indian king invented chess as a cheerful, playful challenge to King Khosrow. It seems that the Indian ruler who sent the game of chess to Khosrow was the

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Khosrow I was admired, both in Iran and elsewhere, for his character, virtues, and knowledge of Greek philosophy. He was identified by some Romans as the true

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According to ancient historian Menander Protector, a minor official in Justinian's court, there were 12 points to the treaty, stated in the following passage:

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South Asian Archaeology 2007 Proceedings of the 19th Meeting of the European Association of South Asian Archaeology in Ravenna, Italy, July 2007, Volume II

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as "a social and political evil in undermining the foundations of the imperial religion (Payne)." According to Khosrow's supposed autobiographical work of

1179: 5666: 2256:. Instead of constructing it on one side of the empire, he had it on four. According to Middle Persian sources, Khosrow I ordered the construction of the 1841:

incursions into Central Asia. The movement of Turkic people into Central Asia very quickly made them natural enemies and competitors to the Hephthalites.

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cavalry. Previously only nobles could enlist into the Aswaran cavalry which was very limited and created shortages in well trained soldiers. Now that the

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by the Armenian rebel leader Vardan III Mamikonian, who captured his war elephants as war booty. Sometime later, however, Golon Mihran managed to seize

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also include Khosrow in their work, offering a perception of the consequences that his expeditions brought on the people who lived on the Roman border.

571:(d. 1020), give much information regarding Khosrow's reforms, and thus most likely drew both of their information from the Middle Persian history book 6468: 2338:. The remains of the city are most likely situated at the unexcavated place that is still till this day known as Bustan Kisra ("Gardens of Khosrow"). 776:, Kavad, in order to secure the succession of Khosrow, whose position was threatened by rival brothers and the Mazdakite sect, proposed that Emperor 1537:

must have contributed to Khosrow's aspirations as well. Justinian, informed of Khosrow's intention for war, tried to dissuade him, but to no avail.

907:, Alexander and Thomas found Khosrow in a more conciliatory disposition than his father, and an agreement was soon reached. Justinian would pay 110 513:. It referred to his religious reforms and promotion of the prosperity of the realm and probably also connected him with the mythical immortal king 5999: 5873:

McDonough, Scott (2011). "The Legs of the Throne: Kings, Elites, and Subjects in Sasanian Iran". In Arnason, Johann P.; Raaflaub, Kurt A. (eds.).

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and notably Christians had accepted the concept of Iran and considered themselves part of the nation. By the time of Khosrow, the leader of the

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Justinian sued for peace, and made a treaty with Khosrow that the Iranians would withdraw back to their domains in return for a payment of 50

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and Zik. These great landowners enjoyed tax exemptions from the Sasanian empire, and were tax collectors within their local provincial areas.

931:. The two rulers would recognize once again each other as equal and pledged mutual assistance. Khosrow initially refused to hand back the two 6314: 6092: 6048: 6008: 5961: 5815: 5514: 5489: 5406: 5299: 5274: 5194: 5170: 5143: 5023: 2505:. He received the title of "Plato's Philosopher King" by the Greek refugees that he allowed into his empire because of his great interest in 7003: 2359: 6477: 6256: 5901: 5715:(2013). "Military Infrastructure in the Roman Provinces North and South of the Armenian Taurus in Late Antiquity". In Sarantis, Alexander; 1833:. Even with the growth of Iranian military power under Khosrow's reforms, the Sasanians were still uneasy at the prospect of attacking the 1069:

deghans became the backbone of the empire because they now held the majority of land and positions in local and provincial administration.

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paid 11,000 pounds of gold to the Sasanians. Khosrow then focused on consolidating his power, executing conspirators, including his uncle

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Khosrau was very learned in philosophy, which he had studied, it is said, under Mar Bar Samma, the Syriac bishop of Qardu, and under

6337: 6268: 6171: 6150: 6071: 6029: 5913: 5890: 5863: 5839: 5794: 5691: 5595: 5464: 5381: 5242: 5218: 4951: 2316:(4–5 kilometres or 2.5–3.1 miles) south of Ctesiphon for the inhabitants he had captured. It was located on the eastern bank of the 2303:. Out of all his constructions, his most memorable and noteworthy achievement was the palace he had made at Ctesiphon, known as the 557: 4427:

Zeimal', E. V. (1994). "The Circulation of Coins in Central Asia during the Early Medieval Period (Fifth–Eighth Centuries A.D.)".

1844:

The Hephthalites were a strong military power but they lacked the organization to fight on multiple fronts. The Sasanians and the

1559: 904: 2642: 1496: 1098:

class was considered nobility, they were able to join the cavalry force and boosted the number of cavalry force significantly.

5925: 1314: 1970:

end the Sasanians maritime trade with the Indians. The Ethiopians never met this request because an Ethiopian general named

1343: 6998: 6993: 6461: 2622:

traditions. The cosmopolitan which was introduced by the institution of Gondishapur became a catalyst for modern studies.

1553:, where he made a lukewarm attempt to persuade the fortress to surrender, which proved unsuccessful. He then proceeded to 937: 621: 1299: 1374: 65: 1945: 1716:. Although Belisarius had greatly outnumbered the city garrison, the city was too well fortified and he was forced to 884: 31: 1144:

mentioned in Bivar (1972)), and a "stirrupped" foot position can be seen on the Sasanian bullae and at Taq-e-Bostan.

6646: 5947: 5587: 2674:. The high number of Islamic texts referring to Khosrow's reign can make it hard to distinguish fact from fallacy. 1642: 673: 1357: 1304: 399: 7033: 7023: 5934: 2378: 2269: 2071:, where they captured the city after four months, while Adarmahan sacked several cities in Syria, which included 1979:

to depose the current king of Yemen. After capturing the capital city San'a'l, Ma'd-Karib's son, Saif enthroned.

1717: 1319: 1252: 6039:

Payne, Richard E. (2015b). "The Reinvention of Iran: The Sasanian Empire and the Huns". In Maas, Michael (ed.).

810: 331:, Khosrow violated the peace treaty and declared war against the Byzantines in 540. He sacked the major city of 6454: 6222: 2895: 2666:

There are a considerable number of Islamic works that were inspired by the reign of Khosrow I, for example the

2021: 1157: 900: 6226: 386:, which had inflicted a handful of defeats on the Sasanians in the 5th century, killing Khosrow's grandfather 5362: 2405: 2079: 1932: 1753: 1709: 1335: 1247: 352: 251: 5853: 2420:

The Sassanian revival took place under his rule, so Khosrow minted such inscriptions on his especial issue

2036:, a region in eastern Armenia. Furthermore, Vahan also requested that Paytakaran should be merged with the 689:

Following the tradition of the aristocratic or upper-class families, Khosrow would have started at school (

598: 7038: 2595: 2102:, managed to trick Maurice by faking an invasion of Theodosiopolis, and then plundered the countryside of 2048: 1870: 1845: 1566:, Megas, to negotiate with Khosrow. Regardless, Khosrow continued his expedition, threatening the city of 1391: 1262: 998: 786: 2553:

demonstrated and celebrated the diplomatic relationship between Khosrow and a "great king of India." The

2113:

However, the tables of the war quickly turned again when the newly appointed Byzantine supreme-commander

1117:) controlled the military of the entire empire. The four zones consisted of Mesopotamia in the west, the 1065:. The dehqans were small land owning citizens of the Sasanian Empire and were considered lower nobility. 6084:

Decline and Fall of the Sasanian Empire: The Sasanian-Parthian Confederacy and the Arab Conquest of Iran

5829: 5712: 2185: 1849: 1729: 1511: 1350: 1268: 1217: 928: 308: 5321: 5069: 2464: 2103: 831:, which opposed violence, and called for the sharing of wealth, women and property, an archaic form of 780:

adopt him. The proposal was initially greeted with enthusiasm by the Byzantine Emperor and his nephew,

5676:

Greatrex, Geoffrey; Lieu, Samuel N. C. (2002). "Justinian's First Persian War and the Eternal Peace".

5253: 1111:, or general, in charge of each district. Before the reforms of Khosrow, the general of the Iranians ( 5234:

History of the Later Roman Empire: From the Death of Theodosius I to the Death of Justinian, Volume 2

2393: 2351: 2257: 2032:

prince Vahan asked for Khosrow's permission that he could move his court from Dvin to the capital of

1701: 1693: 1369: 1364: 1309: 1294: 1289: 1024: 1012: 892: 665: 216: 2098:

in Syria, thus turning the tables once more. During the same time, one of Khosrow's chief generals,

7018: 7013: 6978: 6973: 6846: 2245: 2231: 2107: 2006: 1725: 1397: 1044: 1028: 517:(both were remembered as pious kings and "restorers" of the faith). Other variants of the name are 371: 7028: 7008: 6968: 5938: 5849: 5825: 5351: 5310: 4444: 4099: 2322: 2158: 2135: 2068: 1491: 924: 594: 383: 375: 5750: 2577: 2510: 2489:

back philosophers to teach in his court in return. Khosrow made many translations of texts from

2200:

that such a great man from the lineage of the house of Mihran, who have always been servants of

2130: 750: 5739: 6333: 6310: 6307:

Byzantium and the Arabs in the Sixth Century. Volume 1, Part 1: Political and Military History

6264: 6208: 6167: 6146: 6088: 6067: 6044: 6025: 6004: 5957: 5909: 5886: 5859: 5835: 5811: 5790: 5769: 5724: 5687: 5591: 5510: 5485: 5460: 5437: 5402: 5377: 5295: 5270: 5238: 5214: 5190: 5166: 5139: 5019: 4947: 4436: 4117: 2635: 2326:("City Better than Antioch Khosrow " or "Khosrow's Better Antioch"). The city reportedly had 2249: 2139: 2114: 1955: 1601: 1534: 1324: 641: 165: 6021:

A State of Mixture: Christians, Zoroastrians, and Iranian Political Culture in Late Antiquity

5763: 5617: 5208: 5189:. SUNY Series in Near Eastern Studies. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press. 4314: 581:, which was reportedly an autobiography made by Khosrow himself, and survives in the work of 5878: 5765:

The Persian Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia [2 volumes]: A Historical Encyclopedia

5650: 5629: 5343: 5131: 4091: 2647: 2619: 2558: 2472: 2457: 2421: 2292: 2253: 1724:

in Armenia, Khosrow was encouraged once again to attack Syria. Khosrow turned south towards

1721: 985: 968: 919: 758: 653: 610: 395: 4250: 3636: 2001:

to succeed the throne. In 555, the Sasanian governor of Armenia and a relative of Khosrow,

6866: 6481: 6446: 6392: 6114: 5786:

History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The crossroads of civilizations, A.D. 250 to 750

5577: 5555: 5158: 2514: 2498: 2409: 2189: 2052: 2002: 1915: 1752:(field marshal). Negotiations between Khosrow and Justinian opened in 556, leading to the 1677: 1597: 1329: 1032: 677: 629: 606: 602: 279: 147: 131: 83: 6302: 6279: 5606: 5186:

The History of al-Ṭabarī, Volume V: The Sāsānids, the Byzantines, the Lakhmids, and Yemen

4974: 1906:

and the trade industry between the west and the far east. In 562 Khosrow II defeated the

1640:

The relevance of particular information in (or previously in) this article or section is

6237: 5010: 1609:

towns, at which point Justinian called off his truce and prepared to send his commander

827:

was the name of a chief representative of a religious and philosophical teaching called

6361: 5942: 5930: 5583:

The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 3(1): The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods

5427: 5392: 5331: 5180: 2603: 2562: 2513:

states that Khosrow I was "certainly one of the most efficient and best kings that the

2502: 2490: 2300: 2146: 2029: 1838: 1741: 1657: 1020: 1016: 953: 840: 836: 754: 693:) between the age of five and seven. There he would learn to write and would learn the 474: 455: 415: 379: 348: 227: 196: 6182: 2463:

Khosrow I was known to be a great patron of philosophy and knowledge. An entry in the

1545:

In May 540, Khosrow invaded the domains of the Byzantines; he avoided the fortress of

6962: 6906: 6766: 6372: 6348: 5716: 5154: 2295:. Besides defense structures, Khosrow also had a large-scale canal system created in 2095: 2072: 2064: 1875: 1756:

in 562 in which Iranians would leave Lazica in return for an annual payment of gold.

