404:
anthelmintic resistance, such as frequent, mass anthelmintic treatment, underdosing, treating repeatedly with only one anthelmintic, and resistance being transmitted during transfer of animals. Anthelmintic resistance in parasites is widespread; drug resistance exists in all livestock hosts and to all anthelmintic drug classes. This is a major threat to the sustainability of modern ruminant livestock production, resulting in reduced productivity, compromised animal health and welfare, and increased greenhouse gas emissions through increased parasitism and farm inputs. A database of published and unpublished
European AR research on gastrointestinal
469:
alternative anti-nematodal strategies. Developing new anthelmintics is time-consuming and expensive therefore, it is important to use the ones that currently exist in a way that will minimize or prevent the development of anthelmintic resistance. Some of these methods are ensuring animals are not being underdosed, rotating the anthelmintics that are being used, and rotation of grazing land to reduce the parasite population. Other methods include using a combination of multiple different anthelmintics, and the use of
1139:
147:
2331:
2352:
31:
136:. From the 1920s to the 1970s, halogenated hydrocarbons were used in a string of continually more efficacious anthelmintics, until their underlying host toxicity was revealed. The modern broad-spectrum anthelmintics were developed by pharmaceutical companies that can afford the screening programs and testing systems that modern drug development involves.
1086:
Teresa Letra; McIntyre, Jennifer; Mickiewicz, Marcin; Munoz, Ana Maria; Phythian, Clare Joan; Ploeger, Harm W.; Rataj, Aleksandra
Vergles; Skuce, Philip J.; Simin, Stanislav; Sotiraki, Smaragda; Spinu, Marina; Stuen, Snorre; Thamsborg, Stig Milan; Vadlejch, Jaroslav; Varady, Marian; von Samson-Himmelstjerna, Georg; Rinaldi, Laura (2020).
438:
survived treatment. However, resistance is not seen as often in the parasitic helminths that affect cattle, compared to sheep. Reasons for this include the fact that cattle receive anthelminthic drugs less frequently than sheep, and the different nature of their faecal pats that could leave different
1085:
Rose Vineer, Hannah; Morgan, Eric R.; Hertzberg, Hubertus; Bartley, David J.; Bosco, Antonio; Charlier, Johannes; Chartier, Christophe; Claerebout, Edwin; de Waal, Theo; Hendrickx, Guy; Hinney, Barbara; Höglund, Johan; JeĹľek, JoĹľica; KašnĂ˝, Martin; Keane, Orla M.; MartĂnez-Valladares, MarĂa; Mateus,
403:
Anthelmintic resistance occurs when a heritable genetic change occurs in the parasite's DNA, rendering it insensitive to a previously effective anthelmintic drug. This is a particularly serious problem in helminth parasites of small ruminant farm animals. There are many factors that contribute to
468:
The ways in which anthelmintics are used have contributed to a major anthelmintic resistance issue worldwide. From the 1950s to the 1980s, new classes of effective and inexpensive anthelmintics were made available every decade, leading to excessive use throughout agriculture and disincentivizing
956:
Nitazoxanide, a 5-nitrothiazole derivative with broad-spectrum activity against helminths and protozoans, has been shown to be effective against C cayetanensis, with an efficacy 87% by the third dose (first, 71%; second 75%). Three percent of patients had minor side
35:
32:
34:
425:
genera survived treatment in various studies. In cattle, prevalence of anthelminthic resistance varied between anthelmintic classes from 0–100% (benzimidazoles and macrocyclic lactones), 0–17% (levamisole) and 0–73% (moxidectin), and both
408:
was collated in 2020. A total of 197 publications were available for analysis, representing 535 studies in 22 countries and spanning the period 1980–2020. Results in sheep and goats since 2010 reveal an average prevalence of resistance to
1294:
481:
helps to slow down the speed of evolution of resistance to anthelmintic drugs. Due to the problem of anthelmintic resistance, research into alternatives is continuing, including in the field of
926:
new anthelmintic alternatives such as tribendimidine and
Nitazoxanide have proved to be safe and effective against A. lumbricoides and other soil-transmitted helminthiases in human trials.
98:
campaigns of school-aged children in many developing countries. Anthelmintics are also used for mass deworming of livestock. The drugs of choice for soil-transmitted helminths are
2283:
1363:
33:
580:
Preventive chemotherapy in human helminthiasis: coordinated use of anthelminthic drugs in control interventions: a manual for health professionals and programme managers
2340:
477:
refers to the portion of the parasite population not being exposed to anthelmintics. This population is therefore not undergoing selection for resistance. Use of
67:) and other internal parasites from the body by either stunning or killing them and without causing significant damage to the host. They may also be called
1353:
2134:
1154:"Efficacy of the amino-acetonitrile derivative, monepantel, against experimental and natural adult stage gastro-intestinal nematode infections in sheep"
1331:
2389:
2857:
2673:
2524:
3080:
1707:
1994:
1987:
439:
numbers of resistant infective larvae on the pasture. Unlike sheep, cattle can develop sufficient immunoprotection against such parasites.
2094:
607:
Albonico, Marco; Allen, Henrietta; Chitsulo, Lester; Engels, Dirk; Gabrielli, Albis-Francesco; Savioli, Lorenzo; Brooker, Simon (2008).
1737:
383:
Monepantel (aminoacetonitrile class) – effective against a variety of nematodes including those resistant to other anthelmintic classes
1600:
985:
Wolstenholme, Adrian J.; Fairweather, Ian; Prichard, Roger; von Samson-Himmelstjerna, Georg; Sangster, Nicholas C. (October 2004).
