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Morton's collection, published a study that concluded that "Morton did not manipulate his data to support his preconceptions, contra Gould." They identified and remeasured half of the skulls used in Morton's reports, finding that in only 2% of cases did Morton's measurements differ significantly from their own and that these errors either were random or gave a larger than accurate volume to
African skulls, the reverse of the bias that Dr. Gould imputed to Morton. Difference in brain size, however, does not necessarily imply differences in intelligence: women tend to have smaller brains than men yet have more neural complexity and loading in certain areas of the brain. This claim has been criticized by, among others, John S. Michael, who reported in 1988 that Morton's analysis was "conducted with integrity" while Gould's criticism was "mistaken".
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equatorial
Africans, who generally have smaller craniums as people from hot climates often have slightly smaller crania. He also compared equatorial Africans from the poorest and least educated areas of Africa with Asians from the wealthiest, most educated areas and colder climates. According to Z. Z. Cernovsky Rushton's own study shows that the average cranial capacity of North American blacks is similar to that of Caucasians from comparable climatic zones, though a previous work by Rushton showed appreciable differences in cranial capacity between North Americans of different race. This is consistent with the findings of Z. Z. Cernovsky that people from different climates tend to have minor differences in brain size.
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geographic region. About one-third of "white" Americans have detectable
African DNA markers, and about five percent of "black" Americans have no detectable "negroid" traits at all, craniofacial or genetic. Given three Americans who self-identify and are socially accepted as white, black and Hispanic, and given that they have precisely the same Afro-European mix of ancestries (one African great-grandparent), there is no objective test that will identify their group membership without an interview.
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703:, especially in prehistoric times. Linguistics can follow the movement of languages and archaeology can follow the movement of artefact styles but neither can tell whether a culture's spread was due to a source population's physically migrating or to a destination population's simply copying the technology and learning the language. Anthropometry was used extensively by anthropologists studying human and racial origins: some attempted racial differentiation and
185:
2255:"The assignment of skeletal racial origin is based principally upon stereotypical features found most frequently in the most geographically distant populations. While this is useful in some contexts (for example, sorting skeletal material of largely West African ancestry from skeletal material of largely Western European ancestry), it fails to identify populations that originate elsewhere and misrepresents fundamental patterns of human biological diversity",
1075:(1939) Coon classified Caucasoids into racial sub-groups named after regions or archaeological sites such as BrĂĽnn, Borreby, Alpine, Ladogan, East Baltic, Neo-Danubian, Lappish, Mediterranean, Atlanto-Mediterranean, Irano-Afghan, Nordic, Hallstatt, Keltic, Tronder, Dinaric, Noric and Armenoid. This typological view of race, however, was starting to be seen as out-of-date at the time of publication. Coon eventually resigned from the
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937:, a collaborator of Virchow, stated in the same congress that the people of Europe, be them German, Italian, English or French, belonged to a "mixture of various races," furthermore declaring that the "results of craniology" led to "struggle against any theory concerning the superiority of this or that European race". Virchow later rejected measure of skulls as legitimate means of
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494:("repeat offenders"). Previously police could only record general descriptions. Photography of criminals had become commonplace, but there was no easy way to sort the many thousands of photographs except by name. Bertillon's hope was that, through the use of measurements, a set of identifying numbers could be entered into a filing system installed in a single cabinet.
653:, Lombroso tried to recognize criminals by measurements of their bodies. He concluded that skull and facial features were clues to genetic criminality and that these features could be measured with craniometers and calipers with the results developed into quantitative research. A few of the 14 identified traits of a criminal included large
717:(1853–1855), a founding work of racial segregationism that made three main divisions between races, based not on colour but on climatic conditions and geographic location, and privileged the "Aryan" race. Science has tested many theories aligning race and personality, which have been current since
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Other complications were: it was difficult to tell whether or not individuals arrested were first-time offenders; instruments employed were costly and liable to break down; skilled measurers were needed; errors were frequent and all but irremediable; and it was necessary to repeat measurements three
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as "Capoid". Finally, he split "Australoid" from "Mongoloid" along a line roughly similar to the modern distinction between sinodonts in the north and sundadonts in the south. He argued that these races had developed independently of each other over the past half-million years, developing into Homo
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Stephen Jay Gould (1941–2002) claimed Samuel Morton had fudged data and "overpacked" the skulls. A subsequent study by John
Michael concluded that "ontrary to Gould's interpretation... Morton's research was conducted with integrity." In 2011 physical anthropologists at the university of, which owns
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Several studies have demonstrated correlations between race and brain size, with varying results. In some studies, Caucasians were reported to have larger brains than other racial groups, whereas in recent studies and reanalysis of previous studies, East Asians were reported as having larger brains
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Observable craniofacial differences included: head shape (mesocephalic, brachycephalic, dolichocephalic) breadth of nasal aperture, nasal root height, sagittal crest appearance, jaw thickness, brow ridge size and forehead slope. Using this skull-based categorization, German philosopher
Christoph
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and
Blumenbach had examined multiple observable human characteristics in search of a typology. Bernier based his racial classification on physical type which included hair shape, nose shape and skin color. Linnaeus based a similar racial classification scheme. As anthropologists gained access to
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and high intellectual capacity, a small skull indicated a small brain and decreased intellectual capacity. Modern science has since confirmed that there is a correlation between cranium size (measured in various ways) and intelligence as measured by IQ tests, although it is a weak correlation at
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The concept of biologically distinct races has been rendered obsolete by modern genetics. Different methods of categorizing humans yield different groups, making them non-concordant. Neither will the craniofacial method pin-point geographic origins reliably, due to variation in skulls within a
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pattern but warning against using the findings as indicative of racial traits, "If one merely lists such means by geographical region or race, causes of similarity by genogroup and ecotype are hopelessly confounded". Rushton's findings have been criticized for confusing
African-Americans with
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that was named after him. The "Bertillonage" system was based on the finding that several measures of physical features, such as the dimensions of bony structures in the body, remain fairly constant throughout adult life. Bertillon concluded that when these measurements were made and recorded
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Bertillonage was before long represented in Paris by a collection of some 100,000 cards and became popular in several other countries' justice systems. England followed suit when in 1894, a committee sent to Paris to investigate the methods and its results reported favorably on the use of
1025:(New York: Knopf, 1962). Because of the inconsistencies in the old three-part system (Caucasoid, Mongoloid, Negroid), Coon adopted a five-part scheme. He defined "Caucasoid" as a pattern of skull measurements and other phenotypical characteristics typical of populations in
875:
began to use anthropometric approaches to discredit the concept of fixed biological race. Boas used the cephalic index to show the influence of environmental factors. Researches on skulls and skeletons eventually helped liberate 19th century
European science from its
615:. Bertillon originally measured variables he thought were independent – such as forearm length and leg length – but Galton had realized that both were the result of a single causal variable (in this case, stature) and developed the statistical concept of
604:, where measurements were abandoned in 1897 after the fingerprint system was adopted throughout British India. Three years later England followed suit, and, as the result of a fresh inquiry ordered by the Home Office, relied upon fingerprints alone.