1697: 1605: 573: 282: 6127: 5525: 5457:

King of the Seven Climes: A History of the Ancient Iranian World (3000 BCE - 651 CE)

5266:

The Two Eyes of the Earth: Art and Ritual of Kingship Between Rome and Sasanian Iran

850:("The Book of Kings"), written several centuries later by the medieval Persian poet 585:(932–1030). Khosrow is also mentioned in several Greek sources, such as the ones of 421:

At the time of his death, the Sasanian Empire had reached its greatest extent since

6806: 6666: 5642: 2587: 2265: 2083: 2017: 1923: 1907: 1830: 1530: 1122: 1113: 948:

Sometime during the early reign of Khosrow, he had to deal with his eldest brother

896: 411: 5559: 5417: 2075:. Justin reportedly lost his mind after these Byzantine disasters, and abdicated. 1777:

exchange the trade goods which they have brought without hindrance or any impost.

6325: 6161: 6140: 6082: 6019: 5972: 5805: 5784: 5702: 5677: 5581: 5452: 5431: 5396: 5371: 5264: 5232: 5184: 2531:

King Khosrow sits before the chessboard, while his vizir and the Indian envoy of

1477:

against the Byzantines by trying to take advantage of a disagreement between his

940:

rebels to either remain in the Byzantine Empire or return safely to their homes.

660:, from whom the Sasanians claimed their descent. Khosrow was the youngest son of 6856: 6826: 6676: 6626: 6596: 6576: 6193: 4966: 2599: 2413: 2327: 2304: 2291:("wall of the Arabs"). He may have also built another wall in the northeast−the 2261: 2236: 2220: 2201: 2056: 2037: 1919: 1879: 1864: 1834: 1737: 1554: 1473: 1209: 888: 649: 514: 451: 344: 312: 304: 259: 5983: 5882: 1763:

1. Through the pass at the place called Tzon and through the Caspian Gates the

6926: 6886: 6876: 6816: 6776: 6756: 6746: 6606: 6566: 6546: 6496: 6438: 6103: 5633: 5228: 5204: 4082:

Bivar, ADH (1972). "Cavalry equipment and tactics on the Euphrates frontier".

3329: 2550: 2521: 2445: 2331: 2162: 2119: 2099: 2033: 2010: 1927: 1705: 1610: 1482: 1440: 1002:

prolonged military campaigns as well as greater revenues for the bureaucracy.

657: 645: 510: 434: 320: 173: 111: 71: 4509:

Ter-Mkrticnyan L.H. Armyanskiye istochniki - Sredney Azii V - VII vv., p. 57.

4440: 497:. Besides his personal name, he is widely known in sources by his epithet of 6916: 6636: 6616: 6586: 6536: 6516: 5683: 5576:

Frye, R. N. (1983). "The political history of Iran under the Sasanians". In

5113: 2506: 2335: 2296: 2044: 1998: 1903: 1899: 1895: 1860: 1622: 1546: 1522: 1403: 1282: 1074: 957: 913:(11,000 pounds) of gold, ostensibly as a contribution to the defence of the 876: 847: 832: 828: 814: 781: 586: 582: 563: 552: 422: 359: 340: 324: 178: 143: 17: 6203:

Schindel, Nikolaus (2013c). "Sasanian Coinage". In Potts, Daniel T. (ed.).

1856: 1584:. His offer was rejected, and as a result he captured and sacked the city. 686:

of the West, i.e. the Sasanian Empire's southwestern regions (Khwarwaran).

597:, who all give important information regarding Khosrow's management of the 351:

while continuing to fight in Lazica. A truce was made in 557, and by 562 a

2630: 319:. Dissatisfied with the actions of the Byzantine clients and vassals, the 6796: 6656: 6526: 6506: 5320:

Chaumont, M. L.; Schippmann, K. (1988). "Balāš, Sasanian king of kings".

3322: 2671: 2611: 2537: 2494: 2312: 2212: 2193: 2060: 1951: 1930:, the successor of Khosrow, was the son of the Turkic princess. However, 1891: 1713: 1704:, and a protectorate was established over the country. At the same time, 1550: 1118: 990: 914: 851: 794: 777: 762: 709: 637: 590: 568: 430: 367: 127: 4448: 1837:

on their own and began to seek allies. Their answer came in the form of

936:

full exchange of the occupied forts, as well as for allowing the exiled

6936: 6786: 6726: 6706: 6686: 6421: 5558:(1984). "The reforms of Chosroes Anushirvan ('Of the Immortal soul')". 5355: 4103: 2715: 2651: 2607: 2582: 2566: 2532: 2281: 2091: 2090:

soldiers numbering 8,000 sent by his allies, ravaged the places around

1963:, killed the Arab leader, and crowned an Ethiopian king of the region. 1960: 1883: 1577: 1572: 1526: 1486: 1478: 1136: 1107: 1091: 909: 855: 733: 719:). Furthermore, he would observe the Middle Persian translation of the 682: 661: 625: 465: 387: 332: 290: 206: 191: 101: 891:(r. 527–565) were perhaps already more focused on recovering the lost 6716: 6696: 6556: 5679:

The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars (Part II, 363–630 AD)

5165:. London and New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul. pp. 198–201. 5163:

Encyclopædia Iranica, Volume XII/2: Hedāyat al-mota'allemin–Herat VII

2615: 2554: 2449: 2317: 2205: 1976: 1971: 1853: 1689: 1682: 1567: 1563: 1095: 1062: 932: 824: 818: 720: 715: 490: 407: 391: 336: 157: 5875:

The Roman Empire in Context: Historical and Comparative Perspectives

5347: 4095: 3448: 3446: 3444: 3419: 3417: 3415: 3413: 3411: 3409: 3407: 3405: 1506:) through his diplomat Summus, and also that he had emboldened some 1164: 713:, following the same pattern of schooling made for a future priest ( 577:("Book of Lords"). Other works were made independently, such as the 6166:. London and New York: Edinburgh University Press. pp. 1–336. 5855:

The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire: Volume III, AD 527–641

2005:(also known as Suren), built a fire temple at the Armenian capital 1720:

around the Nisibis, subsequently getting recalled back west. After

6896: 6836: 6309:. Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection. 5831:

The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire: Volume II, AD 395–527

4172: 4170: 3845: 3843: 2881: 2660: 2641: 2629: 2576: 2546: 2526: 2439: 2404: 2277: 2273: 2230: 2178: 2129: 2087: 1967: 1869: 1859:

reached an agreement with the Hephthalite nobility, and appointed

1820: 1676: 1449: 1156: 1048: 949: 870: 809: 799: 749: 695: 620: 426: 328: 4929:

Iran, the Arabs, and the West: the story of twenty-five centuries

917:

passes against the barbarians living beyond, and the base of the

509:. He received this title after his death to distinguish him from 503:("the Immortal Soul"), a New Persian rendering of Middle Persian 307:, Khosrow I signed a peace treaty with them in 532, known as the 3814: 3812: 3502: 3500: 2479:

Khosrow I is known for saying a philosophic quote that follows:

2197: 2154: 2025: 1507: 1134:

During Khosrow's reign, a "list" for equipment for the cavalry (

964: 728: 724: 669: 316: 286: 6450: 3616: 3614: 3612: 3610: 3553: 3551: 3549: 3547: 3545: 3543: 3541: 3539: 2310:

After the sack of Antioch in 540, Khosrow built a new city one

1168: 4230: 4228: 4226: 4201: 4199: 4197: 4195: 4193: 4191: 4189: 4187: 4185: 4157: 4155: 4153: 4151: 3877: 3875: 3862: 3860: 3858: 1626: 1604:. He then told the envoys that he wished to visit the city of 6263:. London u.a.: Routledge & Kegan Paul. pp. 430–432. 3787: 3785: 746:

Negotiations with the Byzantines over the adoption of Khosrow

484: 478: 5993:

Nicholson, Oliver; Canepa, Matthew; Daryaee, Touraj (2018).

3715: 3713: 3711: 2145:

Khosrow, like all other Sasanian rulers, was an adherent of

1696:

to repel the Byzantines from his territory. The fortress of

668:

princess, who was the sister of the leading Iranian general

454:

variant of his name used by scholars; his original name was

5641:

Gariboldi, Andrea; Rubin, Zeev; Schindel, Nikolaus (2020).

4410: 4408: 4406: 4308:. Translated by R.C. Blockey, edited by Khodadad Rezakhani" 1926:, Khosrow married Qaqim-khaqan. According to some sources, 4989: 4987: 4985: 4983: 2287:

Another wall was constructed in the southwest, called the

648:

period, thrived during Khosrow's age, and also included a

335:

and deported its population to Persia. In 541, he invaded

5810:. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. 5618:"Construction Activities of Kavād I in Caucasian Albania" 5459:. UCI Jordan Center for Persian Studies. pp. 1–236. 5037: 5035: 4341: 4339: 4337: 4335: 4050: 4048: 4046: 3748: 3746: 3744: 3742: 3740: 3374:

Also styled "King of Kings of Iranians and non-Iranians".

2272:

further fortified to protect the area from incursions by

2009:

and put to death a popular and influential member of the

952:, who ruled as governor-king of the northern province of 339:

and made it an Iranian protectorate, thus initiating the

6349:"Kayāniān vii. Kauui Haosrauuah, Kay Husrōy, Kay Ḵosrow" 6163:

Sasanian Persia: Between Rome and the Steppes of Eurasia

5252:

Calmard, Jean (1988). "Kermanshah iv. History to 1953".

4658: 4656: 4381: 4379: 4377: 3916: 3914: 3912: 3910: 3671: 3669: 899:

than in pursuing war against Iran. The Byzantine envoys

5721:

War and Warfare in Late Antiquity: Current Perspectives

4753: 4751: 4749: 4747: 4722: 4720: 4718: 4716: 4691: 4689: 4687: 4685: 4683: 4364: 4362: 4360: 4358: 4356: 4354: 2654:, commissioned during the reign of the Pahlavi dynasty. 2638:, commissioned during the reign of the Pahlavi dynasty. 2365:

Map illustrating the extent of the Great Wall of Gorgan

1656:

by an editor as a result. Please see discussion on the

963:

Another danger to Khosrow's rule was that of his uncle

727:. Afterwards, he would be schooled in riding, archery, 644:

province in central Iran. The town, dating back to the

366:

and sent a Byzantine force into the Sasanian region of

6142:

ReOrienting the Sasanians: East Iran in Late Antiquity

4886: 4884: 4882: 4880: 4802: 4791: 3686: 3684: 3492: 3452: 3423: 3397: 2614:

writings of this kind were collected and added to the

1950:

In 522, before Khosrow's reign, a group of miaphysite

1910:

once again, and then stopped the threat of the Turks.

5906:

The Oxford Handbook of Warfare in the Classical World

4768: 4766: 4077: 4075: 636:

Khosrow I was reportedly born between 512 and 514 at

343:. In 545, the two empires agreed to halt the wars in 6373:"Education ii. In the Parthian and Sasanian periods" 6126:

Rekavandi, Hamid Omrani; Sauer, Eberhard W. (2013).