386:
Spiroindoles (e.g. derquantel) – effective against a variety of nematodes including those resistant to other anthelmintic classes
2904:
2819:
230:
1296:
An investigation into the interdomain region of
Caenorhabditis elegans fatty acid synthase and its implications as a drug target
1890:
1346:
455:
465:
parasites survive and pass on their "resistance" genes. Resistant varieties accumulate, and treatment failure finally occurs.
2475:
591:
1589:
1371:
1088:"Increasing importance of anthelmintic resistance in European livestock: creation and meta-analysis of an open database"
3097:
3021:
2382:
2200:
1850:
1339:
447:
173:
1325:
1152:
Sager, Heinz; Hosking, Barry; Bapst, BĂ©atrice; Stein, Philip; Vanhoff, Kathleen; Kaminsky, Ronald (2009-01-22).
2423:
2367:
1318:
968:
132:
that were given as anthelmintic treatment for centuries. In 1908 it was found that the active constituent was
658:
Taylor-Robinson, David C.; Maayan, Nicola; Donegan, Sarah; Chaplin, Marty; Garner, Paul (11 September 2019).
3085:
1905:
1583:
1434:
461:
Treatment with an antihelminthic drug kills worms whose phenotype renders them susceptible to the drug, but
139:
Historically, there have been three main classes of broad-spectrum anthelmintics. These are benzimidazoles,
75:(those that kill). Anthelmintics are used to treat people who are infected by helminths, a condition called
1328:(November 2, 2007), WormBook, ed. The C. elegans Research Community, WormBook, doi/10.1895/wormbook.1.143.1
1138:
3236:
2375:
1942:
1697:
495:
248:
45:
2886:
1627:
1563:
1408:
715:
660:"Public health deworming programmes for soil-transmitted helminths in children living in endemic areas"
609:"Controlling Soil-Transmitted Helminthiasis in Pre-School-Age Children through Preventive Chemotherapy"
3029:
2913:
1702:
1682:
1551:
1248:"Anthelmintic resistance in New Zealand: a perspective on recent findings and options for the future"
337:
294:
3062:
2750:
2311:
2047:
1833:
1612:
1439:
428:
2351:
2979:
2613:
2345:
2210:
2069:
1523:
289:
578:
2950:
2941:
3213:
3195:
3154:
3136:
2946:
2306:
2089:
2079:
1982:
1812:
1768:
1752:
1556:
1546:
1489:
1479:
1275:
1267:
1228:
1220:
1181:
1173:
1127:
1109:
1064:
1056:
1014:
1006:
917:
900:
Hagel I, Giusti T (October 2010). "Ascaris lumbricoides: an overview of therapeutic targets".
882:
874:
828:
820:
778:
770:
697:
679:
640:
587:
559:
551:
508:
3203:
3185:
3144:
2924:
2892:
2414:
2316:
2139:
2064:
2052:
1977:
1843:
1722:
1511:
1259:
1212:
1165:
1117:
1099:
1048:
998:
909:
866:
812:
762:
687:
671:
630:
620:
543:
260:
244:
140:
3047:
2756:
2696:
2484:
2463:
2437:
2356:
2301:
2170:
2165:
2004:
1937:
1932:
1818:
1764:
1605:
1496:
1449:
939:
462:
212:
107:
1314:
1201:"P-glycoprotein selection in strains of Haemonchus contortus resistant to benzimidazoles"
146:
3208:
3173:
3149:
3124:
3091:
3057:
3015:
2802:
2682:
2515:
2335:
2235:
2230:
2084:
2074:
2024:
2009:
1999:
1900:
1895:
1885:
1823:
1795:
1747:
1742:
1474:
1429:
1425:
1122:
1087:
692:
659:
635:
608:
410:
318:
155:
95:
816:
766:
3230:
2823:
2776:
2710:
2638:
2597:
2457:
2398:
2267:
2240:
2099:
1917:
1828:
1808:
1804:
1667:
1595:
1484:
1399:
547:
306:
300:
256:
200:
76:
60:
2853:
2807:
2797:
2792:
2730:
2724:
2669:
2566:
2520:
2410:
2406:
2225:
2144:
1880:
1672:
1662:
1578:
1573:
675:
362:
332:
326:
278:
221:
206:
163:
115:
1783:
1216:
1169:
870:
625:
3001:
2787:
2782:
2688:
2644:
2530:
2490:
2109:
2019:
1759:
1712:
1657:
1540:
1506:
1263:
482:
389:
370:
356:
348:
342:
322:
277:) - effective against most common intestinal worms, except tapeworms, for which
266:
216:
194:
169:
159:
128:
103:
99:
1104:
913:
3042:
2993:
2974:
2882:
2876:
2868:
2863:
2843:
2832:
2716:
2702:
2618:
2577:
2572:
2558:
2287:
2258:
2216:
2185:
2180:
2119:
2114:
2104:
2042:
2028:
1968:
1923:
1871:
1791:
1787:
1728:
1688:
1643:
1639:
1529:
1465:
1415:
1380:
1376:
434:
418:
414:
377:
274:
270:
239:
177:
133:
17:
3199:
3140:
1271:
1224:
1177:
1113:
1060:
1052:
1010:
1002:
878:
824:
774:
683:
555:
3007:
2848:
2838:
2663:
2592:
2544:
2509:
2432:
2195:
2175:
2149:
2124:
2059:
2037:
1865:
1778:
1652:
1247:
1200:
1153:
1036:
986:
854:
586:. WHO Press, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland. pp. 1–61.