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573:(elbow to tip of middle finger). It was possible, by exhaustion, to sort the cards on which these details were recorded (together with a photograph) until a small number produced the measurements of the individual sought, independently of name.
139:. Camper's measurements of facial angle were first made to compare the skulls of men with those of other animals. Camper claimed that antique statues presented an angle of 90°, Europeans of 80°, Central Africans of 70° and the orangutan of 58°.
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Morton claimed that
Caucasians had the biggest brains, averaging 87 cubic inches, Indians were in the middle with an average of 82 cubic inches and Negroes had the smallest brains with an average of 78 cubic inches. In 1873
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and skulls. More common among the studies was the report that
Africans had smaller skulls than either Caucasians or East Asians. Criticisms have been raised against a number of these studies regarding questionable methods.
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and in various attempts to correlate physical with racial and psychological traits. At various points in history, certain anthropometrics have been cited by advocates of discrimination and eugenics often as part of novel
366:(1799–1851) collected hundreds of human skulls from all over the world and started trying to find a way to classify them according to some logical criterion. Morton claimed that he could judge intellectual capacity by
173:(1824–1880), founder of the Anthropological Society in France in 1859. Paleoanthropologists still rely upon craniofacial anthropometry to identify species in the study of fossilized hominid bones. Specimens of
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1949:, see esp. p. 360: "he answer to the question whether races exist in humans is clear and unambiguous: no." That this view reflects the consensus among American anthropologists is stated in:
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1053:). He discarded the term "Negroid" as misleading since it implies skin tone, which is found at low latitudes around the globe and is a product of adaptation, and defined skulls typical of
397:"vision"), a method to determine the personality and development of mental and moral faculties on the basis of the external shape of the skull. Cranioscopy was later renamed phrenology (
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645:, who claimed to be able to scientifically identify links between the nature of a crime and the personality or physical appearance of the offender. The originator of the concept of a "
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Similar claims were previously made by Ho et al. (1980), who measured 1,261 brains at autopsy, and Beals et al. (1984), who measured approximately 20,000 skulls, finding the same
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Forensic Misclassification of Ancient Nubian Crania: Implications for Assumptions about Human Variation, Frank L'Engle Williams, Robert L. Belcher, and George J. Armelagos
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The Online Companion to California Newsreel's 3-part documentary about race and society, science and history, "Race — The Power of an Illusion", Ask the Experts section
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1993:
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823:, etc.). "Homo africanus" (Congo, Florida) was excluded from discussion. His racial classification ("Teutonic", "Alpine" and "Mediterranean") was also used by
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921:. Other historical studies alleging a Black–White difference in brain size include Bean (1906), Mall, (1909), Pearl, (1934) and Vint (1934). But in Germany
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System." These all claimed the ability to predict traits or intelligence and were intensively practised in the 19th and the first part of the 20th century.
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Cernovsky, Z. Z. (1997) A critical look at intelligence research, In Fox, D. & Prilleltensky, I. (Eds.) Critical Psychology, London: Sage, ps 121-133.
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Illustration from "The Speaking Portrait" (Pearson's Magazine, Vol XI, January to June 1901) demonstrating the principles of Bertillon's anthropometry
385:, which purported to determine character, personality traits, and criminality on the basis of the shape of the head. At the turn of the 19th century,
115:(1722–1789), distinguished both as an artist and as an anatomist, published some lectures that laid the foundation of much work. Camper invented the "
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Parra E.J.; et al. (2001). "Ancestral Proportions and Admixture Dynamics in Geographically Defined African Americans Living in South Carolina".
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Rushton J. Philippe (1992). "Cranial capacity related to sex, rank, and race in a stratified random sample of 6,325 U.S. military personnel".
165:"long and thin"), "brachycephalic" (short and broad) and "mesocephalic" (intermediate length and width). Scientific research was continued by
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Collins-Schramm Heather E (2002). "Markers that Discriminate Between European and African Ancestry Show Limited Variation Within Africa".
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about 0.2. Today, brain volume as measured with MRI scanners also find a correlation between brain size and intelligence at about 0.4.
1951:
Wagner, Jennifer K.; Yu, Joon-Ho; Ifekwunigwe, Jayne O.; Harrell, Tanya M.; Bamshad, Michael J.; Royal, Charmaine D. (February 2017).
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Sapiens at different periods of time, resulting in different levels of civilization. This raised considerable controversy and led the
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Physiognomy claimed a correlation between physical features (especially facial features) and character traits. It was made famous by
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white race, dolichocephalic" to the "brachycephalic" (short and broad-headed) race. Between these Vacher de Lapouge identified the "
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ISO 15537: Principles for selecting and using test persons for testing anthropometric aspects of industrial products and designs,
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among various species. According to this technique, a "facial angle" was formed by drawing two lines: one horizontally from the
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to classify ancient human remains found in Europe. He classed skulls in three main categories; "dolichocephalic" (from the
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only a thousand years before this Noah's sons could not account for every race on earth. According to Morton's theory of
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characterized by a tall dolichocephalic skull, receded zygomas, large brow ridge and projecting-narrow nasal apertures.
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were not Negroid but Caucasoid and that Caucasians and Negroes were already distinct three thousand years ago. Since
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characterized by a medium brachycephalic skull, projecting zygomas, small brow ridge and small nasal apertures.
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1458:"Cultural Biases Reflected in the Hominid Fossil Record" (history), by Joshua Barbach and Craig Byron, 2005,
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Stewart A. "Kinanthropometry and body composition: A natural home for three dimensional photonic scanning".
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The system was soon adapted to police methods: it prevented impersonation and could demonstrate wrongdoing.
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2024:, The Human Species: An introduction to Biological Anthropology, 5th ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2003).