3997: 3995: 3993: 3991: 3989: 3987: 3985: 3983: 3981: 3979: 3977: 3975: 3973: 3971: 3969: 3967: 3965: 3963: 3961: 504: 459: 46: 6192:Schindel, Nikolaus (2013b). "Kawād I ii. Coinage". 6115:"Chinese-Iranian relations i. In Pre-Islamic Times" 5210:

Zoroastrians: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices

3959: 3957: 3955: 3953: 3951: 3949: 3947: 3945: 3943: 3941: 2264:to block incursions by nomadic tribes, such as the 2040:province. Khosrow accepted, and did what he asked. 1966:In 531, Justinian suggested that the Ethiopians of 1485:, who both claimed ownership of the lands south of 652:, which was said to be founded by the mythological 223: 212: 202: 190: 164: 153: 137: 121: 117: 107: 97: 89: 78: 41: 5924: 5904:. In Campbell, Brian; Tritle, Lawrence A. (eds.). 4783: 4781: 3776: 2392:Map of the Sasanian fortifications at Derbent, by 1874:Later imitation of a drachm of Khosrow I from the 1510:to make incursions into Iran. The Ghassanid ruler 1471:In 539 Khosrow had originally attempted to gain a 567:("Book of Kings") of the medieval Persian epic of 473:("he who has good fame"). The name is rendered in 5682:. New York, New York and London, United Kingdom: 5391:Dąbrowa, Edward (2012). "The Arsacid Empire". In 1688:In spring 541, Khosrow brought his army north to 289:from 531 to 579. He was the son and successor of 6181:Schindel, Nikolaus (2013a). "Kawād I i. Reign". 6064:Empires and Exchanges in Eurasian Late Antiquity 6043:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 282–299. 5877:. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. pp. 290–321. 5605:Gadjiev, Murtazali (2017a). "Apzut Kawāt wall". 3530: 2594:Khosrow I is known to have greatly expanded the 551:Many sources dating to the Islamic era, such as 539:("Dispenser of Justice") and, in Islamic times, 6236:Shahbazi, A. Shapur (1989). "BESṬĀM O BENDŌY". 5807:The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Justinian 5433:Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire 5370:Curtis, Vesta Sarkhosh; Stewart, Sarah (2008). 5052: 5050: 2481: 2469: 2260:, which extended from the eastern coast of the 1761: 1660:considering whether its inclusion is warranted. 879:illustration of Khosrow I seated on his throne. 6145:. Edinburgh University Press. pp. 1–256. 6066:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–538. 5334:(1991). "Kavād's Heresy and Mazdak's Revolt". 5237:. Mineola, New York: Dover Publications, Inc. 4825: 1562:, the cousin of Justinian, sent the bishop of 664:, the ruling Sasanian shah. His mother was an 6462: 6062:. In Mass, Michael; Di Cosmo, Nicola (eds.). 6060:"Sasanian Iran and its northeastern frontier" 5451:Daryaee, Touraj; Rezakhani, Khodadad (2017). 4461: 4013: 3719: 1882:, a region that was lost during the reign of 1180: 534: 528: 518: 498: 468: 445: 273: 263: 8: 6332:. Oxford University Press. pp. 1–1021. 6041:The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Attila 6024:. Univ of California Press. pp. 1–320. 5783:Litvinsky, B. A.; Dani, Ahmad Hasan (1996). 4623: 4611: 4587: 4575: 4551: 4539: 4497: 4485: 4278: 4234: 4217: 4205: 4176: 4161: 4138: 4025: 3932: 3901: 3897: 3881: 3866: 3849: 3834: 3818: 3791: 3660: 3597: 3585: 3573: 3476: 2153:, i.e. "man/woman citizen (of the Empire)." 1105:Khosrow made four military districts with a 1090:The main force of the Sasanian army was the 6291:Sundermann, W. (1986). "Artēštārān sālār". 5908:. Oxford University Press. pp. 1–783. 5499:Daryaee, Touraj; Nicholson, Oliver (2018). 5401:. Oxford University Press. pp. 1–432. 4810: 4120:(1989). "Parthian and Sassanian saddlery". 3506: 2020:to Armenia, but the latter was defeated in 802:allies in the south and Huns in the north. 6469: 6455: 6447: 6383: 5948:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition 4518:The Farsnama of Ibnu'l-Balkhi, pp. 24, 94. 4262: 4134: 3893: 3648: 3569: 1187: 1173: 1165: 64: 38: 6377:Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. VIII, Fasc. 2 5956:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 912–913. 5858:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 5834:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 5537:Dignas, Beate; Winter, Engelbert (2007). 5474:Daryaee, Touraj; Canepa, Matthew (2018). 5138:. New York: Basic Books. pp. 1–368. 4971:Histoire Nestorienne (Chronique de Seért) 4414: 4397: 3620: 3557: 2184:Khosrow even enjoyed good relations with 1886:, but was later reconquered by Khosrow I. 676:that formed the elite aristocracy of the 533:. Khosrow was also known by the epithets 433:in the east. He was succeeded by his son 374:the important Byzantine fortress-city of 268:), traditionally known by his epithet of 6228:Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. III, Fasc. 5 6195:Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. XVI, Fasc. 2 6184:Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. XVI, Fasc. 2 6102:Pourshariati, Parvaneh (2017). "Kārin". 5755:Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. III, Fasc. 5 5323:Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. III, Fasc. 6 5255:Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. XVI, Fasc. 3 5018:. Archaeopress Archaeology. p. 69. 4914: 4868: 4853: 4563: 4368: 4245: 4243: 3764: 3752: 3731: 3631: 3629: 3601: 2051:, while he himself along with the three 984:Khosrow I represents the epitome of the 923:would be withdrawn from the fortress of 6363:Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. IV, Fasc. 4 6294:Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. II, Fasc. 6 6261:Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. VI, Fasc. 4 6239:Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. IV, Fasc. 2 6000:The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity 5971:Langarudi, Rezazadeh (2002). "Fahraj". 5902:"Military and Society in Sasanian Iran" 5704:Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. II, Fasc. 4 5668:Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. II, Fasc. 5 5506:The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity 5481:The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity 5291:The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity 5093: 4993: 4902: 4787: 4674: 4662: 4635: 4599: 4527: 4385: 4345: 4290: 4066: 4054: 4037: 3920: 3830: 3702: 3675: 3488: 3435: 3393: 3386: 3367: 2340: 2192:commander of the Iranian troops in the 1801:at Daras should deal with the offense. 806:Persecution of Mazdak and his followers 6119:Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. V, Fasc. 4 5738:Kettenhofen, Erich (1994). "Darband". 5398:The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History 5312:Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. I, Fasc. 8 5041: 5004: 5002: 4872: 4837: 4757: 4738: 4726: 4707: 4647: 4142: 2659:Khosrow's reign had a major impact on 2016:Meanwhile, Khosrow sent an army under 1987:War with the Byzantine Empire, 572–591 1161:Map of the Byzantine–Sasanian frontier 1153:War with the Byzantine Empire, 540–562 390:. To the south, Iranian forces led by 6360:Tafazzoli, Ahmad (1989). "Bozorgān". 6284:Encyclopaedia Iranica, Online Edition 5136:A History of Iran: Empire of the Mind 4890: 4864: 4849: 4814: 4695: 4473: 3518: 3353: 3351: 3349: 3347: 3344: 3342: 3328: 3326: 3321: 3319: 3317: 3315: 3313: 3311: 3309: 3307: 3305: 3303: 3301: 3299: 3297: 3295: 3267: 3265: 3263: 3261: 3259: 3257: 3255: 3229: 3227: 3225: 3223: 3221: 3219: 3217: 3215: 3213: 3211: 3209: 3207: 3205: 3203: 3197: 3195: 3193: 3191: 3189: 3187: 3185: 3183: 3181: 3179: 3173: 3171: 3169: 3167: 3165: 3163: 3161: 3159: 3157: 3155: 3153: 3151: 3149: 3147: 3145: 3143: 3141: 3139: 3137: 3135: 3129: 3127: 3125: 3123: 3121: 3119: 3117: 3115: 3113: 3107: 3105: 3103: 3101: 3099: 3097: 3095: 3093: 3091: 3089: 3087: 3085: 3083: 3081: 3079: 3077: 3075: 3073: 3071: 3069: 3063: 3061: 3059: 3057: 3055: 3053: 3051: 3049: 3047: 3045: 3043: 3037: 3035: 3033: 3031: 3029: 3027: 3024: 3022: 3019: 3017: 3015: 3013: 3011: 3009: 3007: 3005: 2999: 2997: 2995: 2993: 2991: 2989: 2987: 2985: 2983: 2977: 2975: 2973: 2971: 2969: 2967: 2965: 2959: 2957: 2955: 2949: 2947: 2945: 2943: 2941: 2939: 2937: 2935: 2929: 2927: 2925: 2923: 2921: 2919: 2917: 2915: 2901: 2899: 2894: 2892: 2888: 2886: 2880: 2878: 2876: 2874: 2872: 2870: 2868: 2866: 2828: 2826: 2824: 2822: 2820: 2818: 2816: 2814: 2812: 2778: 2776: 2774: 2772: 2770: 2768: 2766: 2764: 2758: 2756: 2754: 2752: 2750: 2748: 2746: 2744: 2742: 2740: 2738: 2736: 2734: 2732: 2730: 2728: 2714: 2712: 2710: 2708: 2706: 2704: 2702: 2700: 2698: 2696: 2694: 2692: 2690: 2688: 303:Inheriting a reinvigorated empire at 7: 6087:. London and New York: I.B. Tauris. 