422:
405:
366:
352:
189:
185:
181:
64:
3217:
3158:
1279:
1232:
1185:
1131:
1068:
1018:
921:
886:
855:"Understanding anthelmintic resistance: the need for genomics and genetics"
800:
750:
701:
644:
531:
832:
782:
563:
79:. These drugs are also used to treat infected animals, particularly small
3052:
2987:
2936:
2919:
2585:
2552:
2296:
2160:
2156:
2129:
1568:
1501:
1420:
1199:
Blackhall, William J.; Prichard, Roger K.; Beech, Robin N. (2008-03-25).
502:
126:
Many early treatments were herbal, such as the oil of herbs of the genus
111:
80:
3190:
1037:"Drug resistance in nematodes of veterinary importance: a status report"
938:
Shoff WH (5 October 2015). Chandrasekar PH, Talavera F, King JW (eds.).
27:
Antiparasitic drugs that expel parasitic worms (helminths) from the body
3035:
2931:
2767:
2629:
2448:
2272:
2190:
1855:
1622:
1444:
1394:
312:
233:
2538:
1954:
1617:
40:
2254:
1964:
1459:
145:
88:
29:
446:(egg hatch assay, larval development test, larval motility test,
1958:
84:
2371:
1335:
530:
Praslicka, J.; Várady, M.; Corba, J.; Veselý, L. (March 1994).
801:"Anthelmintic treatment strategies: current status and future"
380:) – effective against a variety of gastrointestinal helminths
341:, and also possesses antiprotozoal effects. This is also an
286:
Drugs not members of these three main categories include:
1080:
1078:
458:) can be used to detect anthelmintic resistance.
3174:"Anthelmintic Resistance and Its Mechanism: A Review"
1364:
3172:
Fissiha, Workye; Kinde, Mebrie Zemene (2021-12-15).
247:– effective against most parasitic nematodes of the
2962:
2903:
2818:
2765:
2749:
2655:
2627:
2612:
2501:
2474:
2446:
2431:
2422:
2281:
2253:
2209:
2018:
1953:
1916:
1864:
1777:
1721:
1681:
1638:
1522:
1458:
1370:
281:
is commonly used in conjunction for mass dewormings
143:/tetrahydropyrimidines, and macrocyclic lactones.
532:"A survey of anthelmintic resistance in Slovakia"
3125:"Anthelmintics Resistance; How to Overcome it?"
2383:
1347:
499:, an herb native to Central and South America
224:– effective against most intestinal parasites
8:
1362:Major chemical drug groups – based upon the
505:, a historical anthelmintic no longer in use
664:The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews
329:, and are used only for flatworm infections
2762:
2624:
2443:
2428:
2390:
2376:
2368:
1354:
1340:
1332:
3207:
3189:
3148:
1317:at the U.S. National Library of Medicine
1121:
1103:
987:"Drug resistance in veterinary helminths"
716:"Helminth control in school-age children"
691:
634:
624:
229:Imidathiazoles/tetrahydropyrimidines are
94:Anthelmintic medication is also used in
3115:
749:Bennet-Jenkins, E.; Bryant, C. (1996).
519:
2341:Pharmacological classification systems
1708:Selective estrogen receptor modulators
1293:Sgro, Christopher David (2009-01-01).
859:International Journal for Parasitology
853:Gilleard, John Stuart (October 2006).
755:International Journal for Parasitology
1988:Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
1030:
1028:
980:
978:
976:
209:– effective against various parasites
203:– effective against various nematodes
197:– effective against various nematodes
7:
848:
846:
844:
842:
811:(3–4): 461–470, discussion 470–477.
794:
792:
744:
742:
740:
525:
523:
321:– mitochondrial un-couplers such as
1601:Angiotensin II receptor antagonists
799:Williams, J. C. (November 1997b).
166:. Drugs in this category include:
162:, a critical part of their cells'
25:
1324:Holden-Dye, L. and Walker, R. J.
2820:Glutamate-gated chloride channel
2350:
2330:
2329:
1137:
751:"Novel sources of anthelmintics"
613:PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases
421:48%. All major gastrointestinal
231:nicotinic acetylcholine receptor
3129:Iranian Journal of Parasitology
1738:Hypothalamic–pituitary hormones
1246:Pomroy, W. E. (December 2006).
1035:Kaplan, Ray M. (October 2004).
1252:New Zealand Veterinary Journal
676:10.1002/14651858.CD000371.pub7
456:fecal egg count reduction test
1:
3178:Infection and Drug Resistance
1490:Thrombolytics / fibrinolytics
817:10.1016/s0304-4017(97)00111-8
767:10.1016/s0020-7519(96)80068-3
392:– shows anthelmintic activity
2201:Wakefulness-promoting agents
1217:10.1016/j.vetpar.2007.12.001
1170:10.1016/j.vetpar.2008.10.006
871:10.1016/j.ijpara.2006.06.010
626:10.1371/journal.pntd.0000126
548:10.1016/0304-4017(94)90048-5
63:that expel parasitic worms (
1264:10.1080/00480169.2006.36709
3253:
3123:Shalaby, Hatem A. (2013).
2858:+esafoxolaner/praziquantel
2674:+esafoxolaner/eprinomectin
2525:+esafoxolaner/eprinomectin
1851:Intravenous immunoglobulin
1299:(thesis thesis). La Trobe.
914:10.2174/187152610793180876
902:Infect Disord Drug Targets
3075:
2424:Antiplatyhelmintic agents
2325:
723:World Health Organization
448:polymerase chain reaction
255:Macrocyclic lactones are
158:disrupt parasitic worms'
150:The benzimidazole nucleus
1906:Topoisomerase inhibitors
1590:renin–angiotensin system
1584:Calcium channel blockers
1319:Medical Subject Headings
1105:10.1051/parasite/2020062
1053:10.1016/j.pt.2004.08.001
1003:10.1016/j.pt.2004.07.010
376:Octadepsipeptides (e.g.
