687:, are bent into the desired shape of the barrel and held together with iron rings. Instead of fire, a cooper may use steam to heat up the staves but this tends to impart less "toastiness" and complexity to the resulting wine. Following the traditional, hand worked style, a cooper is typically able to construct one barrel in a day's time. Winemakers can order barrels with the wood on the inside of the barrel having been lightly charred or toasted with fire, medium toasted, or heavily toasted. Typically the "lighter" the toasting the more oak flavor and tannins that are imparted. Heavy toast or "charred" which is typical treatment of barrels in
676:. The traditional method of European coopers has been to hand-split the oak into staves (or strips) along the grain. After the oak is split, it is allowed to "season" or dry outdoors while exposed to the elements. This process can take anywhere from 10 to 36 months during which time the harshest tannins from the wood are leached out. These tannins are visible as dark gray and black residue left on the ground once the staves are removed. The longer the wood is allowed to season the softer the potential wine stored in the barrels may be but this can add substantially to the cost of the barrel. In some American cooperage the wood is dried in a
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available gives winemakers numerous options. Oak chips have the benefit of imparting intense oak flavoring in a matter of weeks while traditional oak barrels would need a year or more to convey similar intensity. Critics claim that the oak flavoring from chips tend to be one-dimensional and skewed towards the vanilla extract with the wines still lacking some of the physical benefits that barrel oak imparts. The use of oak powder is also less common than chips, although they are a very practical alternative if oak character is to be introduced during fermentation. Oak
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802:, have been used in crafting winemaking vessels, particularly large fermentation vats. However, none of these wood types possess the compatibility with wine that oak has demonstrated in combining its water tight, yet slightly porous, storage capabilities with the unique flavor and texture characteristic that it can impart to the wine that it is in contact with. Chestnut is very high in tannins and is too porous as a storage barrel and must be coated with
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245:
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595:-dry method to season the wood, almost all others will season American oak in exactly the same way as French. Open air seasoning has the advantage of leaching undesirable chemical components and bitter tannins, mellowing the oak in a manner that kiln-dry methods are incapable of replicating. Even though sun, rain, and wind may suffice in most cases to season oak, in drier climates coopers - such as
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of choice for shorter maturations - six to ten months. Because of
American oak’s modest tannin contribution, the perfect first fill is a wine with abundant tannins and good texture; it allows the fruit to interact harmoniously with the wood, which contributes a wide array of complex aromas and soft, yet very palatable tannins.
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area to volume of wine with smaller containers having a larger impact. The most common barrels are the
Bordeaux style barrel, which holds 225 litres (59 US gal), followed by the Burgundy style barrel, which holds 228 litres (60 US gal). Some New World winemakers are now also using the larger
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Since French oak must be split, only 20 to 25% of the tree can be utilized; American oak may be sawn, which makes it at least twice as economical. Its more pronounced oxidation and a quicker release of aromas help wines to lose their astringency and harshness more quickly, which makes this the wood
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Wine barrels, especially those made of oak, have long been used as containers in which wine is aged. Aging in oak typically imparts desirable vanilla and spice flavors to wine. The size of the barrel plays a large role in determining the effects of oak on the wine by dictating the ratio of surface
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French oak, on the other hand, generates silky and transparent tannins, which transmit a sensation of light sweetness combined with fruity flavors that persist in the mouth. Spices and toasted almond are noteworthy, combined with flavors of ripe red fruit in red wines, and notes of peach, exotic
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Many winemakers favor the softer, smoother, creamier texture that
Hungarian oak offers their wines. French winemakers preferred to use Hungarian barrels until the early 20th century, then – because of world wars, supply cut – the French wine industry was forced to find its own source in France,
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now use oak wood chips for aging wine more quickly and also adding desired woody aromas along with vanilla flavors. Oak chips can be added during fermentation or during aging. In the latter case, they are generally placed into fabric sacks and placed into the aging wine. The diversity of chips
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market economy and can change with different features that a cooperage may offer. As of late 2007 the price for a standard
American oak barrel was US$ 600 to 800, French oak US$ 1200 and up, and Eastern European US$ 600. Due to the expense of barrels, several techniques have been devised in an
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Oak trees are typically between 80–120 years old prior to harvesting with the ideal conditions being a cool climate in a dense forest region that gives the trees opportunity to mature slowly and develop a tighter grain. Typically one tree can provide enough wood for two 225-litre
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The hemicellulose in the
Hungarian oak breaks down more easily, and conveys an exceptional selection of toasted, vanilla, sugary, woody, spicy and caramel-like flavors – imparting these aromas with less intensity, and more slowly than American or French oak.