5701:Hillenbrand, R. (1986). "Ardestān". 5416:Daryaee, Touraj (2009). "Šāpur II". 5213:. Psychology Press. pp. 1–252. 4803:Nicholson, Canepa & Daryaee 2018 4792:Nicholson, Canepa & Daryaee 2018 4266: 4001: 3803: 3690: 3493:Nicholson, Canepa & Daryaee 2018 3453:Gariboldi, Rubin & Schindel 2020 3424:Nicholson, Canepa & Daryaee 2018 3398:Nicholson, Canepa & Daryaee 2018 2424:as "Iranians have become fearless" ( 1244:Roman invasion of Mesopotamia (541) 255: 70:Khosrow I on an ornamental plate in 47: 30:For other uses of "Anushirvan", see 6330:The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Iran 6205:The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Iran 6003:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 5509:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 5484:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 5309:Chaumont, M. L. (1985). "Albania". 5294:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 4806: 4772: 3464: 2043:In 573, Khosrow sent an army under 1940:Campaign in Yemen against Abyssinia 1388:Revolts of Armenia and Iberia (571) 883:In 531, while the Iranian army was 274: 264: 6429:King of Kings of Iran and non-Iran 5269:. University of California Press. 4122:Archaeologia Iraníca et Orientalis 2299:, known in Islamic sources as the 1481:clients and the Byzantine clients 672:. The Ispahbudhan were one of the 57:King of Kings of Iran and non-Iran 25: 6989:People of the Roman–Sasanian Wars 5539:Rome and Persia in Late Antiquity 2428:), and "Iranians became strong" ( 2284:, and other northern neighbours. 1993:Byzantine–Sasanian War of 572–591 1382:War with the Byzantines (572–591) 1225:War with the Byzantines (540–562) 558:History of the Prophets and Kings 311:, in which the Byzantine emperor 2610:states that during the reign of 2385: 2370: 2358: 2343: 1631: 6366:. Ahmad Tafazzoli. p. 427. 6081:Pourshariati, Parvaneh (2008). 5059:"The Physicians of Jundishapur" 4944:Zoroastrianism: An Introduction 3335: 2908: 2721: 2646:Anushiruwan the Just statue in 2634:Anushiruwan the Just statue in 2585:, the translator of the Indian 2268:. In the northwest, he had the 1997:Justinian died in 565 and left 1867:, as the new Hephthalite king. 1613:to move against the Sasanians. 1516: 1501: 1259:Invasion of Commagene (aborted) 382:, he finally put an end to the 295: 93:13 September 531 – February 579 6113:Pulleyblank, Edwin G. (1991). 5997:. In Nicholson, Oliver (ed.). 5749:Khaleghi-Motlagh, Dj. (1988). 5741:Encyclopædia Iranica, Vol. VII 5503:. In Nicholson, Oliver (ed.). 5478:. In Nicholson, Oliver (ed.). 5436:. I.B.Tauris. pp. 1–240. 5376:. I.B.Tauris. pp. 1–200. 5288:. In Nicholson, Oliver (ed.). 4429:Bulletin of the Asia Institute 3777:Chaumont & Schippmann 1988 2444:Khosrow I holds a banquet for 1954:led an attack on the dominant 1825:Sasanian expansion in the east 1648:The information may have been 1410:Five-year truce in Mesopotamia 370:. The following year, Khosrow 362:, the successor of Justinian, 298: 488–496, 498/9–531 278:"the Immortal Soul"), was the 1: 6984:6th-century Sasanian monarchs 6401: 6347:Skjærvø, Prods Oktor (2000). 6328:. In Potts, Daniel T. (ed.). 6326:"Sasanian political ideology" 5751:"Bahman (2) Son of Esfandīār" 5665:Gaube, H. (1986). "Arrajān". 5286:"Weh-andīōg-husraw (Rūmagān)" 2134:The remains of a 6th-century 1692:on request of the Lazic king 817:illustration of the death of 770: 6278:Shahbazi, A. Shapur (2005). 6255:Shahbazi, A. Shapur (1993). 6139:Rezakhani, Khodadad (2017). 5647:Encyclopaedia Iranica Online 5643:"Ḵosrow I i: Life and Times" 5616:Gadjiev, Murtazali (2017b). 5455:. In Daryaee, Touraj (ed.). 5057:Taylor, Gail Marlow (2010). 5009:Eder, Manfred A. J. (2010). 4931:. Vantage Press. p. 92. 2724: 488–496, 498–531 2028:. During the same time, the 1702:captured by Khosrow's forces 1497:al-Mundhir III ibn al-Nu'man 505: 479: 460: 6951:usurpers or rival claimants 6324:Shayegan, M. Rahim (2017). 6207:. Oxford University Press. 6018:Payne, Richard E. (2015a). 5923:Morony, Michael G. (1993). 5804:Maas, Michael, ed. (2005). 5561:The History of Ancient Iran 5263:Canepa, Matthew P. (2009). 4946:. I.B.Tauris. p. 133. 2545:Intellectual games such as 2320:, and was officially named 2204:, now becomes a servant of 1708:arrived in Mesopotamia and 1576:. While Megas went back to 1325:Onoguris (3rd Archaeopolis) 793:Mahbod, who had along with 737:) and military creativity. 535: 529: 519: 499: 469: 446: 32:Anushirvan (disambiguation) 7055: 5883:10.1002/9781444390186.ch13 5789:. UNESCO. pp. 1–569. 5588:Cambridge University Press 4826:Rekavandi & Sauer 2013 1990: 1943: 1620: 1541:Sasanian invasion of Syria 674:Seven Great Houses of Iran 485: 29: 6949: 6491: 6435: 6426: 6418: 6386: 6371:Tafazzoli, Aḥmad (1997). 6058:Potts, Daniel T. (2018). 5982:Modarres, Ali. "Meybod". 5900:McDonough, Scott (2013). 5634:10.1163/1573384X-20170202 5571:– via fordham.edu/. 4462:Litvinsky & Dani 1996 4014:Curtis & Stewart 2008 3720:Daryaee & Canepa 2018 3289: 3287: 3285: 3279: 3277: 3275: 3253: 3249: 3243: 3241: 3239: 3237: 3235: 3177: 3175: 3111: 3109: 3041: 3039: 2981: 2979: 2963: 2961: 2953: 2951: 2860: 2858: 2856: 2850: 2848: 2846: 2840: 2838: 2836: 2810: 2806: 2804: 2802: 2800: 2798: 2792: 2790: 2788: 2786: 2784: 2598:, located in the city of 1600:, where he bathed in the 1549:, and instead approached 1446:War in Mesopotamia (578) 1344:War with the Hephthalites 1205: 1121:region in the north, the 141:February 579 (aged 65–67) 63: 54: 6160:Sauer, Eberhard (2017). 5284:Canepa, Matthew (2018). 5153:Bivar, A. D. H. (2003). 4624:Greatrex & Lieu 2002 4612:Greatrex & Lieu 2002 4588:Greatrex & Lieu 2002 4552:Greatrex & Lieu 2002 4540:Greatrex & Lieu 2002 4486:Dignas & Winter 2007 4279:Greatrex & Lieu 2002 4235:Greatrex & Lieu 2002 4218:Greatrex & Lieu 2002 4206:Greatrex & Lieu 2002 4177:Greatrex & Lieu 2002 4162:Greatrex & Lieu 2002 4139:Greatrex & Lieu 2002 3933:Dignas & Winter 2007 3902:Greatrex & Lieu 2002 3819:Greatrex & Lieu 2002 3792:Greatrex & Lieu 2002 3661:Greatrex & Lieu 2002 2412:of Khosrow I, minted at 867:The Eternal Peace of 532 640:, a town located in the 7004:Abyssinian–Persian wars 5546:Farrokh, Kaveh (2007). 4975:Patrologia Orientalis 7 4590:, pp. 146–149, 150 3521:, p. 35 (note 25). 1946:Abyssinian–Persian wars 1754:Fifty-Year Peace Treaty 1336:Fifty-Year Peace Treaty 1013:seven Parthian families 414:, a designation of the 353:Fifty-Year Peace Treaty 305:war with the Byzantines 6225:(1988). "BAHRĀM (2)". 5995:"Khosrow I Anoshirvan" 5713:Howard-Johnston, James 2655: 2639: 2596:Academy of Gondishapur 2591: 2573:Academy of Gondishapur 2542: 2486: 2477: 2453: 2417: 2240: 2142: 1887: 1846:First Turkic Khaganate 1826: 1814: 1685: 1358:War with the Aksumites 1162: 1056:Administrative reforms 944:Consolidation of power 885:besieging Martyropolis 880: 821: 766: 633: 464:, itself derived from 364:broke the peace treaty 6353:Encyclopaedia Iranica 6132:Encyclopaedia Iranica 6105:Encyclopaedia Iranica 5985:Encyclopaedia Iranica 5974:Encyclopaedia Iranica 5762:Kia, Mehrdad (2016). 5628:(2). Brill: 121–131. 5622:Iran and the Caucasus 5608:Encyclopaedia Iranica 5548:Shadows in the Desert 5530:Encyclopaedia Iranica 5453:"The Sasanian Empire" 5419:Encyclopaedia Iranica 5363:registration required 4927:Wākīm, Salīm (1987). 4265:, pp. 559, 639; 4084:Dumbarton Oaks Papers 3531:Khaleghi-Motlagh 1988 2645: 2633: 2580: 2530: 2443: 2408: 2234: 2133: 1991:Further information: 1944:Further information: 1873: 1850:battle of Gol-Zarriun 1824: 1680: 1512:al-Harith ibn Jabalah 1437:Byzantine raids (576) 1420:Invasion of Anatolia 1160: 874: 813: 753: 624: 372:besieged and captured 27:King of Kings of Iran 6999:Shahnameh characters 6994:People from Ardestan 5550:. Osprey Publishing. 5501:"Qobad I (MP Kawād)" 5075:on 24 September 2015 4942:Rose, Jenny (2011). 4304:"Meander Protector. 