1205:Veterinary Parasitology
1158:Veterinary Parasitology
969:Veterinary Parasitology
940:"Cyclospora Medication"
805:Veterinary Parasitology
536:Veterinary Parasitology
399:Anthelmintic resistance
263:agonists, and include:
39:Anthelmintic effect of
1698:Hormonal contraception
1628:Bile acid sequestrants
1409:Proton-pump inhibitors
1372:gastrointestinal tract
1041:Trends in Parasitology
991:Trends in Parasitology
496:Dysphania ambrosioides
151:
49:
46:Heligmosomoides bakeri
369:(e.g., tapeworms and
355:(e.g., tapeworms and
149:
71:(those that stun) or
38:
3030:naphthalenesulfonate
2914:tetrahydropyrimidine
2751:Antinematodal agents
2307:Radiopharmaceuticals
2095:Antiparkinson agents
483:rational drug design
365:– effective against
351:– effective against
338:Ascaris lumbricoides
295:Wuchereria bancrofti
292:– effective against
215:– effective against
172:– effective against
3191:10.2147/IDR.S332378
3063:Tetrachloroethylene
2090:Antimigraine agents
2080:Antidementia agents
1983:Anti-inflammatories
1673:Medicated dressings
1613:Antihyperlipidemics
1440:Diabetes medication
473:based strategies. R
61:antiparasitic drugs
3102:Never to phase III
2980:Diethylcarbamazine
1943:Immunosuppressants
1813:Antimycobacterials
1769:Antithyroid agents
1753:Mineralocorticoids
1557:Cardiac stimulants
1547:Cardiac glycosides
1539:cardiac therapy /
1435:Anti-obesity drugs
1326:Anthelmintic drugs
290:Diethylcarbamazine
152:
50:
3112:
3111:
3071:
3070:
2745:
2744:
2741:
2740:
2608:
2607:
2365:
2364:
2268:Ophthalmologicals
1978:Anabolic steroids
1881:Anticancer agents
1844:Ectoparasiticides
1564:Antihypertensives
1512:Antifibrinolytics
865:(12): 1227–1239.
509:4-Hexylresorcinol
36:
16:(Redirected from
3244:
3222:
3221:
3211:
3193:
3169:
3163:
3162:
3152:
3120:
2925:pyrantel pamoate
2893:Milbemycin oxime
2763:
2757:macrofilaricides
2625:
2444:
2438:schistosomicides
2429:
2392:
2385:
2378:
2369:
2354:
2333:
2332:
2317:Senotherapeutics
2171:Neuroprotectives
2166:Mood stabilizers
2065:Anti-ADHD agents
2005:Muscle relaxants
1938:Immunostimulants
1933:Immunomodulators
1765:Thyroid hormones
1703:Fertility agents
1606:Renin inhibitors
1497:Antihemorrhagics
1464:forming organs (
1450:Dietary minerals
1356:
1349:
1342:
1333:
1301:
1300:
1290:
1284:
1283:
1243:
1237:
1236:
1211:(1–2): 101–107.
1196:
1190:
1189:
1149:
1143:
1142:
1141:
1135:
1125:
1107:
1082:
1073:
1072:
1032:
1023:
1022:
982:
971:
966:
960:
959:
953:
951:
935:
929:
928:
897:
891:
890:
850:
837:
836:
796:
787:
786:
761:(8–9): 937–947.
746:
735:
734:
732:
730:
720:
712:
706:
705:
695:
670:(11): CD000371.
655:
649:
648:
638:
628:
604:
598:
597:
585:
574:
568:
567:
542:(1–2): 169–171.
527:
335:– readily kills
261:chloride channel
245:Pyrantel pamoate
141:imidazothiazoles
37:
21:
3252:
3251:
3247:
3246:
3245:
3243:
3242:
3241:
3227:
3226:
3225:
3171:
3170:
3166:
3122:
3121:
3117:
3113:
3108:
3107:
3092:Clinical trials
3067:
3048:Hexylresorcinol
2958:
2899:
2814:
2755:
2753:
2737:
2651:
2616:
2604:
2497:
2485:phosphonic acid
2470:
2464:Triclabendazole
2435:
2433:Antitrematodals
2418:
2396:
2366:
2361:
2357:Medicine portal
2321:
2277:
2249:
2244:
2236:Cough medicines
2231:Bronchodilators
2212:
2205:
2085:Antidepressants
2075:Anticonvulsants
2023:
2014:
2010:Bisphosphonates
2000:Corticosteroids
1962:
1949:
1921:
1912:
1896:Spindle poisons
1886:Antimetabolites
1869:
1860:
1782:
1773:
1748:Glucocorticoids
1743:Corticosteroids
1724:
1717:
1684:
1677:
1634:
1552:Antiarrhythmics
1525:
1518:
1475:Antithrombotics
1463:
1454:
1430:Antipropulsives
1426:Antidiarrhoeals
1403:
1374:
1366:
1360:
1311:
1304:
1292:
1291:
1287:
1245:
1244:
1240:
1198:
1197:
1193:
1151:
1150:
1146:
1136:
1084:
1083:
1076:
1047:(10): 477–481.
1034:
1033:
1026:
997:(10): 469–476.