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systematically, every individual would be distinguishable. Bertillon's goal was a way of identifying
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181:, for example, are virtually identical from the neck down but their skulls can easily be told apart.
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Beals Kenneth L.; et al. (1984). "Brain Size, Cranial Morphology, Climate, and Time Machines".
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hominid male, thinking it to be the remains of a bear. They gave the material to amateur naturalist
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Mémoire sur les différences de la situation du grand trou occipital dans l'homme et dans les animaux
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measurements for primary classification and recommended also the partial adoption of the system of
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Rushton J. P. (1990). "Race, Brain Size, and Intelligence: A Rejoinder to Cain and Vanderwolf".
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ISO 20685: 3-D scanning methodologies for internationally compatible anthropometric databases,
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Templeton, A. (2016). EVOLUTION AND NOTIONS OF HUMAN RACE. In Losos J. & Lenski R. (Eds.),
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Ariani, indogermani, stirpi mediterranee: aspetti del dibattito sulle razze europee (1870-1914)
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Shriver Mark D (2003). "Skin Pigmentation, Biogeographical Ancestry, and Admixture Mapping".
1567:"The Mismeasure of Science: Stephen Jay Gould versus Samuel George Morton on Skulls and Bias"
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One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the
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characterized by a short dolichocephalic skull, receded zygomas and wide nasal apertures.
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bias. This school of physical anthropology generally went into decline during the 1940s.
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Meiners in his The Outline of History of Mankind (1785) identified three racial groups:
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could be predicted according to the body type. A basically anthropometric division of
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Bertillonage exhibited certain defects and was gradually supplanted by the system of
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methods of skull measure they developed racial classification based on skull shape.
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1629:"Evolving knowledge of sex differences in brain structure, function, and chemistry"
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Lewis Jason E.; DeGusta D.; Meyer M.R.; Monge J.M.; Mann A.E.; et al. (2011).
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Report of Home Office Committee on the Best Means of Identifying Habitual Criminals
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Skull Wars: Kennewick Man, Archaeology, and the Battle for Native American Identity
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Folia Anthropologica: tudományos és módszertani folyóirat. 9: 5–17. ISSN 1786-5654
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Life on the Color Line: The True Story of a White Boy who Discovered he was Black
2036:"Galileo wept: A critical assessment of the use of race of forensic anthropolopy"
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An Inquiry into the Distinctive Characteristics of the Aboriginal Race of America
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Michael, John S. (April 1988). "A New Look at Morton's Craniological Research".
1021:. Coon, a 20th-century craniofacial anthropometrist, used the technique for his
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A head-measuring tool designed for anthropological research in the early 1910s.
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ISO 8559: Garment construction and anthropometric surveys — Body dimensions,
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Anthropometric Survey of Army Personnel: Methods and Summary Statistics 1988
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Insider – The Female Brain, By Ivory E. Welcome, MBA Candidate December 2009
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1321:. Vol. 2 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 119–120.
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quoted an 1892 discussion with him concerning these criticisms, also citing
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584:(1893), demonstrating how to take measurements for his identification system
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ISO 15535: General requirements for establishing anthropometric databases,
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1986:
1946:
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Cosgrove, Kelly P.; Mazure, Carolyn M.; Staley, Julie K. (October 2007).
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Michael J. S. (1988). "A New Look at Morton's Craniological Research".
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to be discovered, demonstrated mankind's deep ancestry outside Europe.
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2344:"Anthropometric History: an Overview of a Quarter Century of Research"
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10.1002/1096-8644(200101)114:1<18::aid-ajpa1002>3.0.co;2-2
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ISO 7250: Basic human body measurements for technological design,
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An Investigation of Global Policy with the Yamato Race as Nucleus
2231:(New York: Simon & Schuster, 2002); Gregory Howard Williams,
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Instructions signalétiques pour l'identification anthropométrique
409:(1776–1832), who wrote extensively on "Drs. Gall and Spurzheim's
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SchĂĽltke, Elisabeth (May 2009). "Theodor Kocher's craniometer".
1148: – Disused conception of a person's racial or ethnic makeup
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913:(1824–1880) found the same pattern described by Samuel Morton's
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Phylogeography is the science of identifying and tracking major
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carried Morton's ideas further. Charles Darwin, who thought the
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867:. During the 1920s and 1930s, though, members of the school of
1941:(pp. 346-361). Princeton; Oxford: Princeton University Press.
1142: – Body scale based on waist/hip circumference and height
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and many forms of anthropometry were used for the advocacy of
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How Evolution Shapes Our Lives: Essays on Biology and Society
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Vacher de Lapouge became one of the leading inspirations of
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In 1856, workers found in a limestone quarry the skull of a
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An Essay upon the Causes of the Different Colours of People
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Rushton, J. Philippe; Ankney, C. Davison (1 January 2009).
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La Force du préjugé – Essai sur le racisme et ses doubles
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La couleur et le sang – Doctrines racistes à la française
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was rewritten in 1939 by Harvard physical anthropologist
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islanders collected by J. P. Kleiweg de Zwaan, circa 1910
1953:"Anthropologists' views on race, ancestry, and genetics"
657:, forward projection of jaw, low sloping forehead; high
1243:"Whole Brain Size and General Mental Ability: A Review"
1136: – Study of the history of human height and weight
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to reject his approach without mentioning him by name.
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of "a Negro head …, a Caucasian skull …, a Mongol head"
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The Rising Tide of Color Against White World-Supremacy
1919:
How Caucasoids Got Such Big Crania and How They Shrank
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relied on anthropometric measurements to distinguish
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Anthropometry demonstrated in an exhibit from a 1921
313:' (1858–1940) discovery in 1891 in Indonesia of the "
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according to the cephalic index of its inhabitants.
3333:
3192:
2761:
2659:
2515:
2472:
1108:The Bertillon system was used by the detectives in
727:(French people), alleged descendants of the Nordic
389:(1758–1822) developed "cranioscopy" (Ancient Greek
2396:
1154: – Pseudoscientific justification for racism
208:(1799–1851), whose two major monographs were the
2399:Bodyspace: anthropometry, ergonomics, and design
2327:National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey
2002:American Association of Physical Anthropologists
1994:American Association of Physical Anthropologists
1416:"The Mismeasure of Man" Stephen Jay Gould (1981)
1077:American Association of Physical Anthropologists
505:, from a visit to Bertillon's laboratory in 1893
1826:
1824:
1822:
1407:"From Savage to Negro" (1998) Lee D. Baker p.14
2403:. London; Philadelphia: Taylor & Francis.