3900:, pp. 268–269; 3896:, pp. 16, 276; 3600:, pp. 106–108; 3572:, pp. 381–382; 2394:Roderich von Erckert 2352:Great Wall of Gorgan 2258:Great Wall of Gorgan 2078:He was succeeded by 2067:led an army towards 1933:Encyclopædia Iranica 1722:successful campaigns 1406:'s invasion of Syria 323:, and encouraged by 6847:Shapur-i Shahrvaraz 6379:. pp. 179–180. 6231:. pp. 514–522. 6198:. pp. 141–143. 6187:. pp. 136–141. 6121:. pp. 424–431. 5850:Martindale, John R. 5826:Martindale, John R. 5757:. pp. 489–490. 5707:. pp. 385–387. 5671:. pp. 519–520. 5326:. pp. 574–580. 5315:. pp. 806–810. 5258:. pp. 319–324. 5118:History of the Wars 4840:, pp. 912–913. 4638:, pp. 240–241. 4566:, pp. 514–522. 4476:, pp. 198–201. 4464:, pp. 176–177. 4400:, pp. 141–142. 4269:, pp. 101–102. 4179:, pp. 102–103. 4145:, pp. 209–210. 4040:, pp. 230–230. 3852:, pp. 288–289. 3779:, pp. 574–580. 3560:, pp. 136–141. 3509:, pp. 385–387. 2535:are playing chess. 2507:Platonic philosophy 2246:Great Wall of China 1740:, as a diplomat to 1414:Invasion of Armenia 1375:Reconquest of Yemen 6280:"Sasanian dynasty" 6242:. pp. 180–182 5686:. pp. 82–97. 5229:Bury, John Bagnell 4867:, pp. 33–34; 4852:, pp. 33–34; 4118:Herrmann, Georgina 3837:, pp. 288–289 3623:, p. 179-180. 3604:, pp. 180–182 3576:, pp. 110–111 2656: 2640: 2592: 2543: 2541:, 10th century CE. 2465:Chronicle of Séert 2454: 2418: 2241: 2161:had the title of " 2159:Church of the East 2143: 2055:military officers 1888: 1827: 1718:ravage the country 1686: 1492:Strata Diocletiana 1230:Invasion of Syria 1163: 1148:Military campaigns 999:central government 881: 822: 767: 634: 595:Menander Protector 425:, stretching from 410:in the history of 384:Hephthalite Empire 6956: 6955: 6941: 6931: 6921: 6911: 6901: 6891: 6881: 6871: 6861: 6851: 6841: 6831: 6821: 6811: 6801: 6791: 6781: 6771: 6761: 6751: 6741: 6731: 6721: 6711: 6701: 6691: 6681: 6671: 6661: 6651: 6641: 6631: 6621: 6611: 6601: 6591: 6581: 6571: 6561: 6551: 6541: 6531: 6521: 6511: 6501: 6486: 6445: 6444: 6436:Succeeded by 6316:978-0-88402-214-5 6094:978-1-84511-645-3 6050:978-1-107-63388-9 6010:978-0-19-866277-8 5963:978-90-04-09419-2 5817:978-0-521-81746-2 5744:. pp. 13–19. 5524:Daryaee, Touraj. 5516:978-0-19-866277-8 5491:978-0-19-866277-8 5408:978-0-19-987575-7 5301:978-0-19-866277-8 5276:978-0-520-25727-6 5196:978-0-7914-4355-2 5172:978-0-933273-75-7 5145:978-0-465-00888-9 5132:Axworthy, Michael 5025:978-1-4073-0674-2 4710:, pp. 51–52. 4576:Pourshariati 2008 4498:Pourshariati 2008 4306:Fragments 6.1-6.3 4026:Pourshariati 2008 3898:Pourshariati 2008 3882:Pourshariati 2008 3867:Pourshariati 2008 3850:Pourshariati 2008 3835:Pourshariati 2008 3821:, pp. 96–97. 3734:, pp. 59–60. 3705:, pp. 26–27. 3663:, pp. 81–82. 3598:Pourshariati 2008 3586:Pourshariati 2008 3574:Pourshariati 2008 3477:Pourshariati 2008 3359: 3358: 2636:Tehran courthouse 2426:ērān abē-bēm kard 2323:Weh-andīōg-husraw 2235:The ruins of the 2151:mard / zan ī šahr 2011:Mamikonian family 1730:besieged the city 1675: 1674: 1602:Mediterranean Sea 1463: 1462: 1443:Armenian campaign 1417:Invasion of Syria 993:to the far west. 846:According to the 605:authors, such as 233: 232: 16:(Redirected from 7046: 7034:Social reformers 7024:Military reforms 6942: 6939: 6932: 6929: 6922: 6919: 6912: 6909: 6902: 6899: 6892: 6889: 6882: 6879: 6872: 6869: 6862: 6859: 6852: 6849: 6842: 6839: 6832: 6829: 6822: 6819: 6812: 6809: 6802: 6799: 6792: 6789: 6782: 6779: 6772: 6769: 6767:Bahram VI Chobin 6762: 6759: 6752: 6749: 6742: 6739: 6732: 6729: 6722: 6719: 6712: 6709: 6702: 6699: 6692: 6689: 6682: 6679: 6672: 6669: 6662: 6659: 6652: 6649: 6642: 6639: 6632: 6629: 6622: 6619: 6612: 6609: 6602: 6599: 6592: 6589: 6582: 6579: 6572: 6569: 6562: 6559: 6552: 6549: 6542: 6539: 6532: 6529: 6522: 6519: 6512: 6509: 6502: 6499: 6484: 6471: 6464: 6457: 6448: 6419:Preceded by 6414: 6407: 6406: 6403: 6393:Sasanian dynasty 6384: 6380: 6367: 6356: 6343: 6320: 6298: 6287: 6274: 6251: 6249: 6247: 6232: 6223:Shahbazi, A. Sh. 6218: 6199: 6188: 6177: 6156: 6135: 6122: 6109: 6098: 6077: 6054: 6035: 6014: 5989: 5978: 5967: 5939:Heinrichs, W. P. 5928: 5919: 5896: 5869: 5845: 5821: 5800: 5779: 5758: 5745: 5734: 5708: 5697: 5672: 5661: 5659: 5657: 5637: 5612: 5601: 5578:Yarshater, Ehsan 5572: 5570: 5568: 5551: 5542: 5533: 5520: 5495: 5470: 5447: 5423: 5412: 5387: 5373:The Sasanian Era 5366: 5359: 5327: 5316: 5305: 5280: 5259: 5248: 5224: 5200: 5176: 5159:Yarshater, Ehsan 5149: 5097: 5091: 5085: 5084: 5082: 5080: 5074: 5068:. Archived from 5063: 5054: 5045: 5039: 5030: 5029: 5017: 5006: 4997: 4991: 4978: 4964: 4958: 4957: 4939: 4933: 4932: 4924: 4918: 4912: 4906: 4900: 4894: 4888: 4875: 4862: 4856: 4847: 4841: 4835: 4829: 4823: 4817: 4811:Kettenhofen 1994 4800: 4794: 4785: 4776: 4770: 4761: 4755: 4742: 4736: 4730: 4724: 4711: 4705: 4699: 4693: 4678: 4672: 4666: 4660: 4651: 4645: 4639: 4633: 4627: 4621: 4615: 4609: 4603: 4597: 4591: 4585: 4579: 4573: 4567: 4561: 4555: 4549: 4543: 4537: 4531: 4525: 4519: 4516: 4510: 4507: 4501: 4495: 4489: 4483: 4477: 4471: 4465: 4459: 4453: 4452: 4424: 4418: 4412: 4401: 4395: 4389: 4383: 4372: 4366: 4349: 4343: 4330: 4329: 4327: 4325: 4319: 4313:. Archived from 4312: 4300: 4294: 4288: 4282: 4276: 4270: 4260: 4254: 4247: 4238: 4232: 4221: 4215: 4209: 4203: 4180: 4174: 4165: 4159: 4146: 4132: 4126: 4125: 4114: 4108: 4107: 4079: 4070: 4064: 4058: 4052: 4041: 4035: 4029: 4023: 4017: 4011: 4005: 3999: 3936: 3930: 3924: 3918: 3905: 3891: 3885: 3879: 3870: 3864: 3853: 3847: 3838: 3828: 3822: 3816: 3807: 3801: 3795: 3789: 3780: 3774: 3768: 3762: 3756: 3750: 3735: 3729: 3723: 3717: 3706: 3700: 3694: 3688: 3679: 3673: 3664: 3658: 3652: 3646: 3640: 3633: 3624: 3618: 3605: 3595: 3589: 3583: 3577: 3567: 3561: 3555: 3534: 3528: 3522: 3516: 3510: 3507:Hillenbrand 1986 3504: 3495: 3486: 3480: 3474: 3468: 3462: 3456: 3450: 3439: 3433: 3427: 3421: 3400: 3391: 3375: 3372: 3339: 3337: 2912: 2910: 2725: 2723: 2686: 2685: 2648:Tomb of Ferdowsi 2517:have ever had". 2473:Paul the Persian 2458:philosopher king 2436:Philosopher King 2389: 2374: 2362: 2347: 2293:Wall of Tammisha 2254:Northern England 2217:Sirat Anushirwan 2167:Ērān Cathollicos 2136:Nestorian church 2126:Religious policy 1670: 1667: 1661: 1635: 1634: 1627: 1520: 1518: 1505: 1503: 1320:2nd Archaeopolis 1315:Telephis–Ollaria 1305:1st Archaeopolis 1200: 1189: 1182: 1175: 1166: 1082:Military reforms 986:philosopher king 969:Adergoudounbades 920:dux Mesopotamiae 775: 772: 611:Zacharias Rhetor 599:Irano-Roman wars 579:Sirat Anushirwan 538: 532: 522: 508: 502: 488: 487: 482: 472: 463: 449: 299: 297: 277: 276: 267: 266: 257: 68: 50: 49: 39: 21: 7054: 7053: 7049: 7048: 7047: 7045: 7044: 7043: 6959: 6958: 6957: 6952: 6945: 6935: 6925: 6915: 6905: 6895: 6885: 6875: 6867:Farrukh Hormizd 6865: 6855: 6845: 6835: 6825: 6815: 6805: 6795: 6785: 6775: 6765: 6755: 6745: 6735: 6725: 6715: 6705: 6695: 6685: 6675: 6665: 6655: 6645: 6635: 6625: 6615: 6605: 6595: 6585: 6575: 6565: 6555: 6545: 6535: 6525: 6515: 6505: 6495: 6487: 6482:Sasanian Empire 6475: 6441: 6432: 6424: 6408: 6404: 6397: 6396: 6389: 6370: 6359: 6346: 6340: 6323: 6317: 6301: 6290: 6277: 6271: 6254: 6245: 6243: 6235: 6221: 6215: 6202: 6191: 6180: 6174: 6159: 6153: 6138: 6125: 6112: 6101: 6095: 6080: 6074: 6057: 6051: 6038: 6032: 6017: 6011: 5992: 5981: 5970: 5964: 5931:Bosworth, C. E. 5922: 5916: 5899: 5893: 5872: 5866: 5848: 5842: 5824: 5818: 5803: 5797: 5782: 5776: 5761: 5748: 5737: 5731: 5711: 5700: 5694: 5675: 5664: 5655: 5653: 5640: 5615: 5604: 5598: 5575: 5566: 5564: 5554: 5545: 5536: 5523: 5517: 5498: 5492: 5473: 5467: 5450: 5444: 5428:Daryaee, Touraj 5426: 5415: 5409: 5393:Daryaee, Touraj 5390: 5384: 5369: 5360: 5348:10.2307/4299846 5332:Crone, Patricia 5330: 5319: 5308: 5302: 5283: 5277: 5262: 5251: 5245: 5227: 5221: 5203: 5197: 5181:Bosworth, C. E. 5179: 5173: 5152: 5146: 5130: 5127: 5110: 5105: 5100: 5092: 5088: 5078: 5076: 5072: 5061: 5056: 5055: 5048: 5040: 5033: 5026: 5015: 5008: 5007: 5000: 4992: 4981: 4965: 4961: 4954: 4941: 4940: 4936: 4926: 4925: 4921: 4913: 4909: 4901: 4897: 4889: 4878: 4863: 4859: 4848: 4844: 4836: 4832: 4824: 4820: 4809:, p. 259; 4801: 4797: 4786: 4779: 4771: 4764: 4756: 4745: 4737: 4733: 4725: 4714: 4706: 4702: 4694: 4681: 4673: 4669: 4661: 4654: 4646: 4642: 4634: 4630: 4622: 4618: 4610: 4606: 4598: 4594: 4586: 4582: 4578:, pp. 102. 