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which is known for its tight grain, low aromatics and medium level tannins. Slavonian oak tends to be used in larger barrel sizes (with less surface area relative to volume) with the same barrels reused for many more years before replacement. Prior to the
121:. Palm is a difficult material to bend and fashion into barrels, however, and wine merchants in different regions experimented with different wood styles to find a better wood source. The use of oak has been prevalent in winemaking for at least two
450:. The wood from each of these forests has slightly different characteristics. Many winemakers utilize barrels made from different cooperages, regions and degrees of toasting in blending their wines to enhance the complexity of the resulting wine.
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there may be little or no oak flavors imparted on the wine. In addition, oxygen transport through the oak and into the wine, which is required for maturation, becomes severely limited after 3–5 years. The cost of barrels varies due to the
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New barrels impart more flavors than do previously used barrels. Over time many of the oak properties get "leached" out of the barrel with layers of natural deposits left from the wine building up on the wood to where after 3 to 5
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to prevent excessive wine loss through evaporation. Redwood is too rigid to bend into the smaller barrel shapes and imparts an unpleasant flavor. Black Locust imparts a yellow tint to the wine. Other hardwoods like
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type flavors and can give the impression of tea notes or sweetness. The degree of "toast" on the barrel can also impart different properties affecting the tannin levels as well as the aggressive wood flavors. The
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have an added dimension from the char that medium or light toasted barrels do not impart. Heavy toasting dramatically reduces the coconut note lactones, even in
American oak, but create a high
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or staves are sometimes used, either during fermentation or aging. Wines made from these barrel alternatives typically do not age as well as wines that are matured in barrels. Improvements in
129:. In time, winemakers discovered that beyond just storage convenience, wine kept in oak barrels took on properties that improved it by making it softer and, in some cases, better-tasting.
487:. The trees in the Hungarian Zemplén Mountains grow more slowly and smaller in the volcanic soil, creating fine tight grain which sequentially lends itself to a very delicate extraction.
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and finished style the winemaker desires. The majority of oak flavoring is imparted in the first few months the wine is in contact with oak, while longer term exposure adds light barrel
256:
Characteristics of white wines fermented in oak include a pale color and extra silky texture. White wines fermented in steel and matured in oak will have a darker coloring due to heavy
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have been experimenting with the use of
Canadian oak, which proponents describe as a middle ground between American and French oak even though it is the same species as American oak.
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in oak or placed in oak after fermentation for a period of aging or maturation. Wine matured in oak receives more oak flavors and properties than wine fermented in oak because
426:(sessile oak) are considered apt for wine making; however, the latter is considered far superior for its finer grain and richer contribution of aromatic components like
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The "red band" on some wine barrels is the residue of spilt red wine. For aesthetics some wineries will paint this center portion of the barrel red for a cleaner look.
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in the wood reach a higher level of concentration. This produces the "roasted" aroma in the wine. The toasting also enhances the presences of vanillin and the phenol
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still use paraffin coated chestnut barrels but the coating minimizes any effect from the wood making its function similar to a neutral concrete vessel. In
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and its derivates, methyl-octalactone and tannins, as well as phenols and volatile aldehydes. French oak typically comes from one or more primary forests:
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149:(right). As the wine matures, its color shifts from deep purple or crimson to a lighter brick-red, and takes on a more graduated appearance in the glass.