2321:International Organization for Standardization
2314:International Organization for Standardization
2307:International Organization for Standardization
2300:International Organization for Standardization
2293:International Organization for Standardization
3227:An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races
2441:
1376:Indextabellen zum anthropometrischen Gebrauch
714:An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races
456:theories is today popular among people doing
8:
973:Race, identity and cranio-facial description
661:, flattened or upturned nose; handle-shaped
240:the races had been separate from the start.
1130: – Measurement of the human individual
765:became popular, one prominent figure being
416:During the 1940s anthropometry was used by
3219:Occasional Discourse on the Negro Question
2448:
2434:
2426:
1481:
1479:
3243:The Foundations of the Nineteenth Century
2180:American Journal of Physical Anthropology
1976:
1957:American Journal of Physical Anthropology
1652:
1592:
1582:
1266:
285:. By comparing skeletons of apes to man,
277:who turned the fossils over to anatomist
101:Memoir on the Different Positions of the
1395:
1290:
1288:
1286:
2415:(A classic review of human body sizes.)
1164:
929:" in the 1885 Anthropology Congress in
781:into various, hierarchized, different "
256:, opposed Nott and Gliddon in his 1871
2834:Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon
2206:
1899:University of California Press, 2002,
1844:Personality and Individual Differences
677:Phylogeography, race and human origins
2229:Just Lucky I Guess: A Memoir of Sorts
2034:Diana Smay, George Armelagos (2000).
1247:International Journal of Neuroscience
509:The system involved 10 measurements;
201:compared skeletons of apes to humans.
44:includes its use as an early tool of
7:
1064:American Anthropological Association
777:and his social role", 1899) divided
194:Evidence as to Man's Place in Nature
191:: In the frontispiece from his 1863
3386:Pre-modern conceptions of whiteness
1998:"AAPA Statement on Race and Racism"
1355:Rughe anomale speciali ai criminali
1190:Josiah C. Nott and George Gliddon,
795:(Teutonic, Protestant, etc.), the "
362:was compared with anthropometrics.
325:(1834–1919) became famous for his "
1897:What it means to be 98% Chimpanzee
1220:10.1227/01.NEU.0000344003.72056.7F
623:times to arrive at a mean result.
135:to the most prominent part of the
25:
3427:Race and intelligence controversy
3291:The Myth of the Twentieth Century
3211:The Outline of History of Mankind
1771:Psychonomic Bulletin & Review
1449:, La DĂ©couverte, 1987, 644 pages.
469:Bertillon, Galton and criminology
61:Craniometry and paleoanthropology
3259:Heredity in Relation to Eugenics
1348:Studi comparati di antropometria
1331:Antropometria di 400 delinquenti
1295:
1214:(5): 1001–4, discussion 1004–5.
533:from head to seat when seated),
355:was inventor of the craniometer.
119:," a measure meant to determine
27:Historical uses of anthropometry
2332:Anthropometry Procedures Manual
582:Identification anthropométrique
303:(1859). He also developed the "
3251:Race Life of the Aryan Peoples
2457:Historical definitions of race
1645:10.1016/j.biopsych.2007.03.001
1433:("Colour and Blood: Doctrines
925:'s study led him to denounce "
739:, considered to be indigenous
370:. A large skull meant a large
167:Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire
1:
3275:The Passing of the Great Race
2422:, March 2010; 28(5): 455–457.
142:Swedish professor of anatomy
57:or based upon pseudoscience.
3174:Otmar Freiherr von Verschuer
1883:10.1016/0160-2896(92)90017-l
1856:10.1016/0191-8869(90)90186-u
1584:10.1371/journal.pbio.1001071
721:(1658–1722) contrasted the
641:(1835–1909), the founder of
2889:Egon Freiherr von Eickstedt
2854:Houston Stewart Chamberlain
2804:Johann Friedrich Blumenbach
2363:10.1127/0003-5548/2009/0027
1323:This cites as authorities:
643:anthropological criminology
146:(1796–1860) first used the
91:, who wrote many essays on
3468:
2420:Journal of Sports Sciences
2395:Pheasant, Stephen (1986).
2351:Anthropologischer Anzeiger
2335:. CDC: Atlanta, USA; 2007.
2213:: CS1 maint: postscript (
1057:as "Congoid" and those of
771:L'Aryen et son rĂ´le social
680:
649:" and arguing in favor of
630:
336:
220:(1844) concluded that the
177:and athletic specimens of
89:Louis-Jean-Marie Daubenton
64:
29:
2984:Georges Vacher de Lapouge
2463:
2148:10.1007/s00439-002-0896-y
2105:10.1007/s00439-002-0818-z
2043:Transforming Anthropology
1259:10.1080/00207450802325843
767:Georges Vacher de Lapouge
580:A chart from Bertillon's
317:", the first specimen of
3356:History of anthropometry
3124:Charles Gabriel Seligman
2949:Frederick Ludwig Hoffman
2637:Sinodonty and Sundadonty
2235:(New York: Dutton, 1995)
2055:10.1525/tran.2000.9.2.19
1762:Rushton, Ankney (1996).