984:
983:
974:
967:
963:
949:
947:
937:
936:
932:
899:
898:
894:
852:
851:
840:
798:
797:
790:
748:
747:
738:
728:
726:
718:
714:
713:
709:
657:
656:
652:
606:
605:
601:
594:
583:
576:
575:
571:
529:
528:
521:
517:
491:
401:
213:Triclabendazole
124:
108:schistosomiasis
59:are a group of
57:antihelminthics
30:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3250:
3248:
3240:
3239:
3229:
3228:
3224:
3223:
3164:
3114:
3110:
3109:
3106:
3105:
3104:
3103:
3100:
3089:
3083:
3077:
3076:
3073:
3072:
3069:
3068:
3066:
3065:
3060:
3058:Tribendimidine
3055:
3050:
3045:
3040:
3039:
3038:
3026:
3025:
3024:
3016:benzylammonium
3012:
3011:
3010:
2998:
2997:
2996:
2984:
2983:
2982:
2977:
2966:
2964:
2960:
2959:
2957:
2956:
2955:
2954:
2944:
2939:
2934:
2929:
2928:
2927:
2909:
2907:
2901:
2900:
2898:
2897:
2896:
2895:
2890:
2873:
2872:
2871:
2866:
2861:
2851:
2846:
2841:
2828:
2826:
2816:
2815:
2813:
2812:
2811:
2810:
2805:
2803:Ciclobendazole
2800:
2795:
2790:
2785:
2772:
2770:
2760:
2747:
2746:
2743:
2742:
2739:
2738:
2736:
2735:
2734:
2733:
2721:
2720:
2719:
2707:
2706:
2705:
2693:
2692:
2691:
2683:salicylanilide
2679:
2678:
2677:
2659:
2657:
2653:
2652:
2650:
2649:
2648:
2647:
2634:
2632:
2622:
2610:
2609:
2606:
2605:
2603:
2602:
2601:
2600:
2595:
2582:
2581:
2580:
2575:
2563:
2562:
2561:
2549:
2548:
2547:
2535:
2534:
2533:
2528:
2518:
2516:Arpraziquantel
2505:
2503:
2499:
2498:
2496:
2495:
2494:
2493:
2480:
2478:
2476:AChE inhibitor
2472:
2471:
2469:
2468:
2467:
2466:
2453:
2451:
2441:
2426:
2420:
2419:
2399:Antiparasitics
2397:
2395:
2394:
2387:
2380:
2372:
2363:
2362:
2360:
2359:
2348:
2343:
2338:
2326:
2323:
2322:
2320:
2319:
2314:
2309:
2304:
2302:Contrast media
2299:
2293:
2291:
2279:
2278:
2276:
2275:
2270:
2264:
2262:
2255:sensory organs
2251:
2250:
2248:
2247:
2242:
2238:
2233:
2228:
2222:
2220:
2207:
2206:
2204:
2203:
2198:
2193:
2188:
2183:
2178:
2173:
2168:
2163:
2154:
2153:
2152:
2147:
2142:
2132:
2127:
2122:
2117:
2112:
2107:
2102:
2100:Antipsychotics
2097:
2092:
2087:
2082:
2077:
2072:
2070:Antiaddictives
2067:
2062:
2057:
2056:
2055:
2050:
2040:
2034:
2032:
2025:nervous system
2016:
2015:
2013:
2012:
2007:
2002:
1997:
1995:Antirheumatics
1992:
1991:
1990:
1980:
1974:
1972:
1951:
1950:
1948:
1947:
1946:
1945:
1940:
1929:
1927:
1914:
1913:
1911:
1910:
1909:
1908:
1903:
1901:Antineoplastic
1898:
1893:
1888:
1877:
1875:
1862:
1861:
1859:
1858:
1853:
1848:
1847:
1846:
1841:
1836:
1834:Antiprotozoals
1829:Antiparasitics
1826:
1821:
1816:
1809:Antibacterials
1805:Antimicrobials
1801:
1799:
1775:
1774:
1772:
1771:
1762:
1757:
1756:
1755:
1750:
1740:
1734:
1732:
1719:
1718:
1716:
1715:
1710:
1705:
1700:
1694:
1692:
1679:
1678:
1676:
1675:
1670:
1668:Antipsoriatics
1665:
1660:
1655:
1649:
1647:
1636:
1635:
1633:
1632:
1631:
1630:
1625:
1620:
1610:
1609:
1608:
1603:
1598:
1596:ACE inhibitors
1586:
1581:
1576:
1571:
1566:
1561:
1560:
1559:
1554:
1549:
1535:
1533:
1524:cardiovascular
1520:
1519:
1517:
1516:
1515:
1514:
1509:
1504:
1494:
1493:
1492:
1487:
1485:Anticoagulants
1482:
1471:
1469:
1456:
1455:
1453:
1452:
1447:
1442:
1437:
1432:
1423:
1418:
1413:
1412:
1411:
1406:
1401:
1397:
1386:
1384:
1368:
1367:
1361:
1359:
1358:
1351:
1344:
1336:
1330:
1329:
1322:
1310:
1309:External links
1307:
1303:
1302:
1285:
1258:(6): 265–270.
1238:
1191:
1144:
1074:
1024:
972:
961:
930:
892:
838:
788:
736:
707:
650:
599:
592:
569:
518:
516:
513:
512:
511:
506:
500:
490:
487:
411:benzimidazoles
400:
397:
396:
395:
394:
393:
387:
384:
381:
374:
360:
346:
330:
319:Salicylanilide
316:
284:
283:
282:
253:
252:
251:
242:
227:
226:
225:
219:
210:
204:
198:
192:
156:Benzimidazoles
123:
120:
96:mass deworming
26:
24:
18:Anthelminthics
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3249:
3238:
3237:Anthelmintics
3235:
3234:
3232:
3219:
3215:
3210:
3205:
3201:
3197:
3192:
3187:
3184:: 5403–5410.