4574: 4570: 4562: 4558: 4550: 4546: 4538: 4534: 4526: 4522: 4517: 4513: 4508: 4504: 4496: 4492: 4484: 4480: 4472: 4468: 4460: 4456: 4426: 4425: 4421: 4413: 4404: 4396: 4392: 4384: 4375: 4367: 4352: 4344: 4333: 4323: 4321: 4320:on 4 March 2016 4317: 4310: 4302: 4301: 4297: 4289: 4285: 4277: 4273: 4263:Martindale 1992 4261: 4257: 4248: 4241: 4233: 4224: 4216: 4212: 4204: 4183: 4175: 4168: 4160: 4149: 4141:, p. 102; 4137:, p. 112; 4135:Martindale 1992 4133: 4129: 4116: 4115: 4111: 4096:10.2307/1291323 4081: 4080: 4073: 4065: 4061: 4053: 4044: 4036: 4032: 4024: 4020: 4012: 4008: 4000: 3939: 3931: 3927: 3919: 3908: 3894:Martindale 1992 3892: 3888: 3880: 3873: 3865: 3856: 3848: 3841: 3829: 3825: 3817: 3810: 3802: 3798: 3790: 3783: 3775: 3771: 3763: 3759: 3751: 3738: 3730: 3726: 3718: 3709: 3701: 3697: 3689: 3682: 3674: 3667: 3659: 3655: 3649:Sundermann 1986 3647: 3643: 3634: 3627: 3619: 3608: 3596: 3592: 3584: 3580: 3570:Martindale 1992 3568: 3564: 3556: 3537: 3529: 3525: 3517: 3513: 3505: 3498: 3491:, p. 197; 3487: 3483: 3475: 3471: 3463: 3459: 3451: 3442: 3438:, p. xvii. 3434: 3430: 3422: 3403: 3392: 3388: 3384: 3379: 3378: 3373: 3369: 3364: 3334: 3332: 2907: 2905: 2890: 2884: 2720: 2718: 2684: 2628: 2575: 2438: 2430:ērān abzonhēnēd 2403: 2396: 2390: 2381: 2379:Derbent citadel 2375: 2366: 2363: 2354: 2350:Remains of the 2348: 2229: 2128: 2003:Chihor-Vishnasp 1995: 1989: 1948: 1942: 1863:, the ruler of 1819: 1817:War in the East 1710:began besieging 1700:was afterwards 1671: 1665: 1662: 1647: 1636: 1632: 1625: 1619: 1598:Seleucia Pieria 1543: 1515: 1500: 1489:, near the old 1469: 1464: 1459: 1275:Five-year truce 1218:Perpetual Peace 1201: 1195: 1193: 1155: 1150: 1132: 1084: 1058: 1008: 982: 977: 946: 927:to the city of 869: 864: 808: 784:, but Justin's 773: 748: 743: 678:Sasanian Empire 619: 607:John of Ephesus 549: 443: 441:Name and titles 429:in the west to 400:conquered Yemen 309:Perpetual Peace 294: 186: 148:Sasanian Empire 142: 132:Sasanian Empire 126: 84:Sasanian Empire 74: 45: 43: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 7052: 7050: 7042: 7041: 7036: 7031: 7026: 7021: 7016: 7011: 7006: 7001: 6996: 6991: 6986: 6981: 6976: 6971: 6961: 6960: 6954: 6953: 6950: 6947: 6946: 6944: 6943: 6933: 6923: 6913: 6903: 6893: 6883: 6873: 6863: 6853: 6843: 6833: 6823: 6813: 6803: 6793: 6783: 6773: 6763: 6753: 6743: 6733: 6723: 6713: 6703: 6693: 6683: 6673: 6663: 6653: 6643: 6633: 6623: 6613: 6603: 6593: 6583: 6573: 6563: 6553: 6543: 6533: 6523: 6513: 6503: 6492: 6489: 6488: 6476: 6474: 6473: 6466: 6459: 6451: 6443: 6442: 6437: 6434: 6425: 6420: 6416: 6415: 6390: 6387: 6382: 6381: 6368: 6357: 6344: 6338: 6321: 6315: 6299: 6297:. p. 662. 6288: 6275: 6269: 6257:"Crown Prince" 6252: 6233: 6219: 6214:978-0199733309 6213: 6200: 6189: 6178: 6172: 6157: 6151: 6136: 6123: 6110: 6099: 6093: 6078: 6072: 6055: 6049: 6036: 6030: 6015: 6009: 5990: 5979: 5968: 5962: 5935:van Donzel, E. 5920: 5914: 5897: 5891: 5870: 5864: 5852:, ed. (1992). 5846: 5840: 5828:, ed. (1980). 5822: 5816: 5801: 5795: 5780: 5775:978-1610693912 5774: 5759: 5746: 5735: 5730:978-9004252578 5729: 5717:Christie, Neil 5709: 5698: 5692: 5673: 5662: 5638: 5613: 5602: 5596: 5573: 5552: 5543: 5534: 5526:"Yazdegerd II" 5521: 5515: 5496: 5490: 5471: 5465: 5448: 5443:978-0857716668 5442: 5424: 5413: 5407: 5388: 5382: 5367: 5328: 5317: 5306: 5300: 5281: 5275: 5260: 5249: 5243: 5225: 5219: 5201: 5195: 5183:, ed. (1999). 5177: 5171: 5155:"Hephthalites" 5150: 5144: 5126: 5123: 5122: 5121: 5109: 5106: 5104: 5101: 5099: 5098: 5086: 5046: 5044:, p. 181. 5031: 5024: 4998: 4996:, p. 241. 4979: 4959: 4952: 4934: 4919: 4907: 4895: 4876: 4857: 4842: 4830: 4818: 4795: 4790:, p. 29; 4777: 4775:, p. 261. 4762: 4743: 4731: 4712: 4700: 4698:, p. 190. 4679: 4667: 4652: 4640: 4628: 4626:, p. 161. 4616: 4614:, p. 160. 4604: 4602:, p. 240. 4592: 4580: 4568: 4556: 4554:, p. 149. 4544: 4542:, p. 141. 4532: 4530:, p. 237. 4520: 4511: 4502: 4500:, p. 103. 4490: 4488:, p. 115. 4478: 4466: 4454: 4419: 4417:, p. 142. 4415:Rezakhani 2017 4402: 4398:Rezakhani 2017 4390: 4373: 4350: 4348:, p. 238. 4331: 4295: 4293:, p. 236. 4283: 4281:, p. 123. 4271: 4255: 4239: 4237:, p. 106. 4222: 4220:, p. 104. 4210: 4208:, p. 103. 4181: 4166: 4164:, p. 102. 4147: 4127: 4109: 4071: 4069:, p. 124. 4059: 4057:, p. 229. 4042: 4030: 4028:, p. 500. 4018: 4016:, p. 126. 4006: 3937: 3925: 3906: 3904:, p. 112. 3886: 3884:, p. 111. 3871: 3869:, p. 289. 3854: 3839: 3833:, p. 28; 3823: 3808: 3806:, p. 488. 3796: 3781: 3769: 3757: 3736: 3724: 3707: 3695: 3693:, p. 150. 3680: 3665: 3653: 3651:, p. 662. 3641: 3625: 3621:Tafazzoli 1997 3606: 3590: 3588:, p. 118. 3578: 3562: 3558:Schindel 2013a 3535: 3533:, p. 489. 3523: 3511: 3496: 3481: 3479:, p. 256. 3469: 3457: 3440: 3428: 3401: 3385: 3383: 3380: 3377: 3376: 3366: 3365: 3363: 3360: 3357: 3355: 3354: 3352: 3350: 3348: 3346: 3343: 3341: 3338: 579–590 3327: 3325: 3320: 3318: 3316: 3314: 3312: 3310: 3308: 3306: 3304: 3302: 3300: 3298: 3296: 3293: 3292: 3290: 3288: 3286: 3284: 3282: 3280: 3278: 3276: 3274: 3272: 3269: 3268: 3266: 3264: 3262: 3260: 3258: 3256: 3254: 3252: 3250: 3248: 3246: 3244: 3242: 3240: 3238: 3236: 3234: 3232: 3230: 3228: 3226: 3224: 3222: 3220: 3218: 3216: 3214: 3212: 3210: 3208: 3206: 3204: 3201: 3199: 3198: 3196: 3194: 3192: 3190: 3188: 3186: 3184: 3182: 3180: 3178: 3176: 3174: 3172: 3170: 3168: 3166: 3164: 3162: 3160: 3158: 3156: 3154: 3152: 3150: 3148: 3146: 3144: 3142: 3140: 3138: 3136: 3133: 3131: 3130: 3128: 3126: 3124: 3122: 3120: 3118: 3116: 3114: 3112: 3110: 3108: 3106: 3104: 3102: 3100: 3098: 3096: 3094: 3092: 3090: 3088: 3086: 3084: 3082: 3080: 3078: 3076: 3074: 3072: 3070: 3067: 3065: 3064: 3062: 3060: 3058: 3056: 3054: 3052: 3050: 3048: 3046: 3044: 3042: 3040: 3038: 3036: 3034: 3032: 3030: 3028: 3026: 3023: 3021: 3018: 3016: 3014: 3012: 3010: 3008: 3006: 3003: 3001: 3000: 2998: 2996: 2994: 2992: 2990: 2988: 2986: 2984: 2982: 2980: 2978: 2976: 2974: 2972: 2970: 2968: 2966: 2964: 2962: 2960: 2958: 2956: 2954: 2952: 2950: 2948: 2946: 2944: 2942: 2940: 2938: 2936: 2933: 2931: 2930: 2928: 2926: 2924: 2922: 2920: 2918: 2916: 2914: 2911: 531–579 2900: 2898: 2893: 2891: 2887: 2885: 2879: 2877: 2875: 2873: 2871: 2869: 2867: 2864: 2863: 2861: 2859: 2857: 2855: 2853: 2851: 2849: 2847: 2845: 2843: 2841: 2839: 2837: 2835: 2833: 2830: 2829: 2827: 2825: 2823: 2821: 2819: 2817: 2815: 2813: 2811: 2809: 2807: 2805: 2803: 2801: 2799: 2797: 2795: 2793: 2791: 2789: 2787: 2785: 2783: 2781: 2779: 2777: 2775: 2773: 2771: 2769: 2767: 2765: 2762: 2760: 2759: 2757: 2755: 2753: 2751: 2749: 2747: 2745: 2743: 2741: 2739: 2737: 2735: 2733: 2731: 2729: 2727: 2713: 2711: 2709: 2707: 2705: 2703: 2701: 2699: 2697: 2695: 2693: 2691: 2689: 2683: 2680: 2627: 2624: 2606:encyclopaedia 2604:Middle Persian 2581:Khosrow I and 2574: 2571: 2503:Middle Persian 2437: 2434: 2402: 2399: 2398: 2397: 2391: 2384: 2382: 2376: 2369: 2367: 2364: 2357: 2355: 2349: 2342: 2301:Nahrawan Canal 2250:Hadrian's Wall 2228: 2225: 2147:Zoroastrianism 2127: 2124: 1988: 1985: 1941: 1938: 1818: 1815: 1742:Constantinople 1673: 1672: 1666:September 2022 1639: 1637: 1630: 1621:Main article: 1618: 1615: 1542: 1539: 1519: 528–569 1504: 503–554 1468: 1465: 1461: 1460: 1458: 1457: 1456: 1455: 1452: 1444: 1438: 1435: 1434: 1433: 1430: 1427: 1424: 1423:Theodosiopolis 1418: 1415: 1412: 1407: 1401: 1395: 1389: 1385: 1384: 1378: 1377: 1372: 1367: 1361: 1360: 1354: 1353: 1347: 1346: 1340: 1339: 1332: 1327: 1322: 1317: 1312: 1307: 1302: 1297: 1292: 1286: 1285: 1279: 1278: 1272: 1266: 1260: 1257: 1256: 1255: 1250: 1242: 1241: 1240: 1237: 1234: 1227: 1226: 1222: 1221: 1213: 1212: 1206: 1203: 1202: 1194: 1192: 1191: 1184: 1177: 1169: 1154: 1151: 1149: 1146: 1131: 1128: 1083: 1080: 1057: 1054: 1007: 1004: 981: 978: 976: 973: 954:Padishkhwargar 945: 942: 868: 865: 863: 860: 841:Matthew Canepa 837:Touraj Daryaee 807: 804: 747: 744: 742: 739: 618: 615: 548: 547:Historiography 545: 543:("the Just"). 