1146:Historical race concepts
1045:, and Northeast Africa (
537:(crown to forehead) and
432:, he also believed that
405:: study) by his student
333:Typology and personality
300:On the Origin of Species
250:single-origin hypothesis
30:Not to be confused with
3432:Biological anthropology
3412:History of neuroscience
2814:Daniel Garrison Brinton
1441:, 2002, 203 pages, and
1338:Manual of Anthropometry
1318:Encyclopædia Britannica
743:people subordinated by
549:, and "lengths" of the
501:A Bertillon record for
485:introduced a system of
452:derived from Sheldon's
71:biological anthropology
3452:History of measurement
3159:Thomas Griffith Taylor
2914:Reginald Ruggles Gates
1947:10.2307/j.ctv7h0s6j.26
1928:, by Leonard Lieberman
1134:Anthropometric history
986:
981:Plaster face casts of
917:by weighing brains at
901:
833:(1899), made a map of
785:", spanning from the "
696:
651:biological determinism
585:
525:of raised right arm),
506:
478:
464:Forensic anthropometry
356:
305:Pithecometra principle
289:(1825–1895) backed up
202:
84:
32:Anthropometric history
3299:Annihilation of Caste
3203:in Different Climates
3154:William Graham Sumner
3134:Samuel Stanhope Smith
3079:James Cowles Prichard
2711:Racial discrimination
1517:The Mismeasure of Man
1427:Pierre-André Taguieff
980:
895:
869:cultural anthropology
731:, and members of the
690:
579:
500:
476:
430:criminal anthropology
350:
337:Further information:
327:recapitulation theory
297:, first expressed in
279:Hermann Schaaffhausen
187:
152:physical anthropology
78:
65:Further information:
3351:Great chain of being
3069:Ludwig Hermann Plate
3034:Samuel George Morton
2849:Samuel A. Cartwright
2699:in the United States
1721:Current Anthropology
1678:Current Anthropology
1532:Current Anthropology
1350:(2 vols., 1881–1882)
1140:Body roundness index
898:Samuel George Morton
827:(1867–1941) who, in
769:(1854–1936), who in
517:(distance from left
440:into the categories
420:when evaluating his
364:Samuel George Morton
360:Intelligence testing
275:Johann Karl Fuhlrott
206:Samuel George Morton
3307:The Races of Europe
3235:The Races of Europe
3014:Dominick McCausland
2964:Thomas Henry Huxley
2909:Stanley Marion Garn
2789:Robert Bennett Bean
2517:Historical concepts
1514:Stephen Jay Gould,
1464:ArchaeologyInfo-003
1460:ArchaeologyInfo.com
1072:The Races of Europe
1023:The Origin of Races
1015:The Races of Europe
896:An 1839 drawing by
884:Race and brain size
830:The Races of Europe
481:In 1883, Frenchman
295:theory of evolution
254:evolutionary theory
111:). Six years later
93:comparative anatomy
3417:History of science
3179:Alexander Winchell
3109:Henric Sanielevici
2969:Calvin Ira Kephart
2939:Hans F. K. GĂĽnther
2924:Arthur de Gobineau
2824:Alice Mossie Brues
2721:Racial stereotypes
2285:2022-06-21 at the
2262:2007-07-03 at the
1969:10.1002/ajpa.23120
1924:2009-09-02 at the
1783:10.3758/bf03210739
1469:2011-05-16 at the
1439:Mille et une nuits
1175:David Hurst Thomas
1103:In popular culture
1055:sub-Saharan Africa
987:
902:
812:Homo mediterraneus
709:Arthur de Gobineau
697:
586:
541:temple to temple)
507:
483:Alphonse Bertillon
479:
357:
259:The Descent of Man
203:
105:in Man and Animals
97:Académie française
85:
3447:Scientific racism
3442:Human body weight
3394:
3393:
3323:The Race Question
3169:John H. Van Evrie
3094:William Z. Ripley
3064:Charles Pickering
3009:Felix von Luschan
2979:Robert E. Kuttner
2879:Charles Davenport
2748:Whiteness studies
2474:Color terminology
2466:Scientific racism
2410:978-0-85066-352-5
2072:on 18 August 2018
1996:(27 March 2019).
1905:978-0-520-24064-3
1485:Andrea Orsucci, "
1181:, 2001, pp. 38–41
1152:Scientific racism
1093:Leonard Lieberman
1085:Stephen Jay Gould
825:William Z. Ripley
809:, etc.) and the "
763:scientific racism
745:right of conquest
600:, then in use in
387:Franz Joseph Gall
381:was also used in
283:paleoanthropology
232:had washed up on
222:ancient Egyptians
218:Crania Aegyptiaca
103:Occipital Foramen
67:Paleoanthropology
50:paleoanthropology
16:(Redirected from
3459:
3202:
3149:Lothrop Stoddard
3144:Morris Steggerda
3119:Ilse Schwidetzky
3114:Heinrich Schmidt
3099:Alfred Rosenberg
3059:Isaac La Peyrère
2864:Carleton S. Coon
2839:Charles Caldwell
2794:François Bernier
2677:in Latin America
2450:
2443:
2436:
2427:
2414:
2402:
2388:
2386:
2385:
2379:
2373:. Archived from
2348:
2267:
2253:
2247:
2242:
2236:
2227:Carol Channing,
2225:
2219:
2218:
2212:
2204:
2174:
2168:
2167:
2131:
2125:
2124:
2088:
2082:
2081:
2079:
2077:
2071:
2065:. Archived from
2040:
2031:
2025:
2019:
2013:
2012:
2010:
2008:
1990:
1980:
1935:
1929:
1916:
1910:
1895:Marks, Jonathan
1893:
1887:
1886:
1877:(3–4): 401–413.
1866:
1860:
1859:
1839:
1833:
1828:
1817:
1816:
1814:
1813:
1807:
1801:. Archived from
1768:
1759:
1753:
1752:
1716:
1710:
1709:
1673:
1667:
1666:
1656:
1633:Biol. Psychiatry
1624:
1618:
1613:
1607:
1606:
1596:
1586:
1562:
1556:
1555:
1527:
1521:
1512:
1506:
1505:
1483:
1474:
1456:
1450:
1423:
1417:
1414:
1408:
1405:
1399:
1393:
1387:
1322:
1301:
1299:
1298:
1292:
1281:
1280:
1270:
1238:
1232:
1231:
1201:
1195:
1192:Types of Mankind
1188:
1182:
1172:
1089:Richard Lewontin
1019:Carleton S. Coon
927:Nordic mysticism
915:Crania Americana
906:Crania Americana
751:François Bernier
701:human migrations
407:Johann Spurzheim
368:cranial capacity
210:Crania Americana
169:(1772–1844) and
99:, published his
55:social movements
21:
3467:
3466:
3462:
3461:
3460:
3458:
3457:
3456:
3397:
3396:
3395:
3390:
3329:
3267:Castes in India
3188:
3184:Ludwig Woltmann
3139:Herbert Spencer
3029:Lewis H. Morgan
2999:Cesare Lombroso
2874:Jan Czekanowski
2859:Sonia Mary Cole
2799:Renato Biasutti
2757:
2736:Nazism and race
2655:
2632:Proto-Mongoloid
2511:
2468:
2459:
2454:
2411:
2394:
2383:
2381:
2377:
2346:
2338:
2287:Wayback Machine
2276:
2274:Further reading
2271:
2270:
2264:Wayback Machine
2254:
2250:
2243:
2239:
2226:
2222:
2205:
2176:
2175:
2171:
2133:
2132:
2128:
2090:
2089:
2085:
2075:
2073:
2069:
2038:
2033:
2032:
2028:
2022:John Relethford
2020:
2016:
2006:
2004:
1992:
1950:
1936:
1932:
1926:Wayback Machine
1917:
1913:
1894:
1890:
1868:
1867:
1863:
1841:
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1836:
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1811:
1809:
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1766:
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1756:
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1717:
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1675:
1674:
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1626:
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1621:
1614:
1610:
1577:(6): e1001071.