568:. Besides being derived from different species, a major difference between American and French oak comes from the preparation of the wood. The tighter
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300-litre (79 US gal) barrel. Larger barrels are also traditionally used in parts of Italy such as Barolo, as well as the south of France.
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which is a white oak species that is characterized by its relatively fast growth, wider grains and lower wood tannins. It is found in most of the
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A Chardonnay from the
Russian River Valley labeling itself as "unoaked" to differentiate itself from other oak-influenced Chardonnays.
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to split the wood along the grain. The wood is then aged or "seasoned" for 24 to 36 months in the open air, in a so-called wood-yard.
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instead of outdoor seasoning. While this method is much faster, it does not soften the tannins quite as much as outdoor seasoning.
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attempt to save money. One is to shave the inside of used barrels and insert new thin inner staves that have been toasted.
599:- apply up to 2000 mm (80 in) of water a year to their wood stacks in order to facilitate the seasoning process.
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However, after the fall of the Iron
Curtain, the cooperages from France again became major consumers of the exclusive
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notes in red wine. It is a common misconception that oak imparts butter flavors to wine. The butter flavors come from
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564:. Winemakers choose American oak typically for bold, powerful reds, base wines for "assemblage", or for warm climate
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have allowed winemakers to better mimic the gentle aeration of oak barrels in stainless steel tanks with oak chips.
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cells present in fermentation interact with and "latch on" to oak components. When dead yeast cells are removed as
308:. This process reverses itself, although the addition of sulfur dioxide prevents this, and the diacetyl remains.
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added to wine fermented in a vessel like stainless steel. Oak barrels can impart other qualities to wine through
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and transportation of wine. Due to the perishable nature of wood material it is difficult to trace the usage of
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fruits and floral aromas like jasmine and rose in whites, depending on the grape variety employed.
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their wines up to ten years in
American oak to get a desired earthy cedar and herbal character.
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is being explored by French winemakers as a cheaper alternative to French and Hungarian oak.
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The tighter grain of French oak allows for a more gradual integration of flavors in the wine.
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compounds still present. Flavor notes commonly used to describe wines exposed to oak include
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The effect of oak aging on two Penedès region Cabernet Sauvignon varietals, a two-year-old
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wood but it is beginning to fall out of favor due to the musky scent it imparts on wine.
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which creates smokey and spicy notes that in some wines are similar to the aromatics of
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content that may reduce the coloring of some wines. During the process of toasting, the
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is a varietal with very distinct flavor profiles when fermented in oak, which include
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766:. In 1999, the Bordeaux court of appeals fined four wineries, including third growth
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American oak tends to be more intensely flavored than French oak with more sweet and
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white oak has started to gain usage due to its closer similarities to European oak.
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are allowed to pass through the barrel and act as a softening agent upon the wine's
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A California Chardonnay that shows on the label that it has been barrel fermented.
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have a history of using black locust barrels. Historically, chestnut was used by
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304:, naturally present in the wine, converted during malolactic fermentation to
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Foudres, Demi Muids, Puncheons, and Wood Fermenters: The Appeal of Large Oak
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502:/Sessile Hungarian Oak trees originating in the Zemplén Mountain Forest.
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197:) in a year through evaporation. This allows the wine to concentrate its
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The staves are then heated, traditionally over an open fire, and, when
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notes. The "toastiness" of the barrel can bring out varying degrees of
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structures in the wood. They help protect the wine from oxidation and
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2018:
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The species of oak typically used for American oak production is the
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White Wines, New Barrels: The taste of new oak gains favor worldwide
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Prior to 2006, the practice of using oak chips was outlawed in the
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overtones due to the American oak having two to four times as many
326:
The length of time a wine spends in the barrel is dependent on the
216:
The chemical properties of oak can have a profound effect on wine.
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profile and texture of wine. It can be introduced in the form of a
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similar to the unique quality, legendary Hungarian Zemplén oak.
252:. It has a transparent front in order to show the process inside
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526:
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to occur in wine but typically not at levels that would cause
2501:
2215:
770:, over $ 13,000 USD for the use of oak chips in their wine.