3183:
3179:
3175:
3168:
3165:
3160:
3156:
3151:
3146:
3142:
3138:
3134:
3130:
3126:
3119:
3116:
3101:
3099:
3096:
3095:
3093:
3090:
3087:
3084:
3082:
3079:
3078:
3074:
3064:
3061:
3059:
3056:
3054:
3051:
3049:
3046:
3044:
3041:
3037:
3034:
3033:
3032:
3031:
3027:
3023:
3020:
3019:
3018:
3017:
3013:
3009:
3006:
3005:
3004:
3003:
2999:
2995:
2992:
2991:
2990:
2989:
2985:
2981:
2978:
2976:
2973:
2972:
2971:
2968:
2967:
2965:
2963:Other/unknown
2961:
2952:
2948:
2945:
2943:
2940:
2938:
2935:
2933:
2930:
2926:
2923:
2922:
2921:
2918:
2917:
2916:
2915:
2911:
2910:
2908:
2906:
2902:
2894:
2891:
2888:
2884:
2881:
2880:
2879:
2878:
2874:
2870:
2867:
2865:
2862:
2859:
2855:
2852:
2850:
2847:
2845:
2842:
2840:
2837:
2836:
2835:
2834:
2830:
2829:
2827:
2825:
2824:GABA receptor
2821:
2817:
2809:
2806:
2804:
2801:
2799:
2796:
2794:
2791:
2789:
2786:
2784:
2781:
2780:
2779:
2778:
2777:benzimidazole
2774:
2773:
2771:
2769:
2764:
2761:
2758:
2752:
2748:
2732:
2729:
2728:
2727:
2726:
2722:
2718:
2715:
2714:
2713:
2712:
2711:butyrophenone
2708:
2704:
2701:
2700:
2699:
2698:
2697:aminoacridine
2694:
2690:
2687:
2686:
2685:
2684:
2680:
2675:
2671:
2668:
2667:
2666:
2665:
2661:
2660:
2658:
2656:Other/unknown
2654:
2646:
2643:
2642:
2641:
2640:
2639:benzimidazole
2636:
2635:
2633:
2631:
2626:
2623:
2620:
2615:
2614:Anticestodals
2611:
2599:
2598:Tartar emetic
2596:
2594:
2591:
2590:
2589:
2587:
2583:
2579:
2576:
2574:
2571:
2570:
2569:
2568:
2564:
2560:
2557:
2556:
2555:
2554:
2550:
2546:
2543:
2542:
2541:
2540:
2536:
2532:
2529:
2526:
2522:
2519:
2517:
2514:
2513:
2512:
2511:
2507:
2506:
2504:
2502:Other/unknown
2500:
2492:
2489:
2488:
2487:
2486:
2482:
2481:
2479:
2477:
2473:
2465:
2462:
2461:
2460:
2459:
2458:benzimidazole
2455:
2454:
2452:
2450:
2445:
2442:
2439:
2434:
2430:
2427:
2425:
2421:
2416:
2412:
2408:
2404:
2403:Anthelmintics
2400:
2393:
2388:
2386:
2381:
2379:
2374:
2373:
2370:
2358:
2353:
2349:
2347:
2344:
2342:
2339:
2337:
2328:
2327:
2324:
2318:
2315:
2313:
2310:
2308:
2305:
2303:
2300:
2298:
2295:
2294:
2292:
2289:
2285:
2280:
2274:
2271:
2269:
2266:
2265:
2263:
2260:
2256:
2252:
2246:
2239:
2237:
2234:
2232:
2229:
2227:
2226:Decongestants
2224:
2223:
2221:
2218:
2214:
2208:
2202:
2199:
2197:
2194:
2192:
2189:
2187:
2184:
2182:
2179:
2177:
2174:
2172:
2169:
2167:
2164:
2162:
2158:
2155:
2151:
2148:
2146:
2145:Dissociatives
2143:
2141:
2138:
2137:
2136:
2135:Hallucinogens
2133:
2131:
2128:
2126:
2123:
2121:
2118:
2116:
2113:
2111:
2108:
2106:
2103:
2101:
2098:
2096:
2093:
2091:
2088:
2086:
2083:
2081:
2078:
2076:
2073:
2071:
2068:
2066:
2063:
2061:
2058:
2054:
2051:
2049:
2046:
2045:
2044:
2041:
2039:
2036:
2035:
2033:
2030:
2026:
2021:
2017:
2011:
2008:
2006:
2003:
2001:
1998:
1996:
1993:
1989:
1986:
1985:
1984:
1981:
1979:
1976:
1975:
1973:
1970:
1966:
1960:
1956:
1952:
1944:
1941:
1939:
1936:
1935:
1934:
1931:
1930:
1928:
1925:
1919:
1915:
1907:
1904:
1902:
1899:
1897:
1894:
1892:
1889:
1887:
1884:
1883:
1882:
1879:
1878:
1876:
1873:
1867:
1863:
1857:
1854:
1852:
1849:
1845:
1842:
1840:
1839:Anthelmintics
1837:
1835:
1832:
1831:
1830:
1827:
1825:
1822:
1820:
1817:
1814:
1810:
1806:
1803:
1802:
1800:
1797:
1793:
1789:
1785:
1780:
1776:
1770:
1766:
1763:
1761:
1758:
1754:
1751:
1749:
1746:
1745:
1744:
1741:
1739:
1736:
1735:
1733:
1730:
1726:
1720:
1714:
1711:
1709:
1706:
1704:
1701:
1699:
1696:
1695:
1693:
1690:
1686:
1683:genitourinary
1680:
1674:
1671:
1669:
1666:
1664:
1663:Antipruritics