1564:
1563:
1559:
1529:
1528:
1524:
1513:
1509:
1503:
1484:
1477:
1471:Wayback Machine
1457:
1453:
1424:
1420:
1415:
1411:
1406:
1402:
1394:
1390:
1311:, ed. (1911). "
1307:
1296:
1294:
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1284:
1240:
1239:
1235:
1203:
1202:
1198:
1189:
1185:
1173:
1166:
1161:
1124:
1105:
1059:Southern Africa
975:
947:Aurel von Törok
943:Paul Kretschmer
886:
719:Boulainvilliers
685:
679:
639:Cesare Lombroso
635:
629:
611:and, latterly,
471:
466:
458:weight training
426:Cesare Lombroso
418:William Sheldon
345:
335:
228:indicated that
73:
63:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3465:
3463:
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3319:
3311:
3303:
3295:
3287:
3279:
3271:
3263:
3255:
3247:
3239:
3237:(Ripley, 1899)
3231:
3223:
3215:
3207:
3196:
3194:
3190:
3189:
3187:
3186:
3181:
3176:
3171:
3166:
3161:
3156:
3151:
3146:
3141:
3136:
3131:
3129:Giuseppe Sergi
3126:
3121:
3116:
3111:
3106:
3101:
3096:
3091:
3089:Gustaf Retzius
3086:
3081:
3076:
3071:
3066:
3061:
3056:
3051:
3046:
3041:
3039:Josiah C. Nott
3036:
3031:
3026:
3024:Ashley Montagu
3021:
3016:
3011:
3006:
3004:Bertil Lundman
3001:
2996:
2991:
2986:
2981:
2976:
2971:
2966:
2961:
2956:
2954:Earnest Hooton
2951:
2946:
2941:
2936:
2931:
2926:
2921:
2919:George Gliddon
2916:
2911:
2906:
2904:Francis Galton
2901:
2896:
2894:Anténor Firmin
2891:
2886:
2884:Joseph Deniker
2881:
2876:
2871:
2869:Georges Cuvier
2866:
2861:
2856:
2851:
2846:
2841:
2836:
2831:
2826:
2821:
2816:
2811:
2806:
2801:
2796:
2791:
2786:
2781:
2776:
2771:
2765:
2763:
2759:
2758:
2756:
2755:
2750:
2745:
2744:
2743:
2741:Racial hygiene
2738:
2733:
2728:
2723:
2718:
2708:
2703:
2702:
2701:
2696:
2691:
2690:
2689:
2684:
2674:
2665:
2663:
2657:
2656:
2654:
2653:
2652:
2651:
2641:
2640:
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2624:
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2612:
2607:
2602:
2597:
2592:
2587:
2582:
2577:
2572:
2567:
2562:
2557:
2552:
2547:
2542:
2532:
2527:
2521:
2519:
2513:
2512:
2510:
2509:
2504:
2499:
2494:
2489:
2484:
2478:
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2469:
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2461:
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2455:
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2445:
2438:
2430:
2424:
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2416:
2409:
2392:
2389:
2336:
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2317:
2310:
2303:
2296:
2289:
2275:
2272:
2269:
2268:
2248:
2237:
2220:
2169:
2136:Human Genetics
2126:
2093:Human Genetics
2083:
2026:
2014:
1963:(2): 318–327.
1930:
1911:
1888:
1861:
1850:(8): 785–794.
1834:
1818:
1754:
1733:10.1086/203138
1727:(3): 301–330.
1711:
1690:10.1086/203646
1684:(2): 349–354.
1668:
1619:
1608:
1557:
1544:10.1086/203646
1538:(2): 349–354.
1522:
1507:
1492:2012-12-18 at
1475:
1451:
1435:à la française
1418:
1409:
1400:
1388:
1386:
1385:
1379:
1372:
1369:Anthropometria
1365:
1358:
1351:
1341:
1334:
1309:Chisholm, Hugh
1282:
1253:(5): 692–732.
1233:
1196:
1183:
1163:
1162:
1160:
1157:
1156:
1155:
1149:
1143:
1137:
1131:
1123:
1120:
1119:
1118:
1104:
1101:
1011:
1010:
1004:
998:
974:
971:
935:Josef Kollmann
923:Rudolf Virchow
885:
882:
792:Homo europaeus
705:classification
683:Phylogeography
681:Main article:
678:
675:
631:Main article:
628:
625:
598:Francis Galton
503:Francis Galton
487:identification
470:
467:
465:
462:
411:physiognomical
353:Theodor Kocher
334:
331:
291:Charles Darwin
262:, arguing for
246:George Gliddon
242:Josiah C. Nott
148:cephalic index
144:Anders Retzius
62:
59:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3464:
3453:
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3448:
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3435:
3433:
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3428:
3425:
3423:
3420:
3418:
3415:
3413:
3410:
3408:
3407:Anthropometry
3405:
3404:
3402:
3387:
3384:
3382:
3379:
3377:
3374:
3372:
3369:
3367:
3364:
3362:
3361:Miscegenation
3359:
3357:
3354:
3352:
3349:
3347:
3344:
3342:
3339:
3338:
3336:
3332:
3326:
3324:
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3308:
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3256:
3254:
3252:
3248:
3246:
3244:
3240:
3238:
3236:
3232:
3230:
3228:
3224:
3222:
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3216:
3214:
3212:
3208:
3206:
3204:
3198:
3197:
3195:
3191:
3185:
3182:
3180:
3177:
3175:
3172:
3170:
3167:
3165:
3164:Paul Topinard
3162:
3160:
3157:
3155:
3152:
3150:
3147:
3145:
3142:
3140:
3137:
3135:
3132:
3130:
3127:
3125:
3122:
3120:
3117:
3115:
3112:
3110:
3107:
3105:
3104:Benjamin Rush
3102:
3100:
3097:
3095:
3092:
3090:
3087:
3085:
3082:
3080:
3077:
3075:
3074:Alfred Ploetz
3072:
3070:
3067:
3065:
3062:
3060:
3057:
3055:
3054:Oscar Peschel
3052:
3050:
3049:Roger Pearson
3047:
3045:
3042:
3040:
3037:
3035:
3032:
3030:
3027:
3025:
3022:
3020:
3019:John Mitchell
3017:
3015:
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3007:
3005:
3002:
3000:
2997:
2995:
2994:Carl Linnaeus
2992:
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2987:
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2959:Julian Huxley
2957:
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2944:Ernst Haeckel
2942:
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2929:Madison Grant
2927:
2925:
2922:
2920:
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2899:Eugen Fischer
2897:
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2870:
2867:
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2845:
2844:Petrus Camper
2842:
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2787:
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2777:
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2772:
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2769:Louis Agassiz
2767:
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2600:Mediterranean
2598:
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2421:
2417:
2412:
2406:
2401:
2400:
2393:
2390:
2380:on 2016-03-05
2376:
2372:
2368:
2364:
2360:
2357:(4): 341–56.