483:
oak from Hungary was the most highly sought after wood for
153:
The porous nature of an oak barrel allows evaporation and
125:, first coming into widespread use during the time of the
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521:(59 US gal) barrels. The trees are typically
349:
grape may spend four or more years in oak. High end
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1977:
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1383:Third Edition pg 775 Oxford University Press 2006
1301:"Giant 'teabags' of oak chips now legal in Europe"
1282:Third Edition pg 491 Oxford University Press 2006
986:Third Edition pg 492 Oxford University Press 2006
1117:
1115:
1113:
572:and less watertight nature of French oak obliges
1163:Canadian Oak Barrels Get the Nod From Winemakers
1007:
1005:
1003:
1001:
999:
1315:"Bordeaux Châteaus Fined for Use of Wood Chips"
1055:
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958:
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839:there are traditions for using barrels made of
786:Throughout history other wood types, including
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2231:
1468:
8:
900:Third Edition pg 91-93 Abbeville Press 2003
1032:
1030:
1028:
533:Differences between French and American oak
341:may spend less than a year in oak. Premium
169:(225-liter) barrel can lose anywhere from 5
2524:
2510:
2502:
2238:
2224:
2216:
1721:
1475:
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1343:Third Edition pg 91 Abbeville Press 2003
1125:Third Edition pg 92 Abbeville Press 2003
1015:Third Edition pg 93 Abbeville Press 2003
525:in the winter months when there is less
2702:Clarification and stabilization of wine
2416:Clarification and stabilization of wine
1211:
1209:
1143:French Barrelmaker Turns to Russian Oak
889:
874:Clarification and stabilization of wine
591:Even though American coopers may use a
61:periods, or as free-floating chips or
1363:" Wines & Vines November 1, 1992
401:where many wine barrels are from. In
345:may spend two years. The very tannic
189:gallons (21 to 25 liters) (of mostly
7:
220:within the wood interact to produce
1425:from the Tablas Creek Vineyard blog
1165:" Wine Spectator November 11, 2003
668:Barrel midway through construction.
1361:Rethinking American vs. French oak
323:some oak properties go with them.
25:
1500:Annual growth cycle of grapevines
1401:"The Sotheby's Wine Encyclopedia"
1260:"The Sotheby's Wine Encyclopedia"
1242:pg 42-43 Workman Publishing 2001
1152:" Wine Spectator October 15, 2002
1083:pg 33-34 Dorling Kindersley 2005
1081:"The Sotheby's Wine Encyclopedia"
920:pg 25-26 Simon and Schuster 1989
464:have had a long history of using
97:was the vessel of choice for the
2765:
2479:
2187:
1226:" Wine Spectator Sept.20th, 2002
853:
375:tree responsible for French oak.
105:in history. The Greek historian
1299:Jancis Robinson (May 4, 2006).
1403:pg 32 Dorling Kindersley 2005
1381:"The Oxford Companion to Wine"
1280:"The Oxford Companion to Wine"
1262:pg 33 Dorling Kindersley 2005
1063:pg 45 Workman Publishing 2001
1047:" Wine Spectator July 31, 2001
984:"The Oxford Companion to Wine"
966:pg 41 Workman Publishing 2001
943:pg 40 Workman Publishing 2001
1:
2728:Glossary of viticulture terms
2442:Glossary of viticulture terms
1341:Jancis Robinson's Wine Course
1123:Jancis Robinson's Wine Course
1013:Jancis Robinson's Wine Course
898:Jancis Robinson's Wine Course
2733:Glossary of winemaking terms
2447:Glossary of winemaking terms
117:to transport wine along the
815:have an off putting smell.
672:Barrels are constructed in
545:French oak wine barrels in
45:to vary the color, flavor,
2818:
2802:Wine packaging and storage
2653:Yeast assimilable nitrogen
2367:Yeast assimilable nitrogen
1367:February 13, 2009, at the
1303:. San Francisco Chronicle.