456:Middle Persian 442: 439: 416:Sasanian kings 256:𐭧𐭥𐭮𐭫𐭥𐭣𐭩 252:Middle Persian 238:(also spelled 231: 230: 228:Zoroastrianism 225: 221: 220: 214: 210: 209: 204: 200: 199: 197:House of Sasan 194: 188: 187: 185: 184: 181: 176: 170: 168: 162: 161: 155: 151: 150: 139: 135: 134: 123: 119: 118: 115: 114: 109: 105: 104: 99: 95: 94: 91: 87: 86: 76: 75: 69: 61: 60: 52: 51: 48:𐭧𐭥𐭮𐭫𐭥𐭣𐭩 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7051: 7040: 7039:City founders 7037: 7035: 7032: 7030: 7027: 7025: 7022: 7020: 7017: 7015: 7012: 7010: 7007: 7005: 7002: 7000: 6997: 6995: 6992: 6990: 6987: 6985: 6982: 6980: 6977: 6975: 6972: 6970: 6967: 6966: 6964: 6948: 6938: 6934: 6928: 6924: 6918: 6914: 6908: 6907:Yazdegerd III 6904: 6898: 6894: 6888: 6884: 6878: 6874: 6868: 6864: 6858: 6854: 6848: 6844: 6838: 6834: 6828: 6824: 6818: 6814: 6808: 6804: 6798: 6794: 6788: 6784: 6778: 6774: 6768: 6764: 6758: 6754: 6748: 6744: 6738: 6734: 6728: 6724: 6718: 6714: 6708: 6704: 6698: 6694: 6688: 6684: 6678: 6674: 6668: 6664: 6658: 6654: 6648: 6644: 6638: 6634: 6628: 6624: 6618: 6614: 6608: 6604: 6598: 6594: 6588: 6584: 6578: 6574: 6568: 6564: 6558: 6554: 6548: 6544: 6538: 6534: 6528: 6524: 6518: 6514: 6508: 6504: 6498: 6494: 6493: 6490: 6483: 6479: 6472: 6467: 6465: 6460: 6458: 6453: 6452: 6449: 6440: 6431: 6430: 6423: 6417: 6412: 6400: 6395: 6394: 6385: 6378: 6374: 6369: 6365: 6364: 6358: 6354: 6350: 6345: 6341: 6339:9780190668662 6335: 6331: 6327: 6322: 6318: 6312: 6308: 6304: 6303:Shahîd, Irfan 6300: 6296: 6295: 6289: 6285: 6281: 6276: 6272: 6270:90-04-08114-3 6266: 6262: 6258: 6253: 6241: 6240: 6234: 6230: 6229: 6224: 6220: 6216: 6210: 6206: 6201: 6197: 6196: 6190: 6186: 6185: 6179: 6175: 6173:9781474401029 6169: 6165: 6164: 6158: 6154: 6152:9781474400305 6148: 6144: 6143: 6137: 6133: 6129: 6128:"Tamiša Wall" 6124: 6120: 6116: 6111: 6107: 6106: 6100: 6096: 6090: 6086: 6085: 6079: 6075: 6073:9781316146040 6069: 6065: 6061: 6056: 6052: 6046: 6042: 6037: 6033: 6031:9780520961531 6027: 6023: 6022: 6016: 6012: 6006: 6002: 6001: 5996: 5991: 5987: 5986: 5980: 5976: 5975: 5969: 5965: 5959: 5955: 5951: 5949: 5944: 5940: 5936: 5932: 5927: 5926:"al-Nahrawān" 5921: 5917: 5915:9780195304657 5911: 5907: 5903: 5898: 5894: 5892:9781444390186 5888: 5884: 5880: 5876: 5871: 5867: 5865:0-521-20160-8 5861: 5857: 5856: 5851: 5847: 5843: 5841:0-521-20159-4 5837: 5833: 5832: 5827: 5823: 5819: 5813: 5809: 5808: 5802: 5798: 5796:9789231032110 5792: 5788: 5787: 5781: 5777: 5771: 5767: 5766: 5760: 5756: 5752: 5747: 5743: 5742: 5736: 5732: 5726: 5722: 5718: 5714: 5710: 5706: 5705: 5699: 5695: 5693:0-415-14687-9 5689: 5685: 5681: 5680: 5674: 5670: 5669: 5663: 5652: 5648: 5644: 5639: 5635: 5631: 5627: 5623: 5619: 5614: 5610: 5609: 5603: 5599: 5597:0-521-20092-X 5593: 5589: 5586:. Cambridge: 5585: 5584: 5579: 5574: 5563: 5562: 5557: 5553: 5549: 5544: 5540: 5535: 5531: 5527: 5522: 5518: 5512: 5508: 5507: 5502: 5497: 5493: 5487: 5483: 5482: 5477: 5472: 5468: 5466:9780692864401 5462: 5458: 5454: 5449: 5445: 5439: 5435: 5434: 5429: 5425: 5421: 5420: 5414: 5410: 5404: 5400: 5399: 5394: 5389: 5385: 5383:9780857719720 5379: 5375: 5374: 5368: 5364: 5357: 5353: 5349: 5345: 5341: 5337: 5333: 5329: 5325: 5324: 5318: 5314: 5313: 5307: 5303: 5297: 5293: 5292: 5287: 5282: 5278: 5272: 5268: 5267: 5261: 5257: 5256: 5250: 5246: 5244:0-486-20399-9 5240: 5236: 5235: 5230: 5226: 5222: 5220:9780415239028 5216: 5212: 5211: 5206: 5202: 5198: 5192: 5188: 5187: 5182: 5178: 5174: 5168: 5164: 5160: 5156: 5151: 5147: 5141: 5137: 5133: 5129: 5128: 5124: 5119: 5115: 5112: 5111: 5108:Ancient works 5107: 5102: 5096:, p. 83. 5095: 5090: 5087: 5071: 5067: 5060: 5053: 5051: 5047: 5043: 5038: 5036: 5032: 5027: 5021: 5014: 5013: 5005: 5003: 4999: 4995: 4990: 4988: 4986: 4984: 4980: 4976: 4972: 4968: 4963: 4960: 4955: 4953:9781848850880 4949: 4945: 4938: 4935: 4930: 4923: 4920: 4917:, p. 65. 4916: 4915:Axworthy 2008 4911: 4908: 4905:, p. 31. 4904: 4899: 4896: 4893:, p. 34. 4892: 4887: 4885: 4883: 4881: 4877: 4874: 4870: 4869:Shahbazi 2005 4866: 4861: 4858: 4855: 4854:Shahbazi 2005 4851: 4846: 4843: 4839: 4834: 4831: 4827: 4822: 4819: 4816: 4812: 4808: 4804: 4799: 4796: 4793: 4789: 4784: 4782: 4778: 4774: 4769: 4767: 4763: 4760:, p. 34. 4759: 4754: 4752: 4750: 4748: 4744: 4741:, p. 35. 4740: 4735: 4732: 4729:, p. 52. 4728: 4723: 4721: 4719: 4717: 4713: 4709: 4704: 4701: 4697: 4692: 4690: 4688: 4686: 4684: 4680: 4677:, p. 27. 4676: 4671: 4668: 4665:, p. 56. 4664: 4659: 4657: 4653: 4649: 4644: 4641: 4637: 4632: 4629: 4625: 4620: 4617: 4613: 4608: 4605: 4601: 4596: 4593: 4589: 4584: 4581: 4577: 4572: 4569: 4565: 4564:Shahbazi 1988 4560: 4557: 4553: 4548: 4545: 4541: 4536: 4533: 4529: 4524: 4521: 4515: 4512: 4506: 4503: 4499: 4494: 4491: 4487: 4482: 4479: 4475: 4470: 4467: 4463: 4458: 4455: 4450: 4446: 4442: 4438: 4434: 4430: 4423: 4420: 4416: 4411: 4409: 4407: 4403: 4399: 4394: 4391: 4388:, p. 30. 4387: 4382: 4380: 4378: 4374: 4370: 4369:Shahbazi 2005 4365: 4363: 4361: 4359: 4357: 4355: 4351: 4347: 4342: 4340: 4338: 4336: 4332: 4316: 4309: 4307: 4299: 4296: 4292: 4287: 4284: 4280: 4275: 4272: 4268: 4264: 4259: 4256: 4252: 4246: 4244: 4240: 4236: 4231: 4229: 4227: 4223: 4219: 4214: 4211: 4207: 4202: 4200: 4198: 4196: 4194: 4192: 4190: 4188: 4186: 4182: 4178: 4173: 4171: 4167: 4163: 4158: 4156: 4154: 4152: 4148: 4144: 4140: 4136: 4131: 4128: 4123: 4119: 4113: 4110: 4105: 4101: 4097: 4093: 4089: 4085: 4078: 4076: 4072: 4068: 4063: 4060: 4056: 4051: 4049: 4047: 4043: 4039: 4034: 4031: 4027: 4022: 4019: 4015: 4010: 4007: 4003: 3998: 3996: 3994: 3992: 3990: 3988: 3986: 3984: 3982: 3980: 3978: 3976: 3974: 3972: 3970: 3968: 3966: 3964: 3962: 3960: 3958: 3956: 3954: 3952: 3950: 3948: 3946: 3944: 3942: 3938: 3935:, p. 28. 3934: 3929: 3926: 3923:, p. 29. 3922: 3917: 3915: 3913: 3911: 3907: 3903: 3899: 3895: 3890: 3887: 3883: 3878: 3876: 3872: 3868: 3863: 3861: 3859: 3855: 3851: 3846: 3844: 3840: 3836: 3832: 3827: 3824: 3820: 3815: 3813: 3809: 3805: 3800: 3797: 3794:, p. 96. 3793: 3788: 3786: 3782: 3778: 3773: 3770: 3767:, p. 61. 3766: 3765:Axworthy 2008 3761: 3758: 3755:, p. 60. 3754: 3753:Axworthy 2008 3749: 3747: 3745: 3743: 3741: 3737: 3733: 3732:Axworthy 2008 3728: 3725: 3721: 3716: 3714: 3712: 3708: 3704: 3699: 3696: 3692: 3687: 3685: 3681: 3678:, p. 26. 3677: 3672: 3670: 3666: 3662: 3657: 3654: 3650: 3645: 3642: 3638: 3632: 3630: 3626: 3622: 3617: 3615: 3613: 3611: 3607: 3603: 3602:Shahbazi 1989 3599: 3594: 3591: 3587: 3582: 3579: 3575: 3571: 3566: 3563: 3559: 3554: 3552: 3550: 3548: 3546: 3544: 3542: 3540: 3536: 3532: 3527: 3524: 3520: 3515: 3512: 3508: 3503: 3501: 3497: 3494: 3490: 3485: 3482: 3478: 3473: 3470: 3467:, p. 83. 3466: 3461: 3458: 3454: 3449: 3447: 3445: 3441: 3437: 3432: 3429: 3425: 3420: 3418: 3416: 3414: 3412: 3410: 3408: 3406: 3402: 3399: 3395: 3390: 3387: 3381: 3371: 3368: 3361: 3356: 3331: 3324: 3294: 3291: 3283: 3281: 3273: 3271: 3270: 3251: 3247: 3245: 3233: 3231: 3202: 3200: 3134: 3132: 3068: 3066: 3004: 3002: 2934: 2932: 2904: 2897: 2883: 2865: 2862: 2854: 2852: 2844: 2842: 2834: 2832: 2831: 2808: 2796: 2794: 2782: 2780: 2763: 2761: 2717: 2687: 2681: 2679: 2678:trade route. 2675: 2673: 2669: 2664: 2662: 2653: 2649: 2644: 2637: 2632: 2625: 2623: 2621: 2617: 2613: 2609: 2605: 2601: 2597: 2590: 2589: 2584: 2579: 2572: 2570: 2568: 2564: 2560: 2556: 2552: 2548: 2540: 2539: 2534: 2529: 2525: 2523: 2518: 2516: 2512: 2508: 2504: 2500: 2496: 2492: 2485: 2480: 2476: 2474: 2468: 2466: 2461: 2459: 2451: 2447: 2442: 2435: 2433: 2431: 2427: 2423: 2415: 2411: 2407: 2400: 2395: 2388: 2383: 2380: 2373: 2368: 2361: 2356: 2353: 2346: 2341: 2339: 2337: 2333: 2329: 2325: 2324: 2319: 2315: 2314: 2308: 2306: 2302: 2298: 2294: 2290: 2289:war-i tāzigān 2285: 2283: 2279: 2275: 2271: 2267: 2263: 2259: 2255: 2251: 2247: 2238: 2233: 2227:Constructions 2226: 2224: 2222: 2218: 2214: 2209: 2207: 2203: 2199: 2195: 2191: 2187: 2182: 2180: 2176: 2170: 2168: 2164: 2160: 2156: 2152: 2148: 2141: 2137: 2132: 2125: 2123: 2121: 2116: 2111: 2109: 2105: 2101: 2097: 2093: 2089: 2085: 2081: 2076: 2074: 2070: 2066: 2065:Bahram Chobin 2062: 2058: 2054: 2050: 2046: 2041: 2039: 2035: 2031: 2027: 2023: 2019: 2014: 2012: 2008: 2004: 2000: 1994: 1986: 1984: 1980: 1978: 1973: 1969: 1964: 1962: 1957: 1953: 1947: 1939: 1937: 1935: 1934: 1929: 1925: 1921: 1917: 1911: 1909: 1905: 1901: 1897: 1893: 1885: 1881: 1877: 1876:Surkhan Darya 1872: 1868: 1866: 1862: 1858: 1855: 1851: 1847: 1842: 1840: 1836: 1832: 1823: 1816: 1813: 1810: 1806: 1802: 1798: 1794: 1790: 1786: 1782: 1778: 1774: 1771: 1768: 1764: 1760: 1757: 1755: 1751: 1745: 1743: 1739: 1733: 1731: 1727: 1723: 1719: 1715: 1711: 1707: 1703: 1699: 1695: 1691: 1684: 1679: 1669: 1659: 1655: 