1661:
1659:
1656:
1654:
1651:
1650:
1648:
1645:
1641:
1637:
1629:
1626:
1624:
1621:
1619:
1616:
1615:
1614:
1611:
1607:
1604:
1602:
1599:
1597:
1594:
1593:
1592:
1591:
1587:
1585:
1582:
1580:
1579:Beta blockers
1577:
1575:
1572:
1570:
1567:
1565:
1562:
1558:
1555:
1553:
1550:
1548:
1545:
1544:
1543:
1542:
1537:
1536:
1534:
1531:
1527:
1521:
1513:
1510:
1508:
1505:
1503:
1500:
1499:
1498:
1495:
1491:
1488:
1486:
1483:
1481:
1480:Antiplatelets
1478:
1477:
1476:
1473:
1472:
1470:
1467:
1461:
1457:
1451:
1448:
1446:
1443:
1441:
1438:
1436:
1433:
1431:
1427:
1424:
1422:
1419:
1417:
1414:
1410:
1407:
1405:
1398:
1396:
1393:
1392:
1391:
1388:
1387:
1385:
1382:
1378:
1373:
1369:
1365:
1357:
1352:
1350:
1345:
1343:
1338:
1337:
1334:
1327:
1323:
1320:
1316:
1315:Anthelmintics
1313:
1312:
1308:
1306:
1298:
1297:
1289:
1286:
1281:
1277:
1273:
1269:
1265:
1261:
1257:
1253:
1249:
1242:
1239:
1234:
1230:
1226:
1222:
1218:
1214:
1210:
1206:
1202:
1195:
1192:
1187:
1183:
1179:
1175:
1171:
1167:
1163:
1159:
1155:
1148:
1145:
1140:
1133:
1129:
1124:
1119:
1115:
1111:
1106:
1101:
1097:
1093:
1089:
1081:
1079:
1075:
1070:
1066:
1062:
1058:
1054:
1050:
1046:
1042:
1038:
1031:
1029:
1025:
1020:
1016:
1012:
1008:
1004:
1000:
996:
992:
988:
981:
979:
977:
973:
970:
965:
962:
958:
945:
941:
934:
931:
927:
923:
919:
915:
911:
908:(5): 349–67.
907:
903:
896:
893:
888:
884:
880:
876:
872:
868:
864:
860:
856:
849:
847:
845:
843:
839:
834:
830:
826:
822:
818:
814:
810:
806:
802:
795:
793:
789:
784:
780:
776:
772:
768:
764:
760:
756:
752:
745:
743:
741:
737:
724:
717:
711:
708:
703:
699:
694:
689:
685:
681:
677:
673:
669:
665:
661:
654:
651:
646:
642:
637:
632:
627:
622:
618:
614:
610:
603:
600:
595:
589:
582:
581:
573:
570:
565:
561:
557:
553:
549:
545:
541:
537:
533:
526:
524:
520:
514:
510:
507:
504:
501:
498:
497:
493:
492:
488:
486:
484:
480:
476:
472:
466:
464:
459:
457:
453:
449:
445:
440:
437:
436:
431:
430:
424:
420:
416:
412:
407:
398:
391:
388:
385:
382:
379:
375:
372:
368:
364:
361:
358:
354:
350:
347:
344:
340:
339:
334:
331:
328:
324:
320:
317:
315:
314:
309:
308:
307:Brugia timori
303:
302:
301:Brugia malayi
297:
296:
291:
288:
287:
285:
280:
276:
272:
268:
265:
264:
262:
258:
254:
250:
246:
243:
241:
238:
237:
236:, including:
235:
232:
228:
223:
220:
218:
214:
211:
208:
205:
202:
201:Thiabendazole
199:
196:
193:
191:
187:
183:
179:
175:
171:
168:
167:
165:
164:cytoskeletons
161:
157:
154:
153:
148:
144:
142:
137:
135:
131:
130:
121:
119:
117:
113:
109:
105:
101:
97:
92:
90:
86:
82:
78:
77:helminthiasis
74:
70:
66:
62:
58:
54:
53:Anthelmintics
48:
47:
42:
19:
3181:
3177:
3167:
3135:(1): 18–32.
3132:
3128:
3118:
3028:
3014:
3000:
2986:
2969:
2912:
2875:
2854:Eprinomectin
2831:
2808:Flubendazole
2798:Fenbendazole
2793:Tiabendazole
2775:
2731:Dichlorophen
2725:chlorophenol
2723:
2709:
2695:
2681:
2670:Praziquantel
2662:
2637:
2584:
2567:thioxanthone
2565:
2551:
2537:
2521:Praziquantel
2508:
2483:
2456:
2411:endectocides
2402:
2140:Psychedelics
2110:Aphrodisiacs
1838:
1784:infestations
1760:Sex hormones
1713:Sex hormones
1658:Cicatrizants
1588:
1574:Vasodilators
1541:antianginals
1538:
1390:stomach acid
1389:
1305:
1295:
1288:
1255:
1251:
1241:
1208:
1204:
1194:
1164:(1): 49–54.
1161:
1157:
1147:
1095:
1091:
1044:
1040:
994:
990:
964:
955:
948:. Retrieved
943:
933:
925:
905:
901:
895:
862:
858:
808:
804:
758:
754:
727:. Retrieved
722:
710:
667:
663:
653:
616:
612:
602:
579:
577:WHO (2006).