918:Vintage: The Story of Wine
614:
229:present in wood, known as
69:and low level exposure to
27:Barrel used in wine making
2761:
2743:History of the wine press
2633:Sparkling wine production
2475:
2457:History of the wine press
2347:Sparkling wine production
2181:
1450:
1169:October 10, 2004, at the
1104:October 17, 2010, at the
505:The Russian oak from the
353:producers will sometimes
2738:Wine tasting descriptors
2452:Wine tasting descriptors
2173:Wine tasting descriptors
2102:Phenolic content in wine
1994:Alternative wine closure
1578:Great French Wine Blight
1200:August 28, 2007, at the
782:Weighing a sherry barrel
722:Oak chips in fermenting
145:(left) and six-year-old
2628:Malolactic fermentation
2342:Malolactic fermentation
1429:Wooden Barrels from Oak
742:have long been used by
783:
735:
727:
669:
634:
588:
553:
458:
376:
253:
150:
86:
35:
2143:Wine and food pairing
781:
733:
721:
667:
624:
583:Oak seasoning at the
582:
540:
456:
387:Eastern United States
368:
361:Oak types and sources
247:
140:
113:used barrels made of
84:
33:
1794:Muscat of Alexandria
414:In France, both the
227:hydrolyzable tannins
2658:Yeast in winemaking
2610:Carbonic maceration
2372:Yeast in winemaking
2324:Carbonic maceration
1195:Product Information
817:Austrian winemakers
714:Barrel alternatives
660:Barrel construction
233:, are derived from
205:. Small amounts of
109:noted that ancient
2648:Traditional method
2362:Traditional method
2163:Wine personalities
1867:Cabernet Sauvignon
1319:winespectator.com/
1222:2004-08-13 at the
1148:2008-08-29 at the
1043:2008-11-22 at the
784:
736:
728:
670:
635:
597:TonelerĂa Nacional
589:
585:TonelerĂa Nacional
554:
477:Russian Revolution
462:Italian winemakers
459:
420:(English oak) and
377:
343:Cabernet Sauvignon
254:
151:
87:
36:
2779:
2778:
2549:Late harvest wine
2499:
2498:
2493:
2492:
2263:Late harvest wine
2213:
2212:
1950:
1949:
1847:Alicante Bouschet
1595:Judgment of Paris
1379:J. Robinson (ed)
1278:J. Robinson (ed)
982:J. Robinson (ed)
757:micro-oxygenation
653:supply and demand
515:Canadian wineries
509:region along the
485:French winemaking
248:Oak barrel aging
165:. The typical 59-
16:(Redirected from
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2107:Proteins in wine
1774:GrĂĽner Veltliner
1722:
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1321:. Wine Spectator
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1193:World Cooperage
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768:Chateau Giscours
551:Ribera del Duero
408:Quercus garryana
313:barrel fermented
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34:Oak wine barrels
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2764:
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2748:History of wine
2706:
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2577:Deacidification
2563:
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2478:
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2186:
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1946:
1833:
1814:Sauvignon blanc
1749:Cayetana blanca
1717:
1715:grape varieties
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627:Rutherford Hill
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547:Bodegas CasajĂşs
535:
500:Quercus petraea
481:Quercus petraea
423:Quercus petraea
372:Quercus petraea
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203:aroma compounds
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133:Effects on wine
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1240:The Wine Bible
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1409:0-7566-1324-8
1406:
1402:
1399:T. Stevenson
1396:
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1389:0-19-860990-6
1386:
1382:
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1285:
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1268:0-7566-1324-8
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1258:T. Stevenson
1255:
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1248:1-56305-434-5
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1131:0-7892-0883-0
1128:
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1118:
1116:
1114:
1110:
1107:
1103:
1100:
1096:
1093:
1090:
1089:0-7566-1324-8
1086:
1082:
1079:T. Stevenson
1076:
1073:
1070:
1069:1-56305-434-5
1066:
1062:
1056:
1054:
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1042:
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1021:0-7892-0883-0
1018:
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992:0-19-860990-6
989:
985:
979:
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972:1-56305-434-5
969:
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949:1-56305-434-5
946:
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927:
926:0-671-68702-6
923:
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906:0-7892-0883-0
903:
899:
893:
890:
884:
880:
879:Ullage (wine)
877:
875:
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870:
867:
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862:
856:
851:
846:
844:
842:
838:
834:
831:makers. Some
830:
826:
822:
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801:
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793:
789:
780:
773:
771:
769:
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749:
745:
741:
738:Although oak
732:
725:
720:
713:
711:
709:
708:oil of cloves
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689:Burgundy wine
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471:Quercus robur
468:oak from the
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455:
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417:Quercus robur
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318:
314:
311:Wines can be
309:
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287:
283:
279:
276:and vanilla.