1651: 1645: 1644: 1638: 1629: 1628: 1624: 1616: 1614: 1612: 1607: 1603: 1599: 1594: 1590: 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1040: 1036: 1034: 1030: 1026: 1022: 1018: 1014: 1005: 1003: 1000: 994: 992: 987: 979: 974: 972: 970: 966: 961: 959: 955: 951: 943: 941: 939: 934: 930: 926: 922: 921: 916: 912: 911: 906: 902: 898: 894: 890: 886: 878: 875:14th-century 873: 866: 861: 859: 857: 853: 849: 844: 842: 838: 834: 830: 826: 820: 816: 812: 805: 803: 801: 796: 791: 789: 788: 783: 779: 764: 760: 756: 752: 745: 740: 738: 736: 735: 730: 726: 722: 718: 717: 712: 711: 706: 702: 698: 697: 692: 687: 685: 684: 679: 675: 671: 667: 663: 659: 655: 651: 647: 643: 639: 631: 627: 623: 616: 614: 612: 608: 604: 600: 596: 592: 588: 584: 580: 576: 575: 574:Khwaday-Namag 570: 566: 565: 560: 559: 554: 546: 544: 542: 537: 531: 526: 521: 516: 512: 507: 501: 496: 492: 481: 476: 471: 467: 462: 457: 453: 448: 440: 438: 436: 432: 428: 424: 419: 417: 413: 409: 403: 401: 397: 394:defeated the 393: 389: 385: 381: 377: 373: 369: 365: 361: 356: 354: 350: 346: 342: 338: 334: 330: 326: 322: 318: 314: 310: 306: 301: 292: 288: 284: 283:King of Kings 281: 271: 261: 253: 249: 245: 241: 237: 229: 226: 222: 218: 215: 211: 208: 205: 201: 198: 195: 193: 189: 182: 180: 177: 175: 172: 171: 169: 167: 163: 159: 156: 152: 149: 145: 140: 136: 133: 129: 124: 120: 116: 113: 110: 106: 103: 100: 96: 92: 88: 85: 81: 77: 73: 67: 62: 59: 58: 53: 40: 37: 33: 19: 6807:Ardashir III 6736: 6667:Yazdegerd II 6427: 6413:February 579 6410: 6398: 6391: 6376: 6362: 6352: 6329: 6306: 6293: 6283: 6260: 6244:. 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N. 5205:Boyce, Mary 5042:Canepa 2009 4967:Addai Scher 4873:Canepa 2018 4838:Morony 1993 4758:Payne 2015a 4739:Payne 2015a 4727:Payne 2015a 4708:Payne 2015a 4648:Payne 2015a 4435:: 245–267. 4249:Procopius, 4143:Shahîd 1995 4090:: 271–291. 3635:Procopius, 2682:Family tree 2600:Gundeshapur 2563:Śarvavarman 2414:Gundeshapur 2305:Taq-e Kasra 2262:Caspian Sea 2237:Taq-e Kasra 2221:Manichaeans 2057:Izadgushasp 2038:Adurbadagan 1920:Mihransitad 1880:Tokharistan 1865:Chaghaniyan 1835:Hephthalite 1738:Izadgushasp 1474:casus belli 1210:Iberian War 1049:olive trees 1025:Ispahbudhan 1006:Tax reforms 929:Constantina 889:Justinian I 666:Ispahbudhan 650:fire temple 525:Anushiravan 515:Kay Khosrow 452:New Persian 345:Mesopotamia 313:Justinian I 260:New Persian 217:Ispahbudhan 98:Predecessor 7019:Law reform 7014:Tax reform 6979:579 deaths 6974:501 births 6963:Categories 6927:Bahram VII 6887:Khosrow IV 6877:Hormizd VI 6817:Shahrbaraz 6777:Khosrow II 6757:Khosrow II 6747:Hormizd IV 6607:Shapur III 6567:Hormizd II 6547:Bahram III 6497:Ardashir I 6439:Hormizd IV 6405: 514 6388:Khosrow I 5066:e-Sasanika 4891:Sauer 2017 4865:Sauer 2017 4850:Sauer 2017 4815:Potts 2018 4696:Sauer 2017 4474:Bivar 2003 3519:Crone 1991 3382:References 3330:Hormizd IV 2551:backgammon 2522:bimaristan 2446:Bozorgmehr 2332:hippodrome 2165:of Iran" ( 2163:Catholicos 2120:Hormizd IV 2100:Tamkhosrau 2096:Constantia 2047:to invade 2034:Paytakaran 1956:Himyarites 1952:Ethiopians 1928:Hormizd IV 1750:nakhvaegan 1706:Belisarius 1694:Gubazes II 1611:Belisarius 1593:centenaria 1589:centenaria 1582:centenaria 1573:centenaria 1568:Hierapolis 1483:Ghassanids 1467:Background 1441:Tamkhosrow 1365:Hadhramaut 1253:Sisauranon 1045:date palms 1029:Spandiyadh 910:centenaria 905:Hermogenes 774: 520 741:Early life 705:Bayān Yasn 658:Kay Bahman 646:Achaemenid 617:Background 555:'s Arabic 530:Nowshīrvān 520:Anoshirvan 511:Khosrow II 500:Anushirvan 470:Haosrauuah 435:Hormizd IV 355:was made. 321:Ghassanids 270:Anushirvan 219:noblewoman 174:Hormizd IV 112:Hormizd IV 80:Shahanshah 72:BnF Museum 7029:Reformers 7009:Lazic War 6969:Khosrow I 6917:Peroz III 6910:(632–651) 6900:(631–632) 6890:(630–636) 6880:(630–632) 6870:(630–631) 6860:(630–631) 6810:(628–630) 6790:(591–596) 6780:(591–628) 6770:(590–591) 6750:(579–590) 6740:(531–579) 6737:Khosrow I 6710:(488–496) 6700:(484–488) 6690:(459–484) 6680:(457–459) 6670:(438–457) 6660:(420–438) 6637:Shapur IV 6630:(399–420) 6620:(388–399) 6617:Bahram IV 6610:(383–388) 6600:(379–383) 6590:(309–379) 6587:Shapur II 6570:(303–309) 6560:(293–303) 6540:(274–293) 6537:Bahram II 6530:(271–274) 6520:(270–271) 6517:Hormizd I 6510:(240–270) 6500:(224–242) 6485:(224–651) 6246:13 August 5723:. Brill. 5684:Routledge 5342:: 21–42. 5114:Procopius 4441:0890-4464 4267:Bury 1958 4002:Frye 1984 3804:Maas 2005 3691:Frye 1983 3345:Yazdandad 2903:Khosrow I 2336:Caliphate 2297:Asoristan 2276:, Turks, 2175:Patriarch 2045:Adarmahan 1999:Justin II 1904:Silk Road 1896:Ctesiphon 1861:Faghanish 1658:talk page 1623:Lazic War 1617:Lazic War 1547:Circesium 1523:Ostrogoth 1404:Adarmahan 1300:3rd Petra 1295:2nd Petra 1290:1st Petra 1283:Lazic War 1198:Khosrow I 1130:Equipment 1019:, Waraz, 958:Ctesiphon 877:Shahnameh 862:Accession 848:Shahnameh 833:communism 829:Mazdakism 815:Shahnameh 782:Justinian 759:Byzantine 587:Procopius 583:Miskawayh 564:Shahnameh 553:al-Tabari 489:) and in 423:Shapur II 396:Aksumites 360:Justin II 341:Lazic War 325:Ostrogoth 275:انوشيروان 236:Khosrow I 183:Yazdandar 179:Anoshazad 144:Ctesiphon 108:Successor 42:Khosrow I 6797:Kavad II 6657:Bahram V 6527:Bahram I 6507:Shapur I 6433:531–579 6305:(1995). 5945:(eds.). 5719:(eds.). 5476:"Mazdak" 5430:(2014). 5231:(1958). 5207:(2001). 5134:(2008). 4807:Kia 2016 4773:Kia 2016 4449:24048777 3465:Kia 2016 3323:Anushzad 2612:Shapur I 2559:Maukhari 2538:Shahnama 2515:Iranians 2495:Sanskrit 2313:parasang 2213:apostasy 2194:Caucasus 2190:Mihranid 2080:Tiberius 2061:Fariburz 2053:Mihranid 1916:Mihranid 1878:valley, 1654:included 1643:disputed 1560:Germanus 1432:Melitene 1429:Sebastia 1426:Caesarea 1196:Wars of 1119:Caucasus 991:far east 915:Caucasus 852:Ferdowsi 795:Siyawush 787:quaestor 778:Justin I 763:Justin I 761:emperor 710:Vendidad 654:Kayanian 638:Ardestan 630:Sassanid 591:Agathias 569:Ferdowsi 561:and the 480:Chosroes 431:Gandhara 380:Göktürks 368:Arzanene 358:In 572, 280:Sasanian 248:Chosroes 224:Religion 160:princess 128:Ardestan 6937:Narsieh 6787:Vistahm 6727:Kavad I 6707:Kavad I 6687:Peroz I 6647:Khosrow 6480:of the 6422:Kavad I 5954:Mif–Naz 5656:18 June 5580:(ed.). 5567:7 March 5395:(ed.). 5356:4299846 5161:(ed.). 4969:, ed., 4104:1291323 2716:Kavad I 2661:Islamic 2652:Mashhad 2608:Denkard 2583:Borzuya 2567:Kannauj 2533:Kannauj 2511:Nöldeke 2467:reads: 2422:coinage 2416:in 558. 2410:Drachma 2401:Coinage 2282:Khazars 2202:Ohrmazd 2198:Magians 2186:Gregory 2140:Geramon 2115:Maurice 2092:Resaina 2030:Siunian 1961:Red Sea 1914:sent a 1884:Peroz I 1857:Sinjibu 1714:Nisibis 1681:Map of 1650:removed 1591:plus 5 1578:Antioch 1551:Zenobia 1527:Vitiges 1487:Palmyra 1479:Lakhmid 1454:Singara 1392:Nisibis 1351:Bukhara 1248:Nisibis 1239:Antioch 1137:aswaran 1108:spahbed 1092:Aswaran 1063:dehqans 980:Summary 975:Reforms 938:Iberian 901:Rufinus 895:of the 856:gallows 757:of the 755:Solidus 734:chovgan 701:Hadokht 683:spahbed 662:Kavad I 626:Kavad I 486:Χοσρόης 466:Avestan 450:is the 447:Khosrow 388:Peroz I 333:Antioch 291:Kavad I 240:Khosrau 207:Kavad I 125:512–514 102:Kavad I 82:of the 6717:Jamasp 6697:Balash 6557:Narseh 6478:Rulers 6409: 6336: 6313: 6267: 6211: 6170: 6149: 6091: 6070: 6047: 6028: 6007: 5960: 5941:& 5912: 5889: 5862: 5838: 5814: 5793: 5772: 5727: 5690: 5594: 5513: 5488: 5463: 5440: 5405: 5380: 5354: 5298: 5273: 5241: 5217: 5193: 5169: 5142: 5022: 4950: 4447: 4439: 4102: 3020:Shapur 2896:Xerxes 2889:Zamasp 2626:Legacy 2620:Syriac 2616:Avesta 2555:vizier 2499:Syriac 2497:, and 2450:vizier 2448:, his 2330:and a 2318:Tigris 2278:Sarirs 2206:Christ 2188:, the 2073:Apamea 1977:Vahrez 1972:Abraha 1918:named 1892:Gurgan 1854:Khagan 1839:Turkic 1726:Edessa 1690:Lazica 1683:Lazica 1606:Apamea 1564:Beroea 1330:Phasis 1310:Cotais 1269:Edessa 1263:Anglon 1236:Beroea 1096:dehqan 1075:feudal 1033:Mihran 825:Mazdak 819:Mazdak 723:, the 721:Avesta 716:herbed 696:yashts 642:Spahan 603:Syriac 536:Dādgar 491:Arabic 461:Husraw 408:Caesar 392:Wahrez 337:Lazica 244:Khusro 213:Mother 203:Father 158:Khazar 154:Spouse 44:Xosrōe 6897:Boran 6850:(630) 6840:(630) 6837:Boran 6830:(630) 6820:(630) 6800:(628) 6760:(590) 6650:(420) 6640:(420) 6580:(309) 6550:(293) 6411:Died: 6399:Born: 5929:. 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