2356:
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2142:(4): 387–99.
2141:
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2110:
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2018:
2015:
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1823:
1819:
1808:on 2019-02-12
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1639:(8): 847–55.
1638:
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1609:
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1595:
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1495:
1494:archive.today
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1397:
1396:Chisholm 1911
1392:
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1371:(Milan, 1900)
1370:
1366:
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1359:
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1349:
1345:
1342:
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1335:
1332:
1328:
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1319:
1314:
1313:Anthropometry
1310:
1305:
1304:public domain
1291:
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1128:Anthropometry
1126:
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899:
894:
890:
883:
881:
879:
874:
870:
866:
862:
858:
854:
850:
849:Nazi ideology
846:
843:
838:
836:
832:
831:
826:
822:
818:
814:
813:
808:
804:
800:
799:
794:
793:
788:
784:
780:
776:
772:
768:
764:
759:
756:
755:Carl Linnaeus
752:
748:
746:
742:
738:
734:
730:
726:
725:
720:
716:
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710:
706:
702:
694:
689:
684:
676:
674:
672:
668:
664:
660:
656:
652:
648:
647:born criminal
644:
640:
634:
626:
624:
620:
618:
614:
610:
605:
603:
599:
596:suggested by
595:
594:finger prints
589:
583:
578:
574:
572:
571:
566:
565:
564:middle finger
561:
555:
554:
548:
544:
540:
536:
532:
528:
524:
523:middle finger
520:
516:
512:
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349:
344:
340:
332:
330:
328:
324:
323:Ernst Haeckel
320:
316:
312:
311:Eugène Dubois
308:
306:
302:
301:
296:
292:
288:
284:
280:
276:
272:
267:
265:
261:
260:
255:
252:essential to
251:
247:
243:
239:
235:
231:
227:
223:
219:
215:
211:
207:
200:
199:Thomas Huxley
196:
195:
190:
186:
182:
180:
176:
172:
168:
164:
160:
157:
156:Ancient Greek
153:
149:
145:
140:
138:
134:
130:
126:
122:
118:
114:
113:Pieter Camper
110:
106:
104:
98:
94:
90:
82:
79:Selection of
77:
72:
68:
60:
58:
56:
51:
47:
43:
42:
41:anthropometry
33:
19:
3437:Human height
3355:
3341:Ethnogenesis
3322:
3314:
3309:(Coon, 1939)
3306:
3298:
3290:
3282:
3274:
3266:
3258:
3250:
3242:
3234:
3226:
3218:
3210:
3200:
3193:Publications
3044:Karl Pearson
2934:John Grattan
2829:Halfdan Bryn
2694:in Singapore
2661:Sociological
2419:
2398:
2382:. Retrieved
2375:the original
2354:
2350:
2340:Komlos, John
2330:
2251:
2240:
2232:
2228:
2223:
2209:cite journal
2187:(1): 18–29.
2184:
2178:
2172:
2139:
2135:
2129:
2099:(6): 566–9.
2096:
2092:
2086:
2074:. Retrieved
2067:the original
2049:(2): 22–24.
2046:
2042:
2029:
2017:
2005:. Retrieved
2001:
1960:
1956:
1938:
1933:
1914:
1896:
1891:
1874:
1871:Intelligence
1870:
1864:
1847:
1843:
1837:
1810:. Retrieved
1803:the original
1777:(1): 21–36.
1774:
1770:
1757:
1724:
1720:
1714:
1681:
1677:
1671:
1636:
1632:
1622:
1611:
1574:
1570:
1560:
1535:
1531:
1525:
1515:
1510:
1504:(in Italian)
1497:
1459:
1454:
1442:
1434:
1430:
1421:
1412:
1403:
1391:
1381:
1378:(Jena, 1902)
1375:
1368:
1361:
1354:
1347:
1337:
1330:
1316:
1250:
1246:
1236:
1211:
1207:Neurosurgery
1205:
1199:
1191:
1186:
1178:
1115:The Alienist
1113:
1097:
1095:and others.