572:
539:
535:
494:
478:
474:
470:
467:
460:
451:
443:
441:
433:
427:
402:
363:Praziquantel
336:
333:Nitazoxanide
327:Oxyclozanide
311:
305:
299:
293:
279:praziquantel
222:Flubendazole
217:liver flukes
207:Fenbendazole
160:microtubules
138:
127:
125:
116:praziquantel
93:
72:
68:
56:
52:
51:
44:
3088:from market
3002:quinolinium
2887:+fluralaner
2877:milbemycins
2833:avermectins
2788:Albendazole
2783:Mebendazole
2689:Niclosamide
2645:Albendazole
2619:taeniacides
2531:Oxamniquine
2491:Metrifonate
2273:Otologicals
2245:antagonists
2211:respiratory
2186:Orexigenics
2181:Neurotoxins
2130:Euphoriants
2120:Entactogens
2115:Depressants
2105:Anxiolytics
2043:Anesthetics
1819:Antifungals
1416:Antiemetics
1404:antagonists
619:(3): e126.
390:Artemisinin
371:schistosoma
357:schistosoma
349:Oxamniquine
323:Niclosamide
269:(including
267:Avermectins
195:Mebendazole
174:threadworms
170:Albendazole
129:Chenopodium
104:albendazole
100:mebendazole
3043:Ascaridole
2994:Levamisole
2975:Piperazine
2970:piperazine
2883:Moxidectin
2869:Selamectin
2864:Ivermectin
2844:Doramectin
2754:(including
2717:Desaspidin
2703:Quinacrine
2578:Lucanthone
2573:Hycanthone
2559:Niridazole
2196:Stimulants
2176:Nootropics
2150:Deliriants
2125:Entheogens
2060:Anorectics
2038:Analgesics
1891:Alkylating
1824:Antivirals
1779:infections
1653:Emollients
1507:Coagulants
1377:metabolism
950:11 January
593:9241547103
515:References
435:Ostertagia
419:levamisole
415:moxidectin
378:Emodepside
343:ascaricide
275:moxidectin
271:ivermectin
240:Levamisole
178:roundworms
134:ascaridole
73:vermicides
69:vermifuges
3200:1178-6973
3141:1735-7020
3098:Phase III
3086:Withdrawn
3022:Bephenium
3008:Pyrvinium
2951:felsantel
2942:Carbantel
2849:Emamectin
2839:Abamectin
2664:quinoline
2593:Stibophen
2588:compounds
2545:Bithionol
2510:quinoline
2346:ATC codes
2312:Dressings
2297:Antidotes
2161:Sedatives
2157:Hypnotics
1866:malignant
1723:endocrine
1569:Diuretics
1502:Platelets
1462:and blood
1421:Laxatives
1272:0048-0169
1225:0304-4017
1178:0304-4017
1114:1776-1042
1061:1471-4922
1011:1471-4922
879:0020-7519
825:0304-4017
775:0020-7519
684:1469-493X
556:0304-4017
463:resistant
454:methods (
417:52%, and
406:nematodes
367:flatworms
353:flatworms
257:glutamate
190:hookworms
186:tapeworms
182:whipworms
112:tapeworms
81:ruminants
65:helminths
3231:Category
3218:34938088
3159:23682256
3053:Santonin
2988:thiazole
2947:Febantel
2937:Morantel
2920:Pyrantel
2586:antimony
2553:thiazole
2401: –
2191:Serenics
1856:Vaccines
1623:Fibrates
1445:Vitamins
1395:Antacids
1280:17151723
1233:18241994
1186:19019553
1132:33277891
1092:Parasite
1069:15363441
1019:15363440
957:effects.
944:Medscape
922:20701574
887:16889782
702:31508807
645:18365031
503:Santonin
489:See also
444:in vitro
429:Cooperia
423:nematode
413:of 86%,
234:agonists
83:such as
3209:8687516
3150:3655236
3036:Suramin
2932:Oxantel
2768:tubulin
2630:tubulin
2449:tubulin
2048:General
1955:muscles
1924:L03–L04
1920:disease
1872:L01–L02
1868:disease
1618:Statins
1123:7718593
946:. WebMD
833:9460212
783:8923141
729:28 July
693:6737502
636:2274864
564:8030184
479:refugia
471:refugia
452:in vivo
313:Loa loa
259:-gated
3216:
3206:
3198:
3157:
3147:
3139:
3081:WHO-EM
2766:Binds
2628:Binds
2539:phenol
2447:Binds
2409:) and
2355:
2334:
2282:other
2213:system
1965:joints
1918:immune
1725:system
1685:system
1526:system
1321:(MeSH)
1278:
1270:
1231:
1223:
1184:
1176:
1130:
1120:
1112:
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475:efugia
310:, and
114:it is
106:; for
41:papain
2949:(aka
2336:Drugs
2053:Local
2020:brain
1959:bones
1460:blood
719:(PDF)
584:(PDF)
442:Both
122:Types
89:sheep
85:goats
3214:PMID
3196:ISSN
3155:PMID
3137:ISSN
2905:NMDA
2415:QP54
1963:and
1640:skin
1276:PMID
1268:ISSN
1229:PMID
1221:ISSN
1182:PMID
1174:ISSN
1128:PMID
1110:ISSN
1065:PMID
1057:ISSN
1015:PMID
1007:ISSN
952:2016
918:PMID
883:PMID
875:ISSN
829:PMID
821:ISSN
779:PMID
771:ISSN
731:2015
698:PMID
680:ISSN
641:PMID
588:ISBN
560:PMID
552:ISSN
450:and
432:and
325:and
273:and
110:and
102:and
87:and
3204:PMC
3186:doi
3145:PMC
2407:P02
2284:ATC
2022:and
1781:and
1260:doi
1213:doi
1209:152
1166:doi
1162:159
1118:PMC
1100:doi
1049:doi
999:doi
910:doi
867:doi
813:doi
763:doi
688:PMC
672:doi
631:PMC
621:doi
544:doi
249:GIT
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