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231:ellagitannins
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111:Mesopotamians
108:
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74:
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68:
64:
60:
56:
52:
48:
44:
40:
32:
19:
2763:
2675:
2620:Fermentation
2477:
2389:
2334:Fermentation
2185:
2168:Wine tasting
1789:Muscat blanc
1759:Chenin blanc
1556:Ancient Rome
1400:
1395:
1380:
1375:
1355:
1340:
1339:J. Robinson
1335:
1323:. Retrieved
1318:
1309:
1294:
1279:
1274:
1259:
1254:
1239:
1189:
1177:
1161:K. Ebjich "
1157:
1137:
1122:
1121:J. Robinson
1095:
1080:
1075:
1060:
1012:
1011:J. Robinson
983:
978:
963:
940:
917:
912:
897:
896:J. Robinson
892:
800:black locust
785:
761:
737:
682:
671:
644:
636:
617:Aging barrel
605:
601:
590:
555:
519:
504:
499:
497:
493:
489:
480:
469:
460:
421:
415:
413:
406:
382:Quercus alba
380:
378:
370:
325:
310:
255:
215:
152:
146:
142:
127:Roman Empire
91:wine history
88:
55:fermentation
38:
37:
2723:Wine bottle
2695:Other steps
2686:Wine cellar
2643:SĂĽssreserve
2437:Wine bottle
2409:Other steps
2400:Wine cellar
2357:SĂĽssreserve
2049:Wine cellar
2039:Wine bottle
1980:accessories
1978:Packaging,
1937:Tempranillo
1566:Noah's wine
1546:Phoenicians
1492:Viticulture
1238:K. MacNeil
1181:J Wheaver '
1059:K. MacNeil
962:K. MacNeil
939:K. MacNeil
916:H. Johnson
861:Wine portal
813:cherry wood
611:Wine barrel
566:Chardonnays
389:as well as
302:lactic acid
155:oxygenation
67:evaporation
53:during the
41:is used in
2797:Winemaking
2786:Categories
2602:Maceration
2592:Wine press
2582:Destemming
2533:Winemaking
2316:Maceration
2306:Wine press
2296:Destemming
2247:Winemaking
2153:Wine fraud
2148:Wine fault
2133:Oenophilia
2069:Wine label
2064:Wine glass
2029:Port tongs
1927:Sangiovese
1922:Pinot noir
1882:Douce noir
1809:Rkatsiteli
1754:Chardonnay
1744:Catarratto
1718:by acreage
1692:Biodynamic
1655:Aromatized
1444:winemaking
885:References
821:Beaujolais
744:winemakers
724:Chardonnay
674:cooperages
615:See also:
339:Pinot noir
278:Chardonnay
43:winemaking
2554:Noble rot
2268:Noble rot
2158:Winemaker
2138:Sommelier
2074:Wine rack
2054:Wine cork
2044:Wine cave
2034:Screw cap
2004:Corkscrew
1969:New World
1964:Old World
1942:Zinfandel
1917:Mourvèdre
1824:Trebbiano
1764:Colombard
1665:Noble rot
1645:Fortified
1623:Sparkling
1590:New World
1359:J. Ross "
1325:1 October
1215:D. Sogg "
1141:D. Sogg "
1036:D. Sogg "
700:aldehydes
587:wood yard
523:harvested
511:Black Sea
466:Slavonian
399:Wisconsin
395:Minnesota
336:New World
239:reduction
159:oxidation
123:millennia
119:Euphrates
115:palm wood
107:Herodotus
89:In early