1070:
1068:
1043:North Africa
1031:Central Asia
1022:
1014:
1012:
988:
955:
951:
914:
905:
903:
887:
878:ethnocentric
853:Nazi Germany
845:antisemitism
839:
828:
810:
798:Homo alpinus
796:
790:
770:
761:Theories of
760:
749:
737:Third Estate
722:
712:
698:
665:; hawk-like
636:
621:
609:fingerprints
606:
590:
587:
581:
568:
557:
550:
542:
538:
534:
526:
514:
510:
508:
480:
415:
402:
398:
394:
390:
377:
358:
319:Homo erectus
309:
298:
287:T. H. Huxley
268:
257:
234:Mount Ararat
225:
217:
213:
209:
204:
192:
189:Pithecometra
188:
179:Homo sapiens
178:
175:Homo erectus
174:
162:
161:"head", and
158:
141:
121:intelligence
117:facial angle
108:
100:
86:
46:anthropology
38:
36:
18:Bertillonage
3422:Criminology
3381:Pre-Adamite
3371:Multiracial
2974:Robert Knox
2784:John Beddoe
2731:Master race
2687:in Colombia
2575:East Baltic
2076:12 November
1437:"), Paris,
1384:(1893–1894)
1360:Bertillon,
741:Gallo-Roman
733:aristocracy
633:Physiognomy
627:Physiognomy
617:correlation
535:head length
492:recidivists
450:mesomorphic
446:ectomorphic
442:endomorphic
434:criminality
422:somatotypes
379:Craniometry
343:physiognomy
271:Neanderthal
39:history of
3401:Categories
3376:Polygenism
3366:Monogenism
3084:Otto Reche
2989:Fritz Lenz
2819:Paul Broca
2809:Franz Boas
2779:Erwin Baur
2774:John Baker
2668:By region
2525:Australoid
2384:2015-09-29
1991:See also:
1907:pp. 76-77
1812:2013-05-25
1353:Lombroso,
1159:References
1112:'s novel
1110:Caleb Carr
1081:Franz Boas
1035:South Asia
958:East Asian
911:Paul Broca
873:Franz Boas
817:Napolitano
695:conference
669:or fleshy
659:cheekbones
539:head width
454:somatotype
438:body types
383:phrenology
339:Phrenology
264:monogenism
238:polygenism
230:Noah's Ark
171:Paul Broca
2753:NĂ©gritude
2682:in Brazil
2627:Mongoloid
2535:Caucasoid
2063:143942539
1706:144528631
1571:PLOS Biol
1552:144528631
1462:webpage:
1447:Gallimard
1336:Roberts,
1039:West Asia
1013:Ripley's
1007:Mongoloid
995:Caucasoid
931:Karlsruhe
803:Auvergnat
735:, to the
393:"skull",
226:The Bible
3346:Eugenics
2726:Colorism
2672:in India
2580:Ethiopid
2560:Atlantid
2550:Armenoid
2371:20440956
2342:(2010).
2283:Archived
2260:Archived
2203:Figure 1
2201:11150049
2156:12579416
2121:30319228
2113:12436248
1987:27874171
1922:Archived
1799:17269481
1791:24214801
1749:86147507
1663:17544382
1603:21666803
1520:, (1981)
1490:Archived
1467:Archived
1327:Lombroso
1277:19283594
1228:19404160
1122:See also
1047:Ethiopia
962:European
939:taxonomy
865:eugenics
779:humanity
724:Français
693:eugenics
613:genetics
519:shoulder
401:: mind,
315:Java Man
212:(1839),
163:dolikhos
137:forehead
95:for the
87:In 1716
3334:Related
2762:Writers
2706:Passing
2649:Negrito
2644:Negroid
2615:Turanid
2610:Semites
2585:Hamites
2570:Dinaric
2565:Caspian
2323:, 2005.
2316:, 2003.
2309:, 2000.
2302:, 1989.
2295:, 1998.
2164:7877572
2007:19 June
1978:5299519
1741:2742800
1698:2743412
1654:2711771
1594:3110184
1502:, 1998
1499:Cromohs
1374:FĂĽrst,
1306::
1268:2668913
1051:Somalia
1001:Negroid
966:African
919:autopsy
821:Andalus
807:Turkish
515:stretch
399:phrenos
391:kranion
159:kephalĂŞ
133:jawbone
127:to the
125:nostril
81:Primate
3325:(1950)
3317:(1943)
3301:(1936)
3293:(1930)
3285:(1920)
3277:(1916)
3269:(1916)
3261:(1911)
3253:(1907)
3245:(1899)
3229:(1855)
3221:(1849)
3213:(1785)
3205:(1744)
2716:Racism
2605:Nordic
2595:Iranid
2545:Arabid
2540:Alpine
2530:Capoid
2487:Bronze
2407:
2369:
2199:
2162:
2154:
2119:
2111:
2061:
1985:
1975:
1903:
1797:
1789:
1747:
1739:
1704:
1696:
1661:
1651:
1601:
1591:
1550:
1367:Livi,
1364:(1893)
1357:(1890)
1340:(1878)
1333:(1872)
1300:
1275:
1265:
1226:
1194:(1854)
1049:, and
1027:Europe
857:Aryans
835:Europe
773:("The
729:Franks
602:Bengal
567:, and
556:, the
551:right
547:cheeks
511:height
395:scopos
83:skulls
2622:Malay
2590:Indid
2555:Aryan
2507:White
2497:Olive
2492:Brown
2482:Black
2378:(PDF)
2347:(PDF)
2266:(pdf)
2160:S2CID
2117:S2CID
2070:(PDF)
2059:S2CID
2039:(PDF)
1806:(PDF)
1795:S2CID
1767:(PDF)
1745:S2CID
1737:JSTOR
1702:S2CID
1694:JSTOR
1548:S2CID
1344:Ferri
859:from
787:Aryan
783:races
775:Aryan
667:noses
570:cubit
558:left
543:width
531:torso
403:logos
372:brain
2405:ISBN
2367:PMID
2215:link
2197:PMID
2152:PMID
2109:PMID
2078:2016
2009:2020
1983:PMID
1901:ISBN
1787:PMID
1659:PMID
1599:PMID
1425:See
1273:PMID
1224:PMID
983:Nias
861:Jews
847:and
842:Nazi
671:lips
663:ears
655:jaws
560:foot
527:bust
448:and
341:and
244:and
216:and
69:and
37:The
2502:Red
2359:doi
2189:doi
2185:114
2144:doi
2140:112
2101:doi
2097:111
2051:doi
1973:PMC
1965:doi
1961:162
1943:doi
1879:doi
1852:doi
1779:doi
1729:doi
1686:doi
1649:PMC
1641:doi
1589:PMC
1579:doi
1540:doi
1315:".
1263:PMC
1255:doi
1251:119
1216:doi
1069:In
904:In
871:of
815:" (
801:" (
711:'s
553:ear
545:of
521:to
428:'s
293:'s
150:in
129:ear
3403::
2365:.
2355:67
2353:.
2349:.
2329:.
2211:}}
2207:{{
2195:.
2183:.
2158:.
2150:.
2138:.
2115:.
2107:.
2095:.
2057:.
2045:.
2041:.
2000:.
1981:.
1971:.
1959:.
1955:.
1875:16
1873:.
1848:11
1846:.
1821:^
1793:.
1785:.
1773:.
1769:.
1743:.
1735:.
1725:25
1723:.
1700:.
1692:.
1682:29
1680:.
1657:.
1647:.
1637:62
1635:.
1631:.
1597:.
1587:.
1573:.
1569:.
1546:.
1536:29
1534:.
1496:,
1478:^
1429:,
1346:,
1329:,
1285:^
1271:.
1261:.
1249:.
1245:.
1222:.
1212:64
1210:.
1177:,
1167:^
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