2792:Oenology
2569:Pressing
2283:Pressing
2205:Glossary
2121:Industry
2014:Jug wine
2009:Decanter
1999:Box wine
1897:Isabella
1892:Grenache
1872:Carignan
1819:SĂ©millon
1804:Riesling
1799:Palomino
1542:Ancient
1525:Vineyard
1520:Veraison
1505:Oenology
1365:Archived
1220:Archived
1198:Archived
1167:Archived
1146:Archived
1102:Archived
1041:Archived
847:See also
804:paraffin
788:chestnut
748:wineries
648:vintages
640:hogshead
629:Winery,
562:lactones
444:Tronçais
436:Limousin
428:vanillin
391:Missouri
347:Nebbiolo
332:aeration
328:varietal
306:diacetyl
286:cinnamon
258:phenolic
163:spoilage
18:Barrique
2753:Terroir
2711:Related
2559:Vintage
2541:Harvest
2467:Terroir
2425:Related
2273:Vintage
2255:Harvest
2200:Outline
2024:Muselet
1986:storage
1877:Cinsaut
1852:Barbera
1779:Macabeo
1739:Aligoté
1697:Organic
1687:Natural
1640:Dessert
1585:Georgia
1535:History
1515:Terroir
1510:Species
825:Italian
796:redwood
746:, many
740:barrels
704:eugenol
697:furanic
685:pliable
574:coopers
558:vanilla
282:coconut
262:caramel
222:vanilla
218:Phenols
211:tannins
191:alcohol
184:⁄
174:⁄
147:crianza
143:cosecha
103:barrels
99:storage
95:amphora
77:History
2718:Winery
2681:Solera
2432:Winery
2395:Solera
2019:Kvevri
1907:Merlot
1902:Malbec
1702:Kosher
1678:Other
1633:Orange
1606:Styles
1573:France
1407:
1387:
1347:
1286:
1266:
1246:
1184:" 2006
1129:
1087:
1067:
1019:
990:
970:
947:
924:
904:
869:Barrel
798:, and
753:planks
693:carbon
507:Adygey
448:Vosges
440:Nevers
432:Allier
403:Oregon
298:toffee
290:cloves
250:sherry
235:lignin
207:oxygen
199:flavor
167:gallon
93:, the
71:oxygen
63:staves
51:barrel
47:tannin
2668:Aging
2382:Aging
1932:Syrah
1887:Gamay
1857:Bobal
1769:Glera
1734:Airén
1726:White
1682:Table
1670:Straw
1660:Fruit
1618:White
1561:China
1440:Wines
841:rauli
837:Chile
809:apple
570:grain
549:, in
543:litre
351:Rioja
317:yeast
294:mocha
274:spice
270:smoke
266:cream
195:water
59:aging
1984:and
1713:Top
1628:Rosé
1484:Wine
1442:and
1405:ISBN
1385:ISBN
1345:ISBN
1327:2022
1284:ISBN
1264:ISBN
1244:ISBN
1127:ISBN
1085:ISBN
1065:ISBN
1017:ISBN
988:ISBN
968:ISBN
945:ISBN
922:ISBN
902:ISBN
827:and
811:and
792:pine
678:kiln
593:kiln
541:500
446:and
405:the
397:and
369:The
321:lees
296:and
288:and
201:and
193:and
179:to 6
2676:Oak
2390:Oak
1839:Red
1650:Ice
1613:Red
527:sap
355:age
161:or
57:or
39:Oak
2788::
1317:.
1231:^
1208:^
1112:^
1052:^
1027:^
998:^
955:^
932:^
823:,
794:,
790:,
710:.
479:,
442:,
438:,
434:,
393:,
284:,
272:,
268:,
264:,
241:.
213:.
73:.
2525:e
2518:t
2511:v
2239:e
2232:t
2225:v
1982:,
1476:e
1469:t
1462:v
1329:.
726:.
633:.
186:2
182:1
176:2
172:1
20:)
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